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trade on terms that will not allow of discount 

The Engineering Netos Boofc Dept. 



RAILWAY TRACK 

and TRACK WORK. 



By 
E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN, 

A. M. Am. Soc. C. E. 
Mem. Am. Ry. Eng. & M.-of-Way Assoc. 

Associate Editor of "Engineering News." 



THIRD EDITION. 

(Fully revised.) 

With 232 Illustrations, 44 Tables, and an Appendix of Statistics of 

Standard Track Construction on American Railways. 



NEW YORK. 
THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 

London: ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO., Limited. 



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Copyright, 1908, by 
THE ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, E. C, 1908. 



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PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 



The fundamental part of the great railway system of the United States is 
the track which forms the "rail way" and which carries the traffic. In view 
of its importance, and in view of the amount and quality of engineering and 
technical work involved in the construction and maintenance of the track, 
it may appear somewhat strange that the technical literature on the subject 
should be so limited as compared with that on other branches of railway engi- 
neering. This may be attributed largely to the fact that until within very- 
recent years, the management of this department of railway service was con- 
sidered as belonging to the grade of skilled labor rather than to that of scientific 
and technical training. In fact, the men who manage and control railway 
systems very generally fail, even at this time, to realize the importance (and 
especially the economic importance) of the track in its relations to the opera- 
tion and business of the railway, and to questions of railway economics. The 
development of the position and work of the engineer of maintenance-of-way 
within the past few years, however, is evidence that this branch of railway 
engineering is coming to the front. 

The book on "Track," written by Mr. Wm. B. Parsons in 1886, was prac- 
tically the first book dealing with the subject from the engineering point of 
view, and written for the use of the engineer rather than for that of the sec- 
tion foreman or the "practical" roadmaster. For this reason the book had a 
very extensive sale among engineers, although its scope was somewhat limited. 
It has been out of print for over twenty years. The evident demand among 
engineers for a technical book on track construction and track work (or "main- 
tenance-of-way") led the author to the preparation of "Railway Track and 
Track Work," with the purpose of making a comprehensive book specially 
adapted to engineers in the maintenance-of-way department of railway ser- 
vice and to young engineers intending to enter this department. The first 
edition was published in the autumn of 1897. Within a few months the greater 
part of the edition had been sold, and it was practically exhausted by the sum- 
mer of 1900. 

As the recognition of the track as an important feature of the railway system 
continued to develop, there was a continued and increasing demand for this 
book. This came not only from engineers but from the engineering schools, 
and many of these schools adopted it as a text-book in railway engineering. 



ii PREFACE. 

The demand was met by the preparation of a second edition, which was pub- 
lished in 1901. This was almost entirely rewritten, as there had been many 
changes in both materials and methods since the preparation of the first edi- 
tion. Additional chapters on signals and interlocking plant and electric rail- 
way track were added also. The increased use of signals was leading to the 
development of the signal department in railway service, and street and inter- 
urban electric railways were opening a new and wide field for engineers. It 
was felt, therefore, that these subjects ought to be included. 

By 1907, the second edition had become nearly exhausted, and the writer 
took up the revision of the book for a new edition. This has been entirely 
rewritten, owing to the many changes and improvements of the past few years. 
Much of the older material was omitted, and new material added, especially in 
regard to modern developments in both methods and material. The develop- 
ment in the roadway or maintenance-of-way department as a separate engi- 
neering department in the railway organization also influenced the work on 
the new edition. This department is now, in many cases, more or less inde- 
pendent of the engineering department, whose work relates mainly to general 
eonstruction and improvement. Many new illustrations have been made, 
and an appendix presents statistics of the details of standard track construc- 
tion on a large number of American railways. An extensive index is included, 
with a separate index of railways whose practice is mentioned. There is also 
another separate index of engineers, inventors, and authorities mentioned or 
quoted. 

A special feature of this book is that it includes not only the general prin- 
ciples underlying track design and maintenance, and the systems of practice, 
which are everywhere applicable. It includes also numerous details as to 
equipment, material, appliances and methods as used by individual railways 
and in different sections of the country. It is believed that mere general state- 
ments as to construction and methods of work leave very much to be desired 
both by the beginner or student, and by the engineer actually engaged in main- 
tenance-of-way work. It has been the author's special aim, therefore, to pre- 
sent descriptions in detail of various appliances and methods representing 
actual practice. Their good and bad features are presented, as well as the reasons 
for their use. The aim has been, however, to make the work representative^ 
rather than to make it diffuse. This comprehensive but representative treat- 
ment is a particular characteristic of the style of the book, and has met with 
very considerable commendation, showing that it meets a definite need. The 
scope of the book is large, as may be seen by a glance at the table of contents. 
The various subjects included are treated not merely in a descriptive manner 
but also in a critical manner. 

It would be impracticable to mention each and every engineer, railway officer, 
or manufacturer of railway material who has furnished information for use in 
the revision of the book, but the author takes the opportunity to extend his 
thanks for all information furnished. He also desires to express his apprecia- 
tion of all criticisms, corrections and commendations which have been sent 
to him. 

E. E. RUSSELL TRATMAN. 

Chicago, July, 1908. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I.— TRACK. 

Chapter 1. — Introduction ....... 1 

The Importance of Railway Track; Design of Track; New Ideas 
in Track Design; Relation of Track to Traffic; Statistics of Railways. 

Chapter 2. — Roadbed Construction . . . . . . 13 

Formation on Banks and in Cuts, on Bridges and in Tunnels; Prac- 
tice on Various Railways. 

Chapter 3. — Ballast 25 

Materials Used ; Quantities; Oiling Dusty Ballast. 

Chapter 4. — Ties and Tie=Plates ...... 32 

Qualities of Wood for Ties; Tie Renewals; Tie Records; Preserva- 
tive Processes; Metal Tie-Plates; Metal and Concrete Ties. 

Chapter 5. — Rails 66 

Form of Section; Foreign Rails; Stresses in Rails; Manufacture; 
Life and Wear; Creeping of Rails. 

Chapter 6. — Rail Fastenings and Rail Joints ... 88 

Spikes, Screws and Bolts; Rail Braces; Design of Rail Joints; Sus- 
pended and Supported Joints; Insulated and Expansion Joints; 
Track Bolts; Nut Locks; Quantities of Track. Material. 

Chapter 7. — Switches, Frogs and Switchstands . . . no 

Split and Stub Switches; Miscellaneous Forms of Switches; Rigid 
and Spring- Rail Frogs; Frog Substitutes; Crossing Frogs; Guard 
Rails; Footguards; Relation of Wheels to Track; Switch Ties and 
Timbers; Switchstands; Lamps; Switch Protection. 

Chapter 8. — Fences and Cattleguards ..... 140 

Board and Wire Fences; Hedges and Walls; Gates; Station and 
Yard Fences; Snow Fences; Pit and Surface Cattleguards. 

Chapter 9. — Grade Crossings . . . . . . . 154 

Highway and Street Crossings; Steam and Electric Railway Cross- 
ings; Crossing Gates; Derailing and Protective Devices. 

Chapter 10. — Bridge and Trestle Floors . . . . . 163 

Solid and Open Floors; Ballasted Floors; Corrosion and Fire; 
Guard Rails and Rerailing Devices; Elevated Railways. 

Chapter 11. — Track Signs . . . . . . . 176 

Boundary Signs; Information Signs; Warning Signs. 

Chapter 12. — Track Accessories . . . . . . 188 

Water Stations; Track Tanks; Water Softening; Coaling Stations; 
Ash Pits; Turntables and Transfer Tables; Y-Tracks; Track Scales; 
Bridge Telltales; Mail Cranes; Bumping Posts; Section Houses and 
Other Buildings; Station Platforms; Shop and Enginehouse Tracks. 

Chapter 13. — Sidings, Yards and Terminals .... 220 

Passing Sidings; Passenger and Freight Terminals; Rapid-Transit 
Terminals and Loops; Locomotive Terminal Facilities; Freight 
Houses and Piers; Yard Switching; Sand Tracks. 

Chapter 14. — Track Tools and Supplies ..... 238 

Description of Tools; Equipment of Section Gangs. 
Chapter 15. — Signals and Interlocking . . . . . 261 

Block System and Block Signals; Signals for Electric Railways; 
Interlocking. 



IV 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter 16.— Electric Railways 272 

Track for Street and Intemrban Railways; Organization. 

PART II.— TRACK WORK. 

Chapter 17.— Organization of the Maintenance=of=Way Depart= 

ment .....••••• 283 

Systems of Organization; Engineers and Roadmasters; Section 
Foremen; Trackwalkers and Watchmen; Force and Labor; Work- 
Train Conductors; Bridge and Building Department; Signal Depart- 
ment; Practice on Various Railways. 

Chapter 18.— Tracklaying 307 

Tracklaying Methods and Records; Machine Tracklaying. 

Chapter 19.— Ballasting and Renewing Rails. . . . 323 

Ballasting for Construction and Maintenance; Dump Cars and Spread- 
ers; Renewing Rails; Handling Rails; Rail-Handling Machines. 

Chapter 20. — Drainage and Ditching 337 

Drainage of Wet Ground and Slopes; Slides; Protection of Sandy 
Slopes; Roadbed Ditches; Ditching Machines; Subdrainage. 

Chapter 21. — Track Work for Maintenance .... 346 

Traffic Relations; Work for Different Seasons; Protecting Track 
Work; Lining, Gaging and Surfacing; Tamping; Renewing Ties; 
Raising Track; Moving Track; Bending and Cutting Rails; Spik- 
ing and Bolting; Shimming; Fencing; Clearing Right-of-Way; Polic- 
ing; Station Grounds and Buildings; Old Material. 

Chapter 22. — Gage, Grades and Curves ..... 383 

Standard and Narrow Gage; Change of Gage; Compensation of 
Grades; Virtual Grades; Vertical Curves; Transition Curves; Sharp 
Curves; Gage and Superelevation on Curves; Curves on Bridge Floors; 
Wheel Pressures on Curves; Switchbacks. 

Chapter 23. — Track Inspection and the Premium System . 411 

Inspection Methods and Equipment; Track Indicator Cars. 

Chapter 24. — Switch Work and Turnouts . . . . 419 

Chapter 25. — Bridge Work and Telegraph Work . . . 435 

Bridge Inspection and Repairs; Telegraph Poles and Line Construc- 
tion. 

Chapter 26. — Permanent Improvements ..... 448 

Economics of Improvements; Changes in Alinement and Grade; 
Double Tracking; Filling Trestles; Track Elevation; Construction and 
Work Trains. 

Chapter 27. — Handling and Clearing Snow . . . . 461 

Snow Fences and Snowsheds; Snow Plows and Flanger Cars. 

Chipter 28. — Wrecking Trains and Operations . . . 471 

Organization and Equipment; Wrecking Cranes and Pile Drivers; 
Train Accidents and Washouts. 

Chapter 29. — Records, Reports and Accounts . . . 482 

Main tenance-of- Way Records; Track Charts; Blank Forms for Re- 
ports; Time Books; Accounting and Maintenance-of-Way Expenses. 

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . 515 

Review and Statistics of Standard Track Construction on American 
Railways. 



EAILWAY TEACK A!NT> TRACK WOEK 



PART I.— TRACK. 



CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTION. 

The railway system of the United States now aggregates about 230,000 miles 
of railway, with 330,000 miles of track (including sidings and yards). The 
maintenance of 230,000 miles of railway in proper condition for safely and 
efficiently carrying the traffic is an important work; and to control this work 
with efficiency and economy requires skill, judgment and executive ability. 
A glance at the table of contents of this book will give a good idea of the variety 
of items included in track and track equipment, and also an idea of the variety 
of work required for maintaining the track in condition. This work is classed 
under the term "maintenance-of-way." In addition to the varied material and 
work involved, account must be taken of the care required in devising both the 
system of construction and the methods of work best adapted to the proper 
and economical conduct of the work under the various conditions of construc- 
tion and operation which exist on different railways. 

The track upon which the traffic has to be carried is one of the essential and 
most important features of a railway, but its importance has been to a large 
extent lost sight of, or subordinated to other matters. Certainly the follow- 
ing facts in regard to track and track work (or maintenance-of-way) are not 
realized as clearly as they should be by railway officers: 1, The importance 
of the track and track work in their relation to the operation and business 
of the railway; 2, The large proportion of the operating expenses which is 
represented by the expenditures on track maintenance; 3, The economic impor- 
tance of good track for railways carrying fast and heavy trains and a dense 
traffic. 

There is a growing recognition of the fact that the management of the track 
work and the track forces on important railways should be in the hands cf 
men of engineering training; men who understand net only the practical work 
but also the principles upon which the work is based. They must be compe- 
tent to deal with the problems arising under modern conditions, where speed of 
trains, a high grade of track construction and maintenance, and a close eccnomy 
in maintenance work are involved. 

There has been a tendency for managements to disregard recommendations 
from and requisitions for the track department. Even on roads appropriating 
large sums for general improvements (such as realinement and grade reduc- 
tions), there is often a certain hesitation in regard to expenditures on track 
improvement. The engineers can show and the transportation officers can 
realize the direct economy in operation resulting from expenditures for general 



2 TRACK. 

improvements. But unless the maintenance-of-way is in the hands of engi- 
neers, the relative advantages and direct economies of heavier rails, better 
joints, treated ties, better ballast and improved appliances are not apt to be 
so fully presented or understood. 

Financial conditions sometimes compel railways to conduct their operations 
with very limited means. There is then opportunity for the exercise of skill and 
judgment in distributing work and money to the best advantage, for these 
conditions are rarely an excuse for defective and neglected track. On the 
other hand, some railways in better financial circumstances appear to consider 
that maintenance expenses should be permanently low. They overlook the 
necessity of renewals on account of depreciation and for improving the track 
as the traffic increases. Therefore, while they appropriate large sums for new 
engines and cars, handsome passenger trains, new stations, etc., and for methods 
of developing traffic and business, they are not willing to authorize liberal 
expenses for track and roadway improvement. 

It should be recognized that the poorer the track, in relation to the traffic, the 
greater will be the expenses for maintenance and renewals, owing to the ina- 
bility of the track to sustain the weights and shocks to which it is subjected. 
The importance of the maintenance department is perhaps most thoroughly 
understood by the engineers of that department on a road where the condi- 
tions include light track, fast trains, heavy traffic, small appropriations, and 
frequent admonitions to keep down the expenses. Many railways, of course, 
are managed on a more enlightened policy, which takes into account two fun- 
damental principles: 1, The necessity of renewals and improvement to com- 
pensate for normal wear and depreciation; 2, The necessity of general improve- 
ment to maintain the track in proper relation to the increasing traffic and 
loads which are imposed upon it. 

It must be admitted, however, that in some respects the administration of 
the track or maintenance-of-way department in the past has left much to be 
desired. The matter of ties affords an example. These are purchased and 
used in large quantities, and represent an important item in the expenses; yet 
very few railways have complete or reliable records as to the life, cost and 
relative economy of the various kinds. This may appear strange from two 
points of view: First, The importance of the ties as a part of the track struc- 
ture, and Second, The vigorous way in which attention has been called to the 
economics of the tie-supply question during recent years. It seems that these 
features are still very imperfectly recognized, and very imperfectly impressed 
upon the railway management. These are matters which the maintenance-of- 
way department should have taken in hand long ago, and in a systematic and 
energetic manner. At the present time, little more than a beginning has been 
made in this direction. 

The fastenings of the rails to the ties continue to constitute a decidedly weak 
and inefficient feature of the track structure of American railways. However 
well the spike may have been, and still may be, adapted to light track with 
light traffic, it is quite inadequate for modern conditions of railway service. 
Probably few outside of the maintenance-of-way department realize *the amount 
of work required in redriving and renewing spikes to keep a main track in rea- 
sonably good condition under even moderate traffic; or the amount of damage 
thus done to the ties, and the consequent increased cost and work represented 
by the tie renewals. The mileage of track on which any form of improved 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

fastening is used is infinitesimal, even when compared with the mileage of busy 
main tracks only. 

An objection to American practice whieh has been made frequently by Euro- 
pean railway engineers is the extensive use of rails of comparatively light weight 
(in relation to the loads carried). It must be remembered, however, that the 
rail is only one part of the track structure, and that it is not (as is often 
assumed) a girder resting upon rigid supports. The whole track deflects under 
load by the compression of the ballast and roadbed, independently of the deflec- 
tion of the rails between the ties. Consequently a 70-lb. or 75-lb. rail supported 
by 1 8 to 20 ties may form a track smoother and more substantial than one with 
80-lb. or 90-lb. rails on 12 or 15 ties to each rail. It follows, also, that Ameri- 
can track with 80-lb. to 100-lb. rails supported by 18 or 20 ties to the rail length, 
will be more smooth and substantial than foreign track with rails of the same 
weight supported by only 10 or 12 ties. This is a point not infrequently over- 
looked. Indeed, some engineers have erroneously reasoned that in intro- 
ducing heavier rails the number of ties can be reduced without affecting the 
quality or condition of the track. 

Railway track as a unit, or a complete structure, designed and 'built for 
the purpose of carrying certain loads in the form of moving trains, has received 
very little attention. Each part is considered separately, and not in its rela- 
tion to the other parts of the structure. Thus, a certain weight of rail may 
be adopted arbitrarily without regard to such related factors as the size and 
spacing of ties, the depth and quality of ballast, or the bearing area of the 
ballast and roadbed. In renewals with heavier rails on account of increased 
loads, the rails are not infrequently laid in track which receives little other 
improvement beyond a little dressing of the surface. There have been numer- 
ous investigations as to rails, ties, joints, the holding power of spikes, etc. But 
the track as a single structure or unit has been mainly overlooked. One of the 
most thorough investigations in which this unit character of the track has 
been considered, is that made in France by Mr. Cuenot, of the Paris, Lyons & 
Mediterranean Ry. The increase in train speeds on that road made neces- 
sary a close study of the track to ascertain the stresses to which it is subject, 
and to determine how its strength could be increased to withstand these stresses. 
Special apparatus was designed to measure some of the stresses. 

The results of the investigations have been published by Mr. Cuenot, and 
he states that the various deformations of track are caused by two principal 
movements: transverse and vertical. These account for vertical and hori- 
zontal displacement of the rails, variations of gage, creeping of rails, loosen- 
ing or drawing of spikes, and distortions at joints. The transverse move- 
ment is due to the fact that the tie does not sink uniformly throughout its 
length in the ballast as it receives its load. The top of a tie more than 7 ft. 
6 ins. long is concave at each end when loaded (causing an inward inclination 
of the rails), with a slight convexity at the middle. A tie less than 6 ft. 10£ 
ins. long is convex for its entire length, causing an outward inclination of the 
rails. He considered that ties 7 ft. to 7 ft. 3 ins. long would be depressed 
uniformly and thus remain horizontal. It is not at all likely that railways 
will introduce ties shorter than the usual lengths of 8 ft. and 8 ft. 6 ins. The 
rigidity, however, may be increased by making them deeper. This would be 
a most important improvement. It would not only avoid disturbance of 
track and ballast caused by the flexibility of the ties, but would give also a 



4 TRACK. 

more uniform distribution of the load upon the ballast. In relation to the 
bearing area of the tie, however, it is noted that the ballast should be so tamped 
as to give an exceptionally firm bearing for not more than 15 ins. on each side 
of the rail. Then the main support will be upon this portion of the ballast, 
and not upon that under the middle or ends of the ties. The reason for this 
is that pressure transmitted through the tie (as a rigid elastic mass) to the 
ballast and subgrade (as an elastic body) diminishes very rapidly as the dis- 
tance from the line of loading increases. Rail deflection at joints is also a 
serious matter, and has been found to reach nearly J-in., when the yielding of 
the tie would not exceed i-in. 

The following conclusions were deduced by Mr. Cuenot as to necessary 
improvements for track carrying fast and heavy traffic; the use of heavy rails, 
steel tie-plates, and screw spikes is taken for granted: (1) The ties should 
be two or three times more rigid than those now in use (this excludes the use 
of steel ties of trough section); (2) The three-tie type of joint should be 
used, with ties 12 ins. apart; (3) The tie-plates should have outside ribs to 
give a bearing to the back part of the head of the screw spike; (4) By sup- 
porting the joints and increasing the rigidity of the ties, the resistance to trac- 
tion would be materially reduced, while trains could be run at higher speeds 
without any reduction in comfort or safety. 

The tamping of the ballast under the ties so as to give a firm and uniform 
support is one of the most important features in the work of track mainte- 
nance. It is, however, manifestly impossible to attain any approach to ideal 
conditions of a uniform support even with the most experienced labor. With 
about 2,500 independent rail supports (the ties) in a mile of track, or even 
with 18 to 20 supports to a rail length of track, the conditions of labor and 
material render it impossible to obtain uniformity in the support afforded 
by the ballast as tamped under individual ties. In theory, each tie is a rigid 
pier carrying the continuous girder of the rail. In practice, ties are supports 
of varying and unknown stability, yielding unequally under pressure. This 
increases the span of the girder (or rail), and the rail maybe subjected to stresses 
which it is not designed or intended to carry. Any increase in its deflections, 
due to the yielding of its supports, is a decrease in the quality of the track con- 
sidered as a structure for the purpose of carrying rolling loads. The extent 
of the yielding of the ties tends to increase automatically by the compres- 
sion, movement or disintegration of the ballast which forms the foundation 
material. This condition leads us to the consideration of another important 
matter regarding the relation of track to traffic. 

The track should be designed with a view to the loads which it is to carry, 
but it is safe to say that no actual track is thus designed. The matters which 
are ignored include the loads and their distribution, the stresses in the rails, 
the bearing area afforded by the ties and ballast, and the relation of bearing 
area to weight of train and stresses in track. This matter has been consid- 
ered by Mr. O. E. Selby ("Engineering News," February 14, 1907). He states 
that the fiber stresses in Bessemer steel rails should not exceed 15,000 lbs. 
But in existing track with an axle load of 50,000 lbs. and 100% allowance 
for impact, the extreme fiber stress may reach 18,750 lbs. in an 80-lb. rail 
having a section modulus of 10. The limiting bearing pressures should be 400 
lbs. per sq. in. on oak ties, 4 tons per sq. ft. on gravel or broken stone not 
well confined, and 1 to 1\ tons per sq. ft. on clay foundation (subgrade) sub- 



INTRODUCTION. 



ject to frost. For track carrying axle loads of 60,000 lbs. he proposed a spe- 
cially heavy track of the ordinary type. The rails would be 7 or 8 ins. high, 
weighing 115 lbs per yd. (with a section modulus of 20); they would be laid 
upon ties 7X9 ins., 8 \ ft. long, spaced 20 ins. c. to c. There would be 12 ins. 
of stone ballast under the ties, and 12 ins. of gravel ballast beneath the stone. 
The ballast would be 10J ft. wide at the top of ties, with side slopes of 1 on 2, 
and a bottom width of 21 ft. This arrangement would give a load (includ- 
ing impact) of 1 ton per linear inch of roadbed, or 1.2 tons per sq. ft. of road- 
bed (distributed over a width of 10 ft.). He estimated that such a track would 
reduce maintenance expenses 50 per cent. 

Improved or special construction at high cost might be really economical 
for busy lines with heavy traffic, where the cost of maintenance-of-way is 
high. It is of some importance to note that improvements in railway track 
have been confined entirely to the detail parts of a track structure which is of 
the same general type as that of 50 years ago. A few, very few, experiments 
with radical innovations or new designs have been made on a small scale, but 
certainly with no idea of following them up in practice. There is indeed no 
probability of the introduction of any new type of track. 

A weak point in the present type of track is the carrying of the rails on inter- 
mittent supports which have no uniformity of bearing in the ballast. Two 
combinations of continuous steel longitudinal bearings with intermittent 
rail supports have been suggested to eliminate this feature. The plan pro- 
posed by Mr. J. W. Schaub, and shown in Fig. 1, is to place wide-flanged 10-in] 



tek- 




4'0* H AJxJx/^ 

7x9x9<?"77es, ?0"C. to C. ~~ 

{Ba//as£ 



i y » f f yy vx <-&y J « 







Fig. 1. — Proposed Track Construction with the Ties Supported by Longitudinal I-Beams. 

I-beams under the ends of the ties. The beams would be embedded in 16 
ins. of ballast and connected by tie rods. Individual ties could not get loose 
or low, and the load upon them would be distributed to the ballast by the 
I-beams. In surfacing, these beams would be raised by jacks and tamped, 
instead of tamping individual ties. A more elaborate plan, designed by Mr. 
G. Linden thai, is shown in Fig. 2. In a modified form in use for about 1,000 ft. 




Section through Ra\\. Section through Joint. 

Fig. 2. — Proposed Track Construction with Steel Longitudinals Carrying Steel Blocks or 

Chairs for the Rails. 

in a freight track on the Pennsylvania Ry., there are two built-up longi- 
tudinals of double channel section, composed of two 8X3-in. Z-bars (with 
bottom flanges outward), each having a 7X3-in. bulb angle riveted to the 



6 TRACK. 

outside of the top of the web. These carry oak blocks 6X8x26 ins., spaced 
2 ft. c. to c. At intervals of 6 ft. there are ties of the same size, 7 ft. 2 ins. 
long, to maintain the gage. At each rail joint, also, there are two shoulder 
ties 36|- ins. c. to c, with a block under the joint. The rails rest on steel tie- 
plates and are secured by screw spikes. The blocks are secured to the longitudi- 
nals by hook bolts. The original design (Fig. 2) provided for longitudinals 
composed each of a pair of special bulb angles 6X8 ins., with vertical dia- 
phragm plates between them; also cast-steel chairs for the rails and steel tie- 
bars. No such angles have yet been rolled, and the chairs are too costly for 
experiment. Some cast-iron chairs proved unsatisfactory and were replaced 
by the wooden blocks and ties. A track somewhat similar to this, but with 
the longitudinals embedded in concrete, has been used in the Philadelphia 
underground railway. This is described elsewhere. 

The use of a concrete roadbed has been suggested many times, mainly in 
two different ways: (1) Separate lines of concrete beams or longitudinals; 
(2) A concrete floor or slab. The longitudinals would be laid upon a bed of 
crushed stone or clean gravel, and bedded in earth as a protection against 
frost penetrating below them. The rails might be laid upon the longitudi- 
nals, and connected by tie-rods. Or they might be laid upon longitudinal 
I-beams anchored to the concrete and connected by transverse beams. This 
latter system, with 10-in. wide-flanged I-beams anchored to longitudinals 16 
ins. deep and carrying rails of bridge section, has been estimated to cost $25,000 
per mile of single track. Any necessary surfacing would be effected by rais- 
ing the longitudinals with jacks. It may be mentioned that concrete longi- 
tudinals have been used in the inclined shaft of a copper mine in Michigan. 
A plan proposed by Mr. J. W. Schaub for a concrete floor construction, pro- 
vides a continuous reinforced-concrete slab 10 ft. 2 ins. wide, 8, ins. thick at 
the sides and 14 ins. at the middle. Longitudinal timbers rest upon the thinner 
parts and against the sides of the thicker part, and are held in place by long 
horizontal bolts passing through both timbers. Ordinary rails would be 
laid on steel tie-plates, and secured to the longitudinals by screw spikes. The 
slab would rest upon an 18-in. bed of rubble concrete. The cost is estimated 
at $14,000 per mile of single track, as against $6,000 for the ordinary type 
of track (the cost of rails being omitted in each case). The Michigan Central 
Ry. has experimented with a track system for its Detroit tunnel in which the 
concrete floor has a central drain with transverse recesses on each side to receive 
creosoted blocks for the rails. Tunnels and underground railways, which 
have a concrete floor as a part of the construction, do not afford a criterion for 
ordinary railway track. 

In experiments with new track material or appliances, special care should 
be taken to have the new appliances installed under exactly the same con- 
ditions as the older ones. The trials should also cover a considerable length 
of track if any definite results are to be expected. The Prussian State Rail- 
ways have built a special track for experiments with different kinds of ties, 
ballast and rail joints, and to show the wear of rails on curves and tangents. 
It forms an oval with tangents 820 ft. long and end curves of 650 ft. radius, 
making a length of about a mile. The curves have the gage widened 0.095- 
in.; they have a superelevation of 4.92 ins., with different lengths of run-off 
at each end. On this track will run 58-ton electric cars, each having six-wheel 
trucks and four motors. The train will be run continuously, without a crew. 



INTRODUCTION. 7 

j)urino- recent years there has been a tendency to strengthen the track on 
main lines, in order to meet the conditions of increased engine loads and 
increased traffic. Tables of the standards for main-track construction on 
a number of railways have been compiled by the author, and form an appen- 
dix to this book. It must be borne in mind, however, that the extent to which 
the standards are in actual use is an unknown and extremely variable quan- 
tity. They are naturally confined to the divisions having the densest traffic, 
and it is to be noted that (with the exception of a few short roads) they are 
not used on all parts of the line which carry heavy equipment or fast trains. 
A railway having several hundreds of miles of track will include, as a rule, 
\arious kinds of track construction and traffic conditions. It may have but 
a small proportion of its length laid with what is nominally its " standard" 
track. The quality of the maintenance and general condition of the track is 
likely to vary in equal ratio with the character of construction. Thus the 
"maximum" freight train, the "fast-freight" train, and the heavy high-speed 
passenger train, with their locomotives heavy in axle loads and total weight, 
may run for considerable parts of their journeys upon track which is not prop- 
erly adapted for such service. This results in wear and tear of the equipment, 
and the track is in turn liable to suffer excessive injury by the character of 
the traffic which it has to carry. Such conditions involve not only a high cost 
of maintenance, but a low factor of safety. It is to be feared that in general 
this latter feature is overlooked. 

A classification of track on the basis of traffic carried has been adopted by 
the American Railway Engineering Association. This is as follows, but is really 
a classification of railways rather than of track: A, All double-track divisions, 
and single-track divisions having a freight-car mileage of 150,000 per mile 
per year, or a passenger-car mileage of 10,000 per mile per year, and a maxi- 
mum passenger-train speed of 50 miles per hour. B, Single-track divisions 
having a freight-car mileage of 50,000 or a freight-car mileage of 5,000 per 
mile per year, and a maximum passenger-train speed of 40 miles per hour. 
C, All lines or divisions not meeting the requirements for Classes A or B. 

The relation of the track structure to the traffic which it is to carry is over- 
looked very generally. For new lines, the weight of rails, size and spacing of 
ties, depth and character of ballast, etc., are very rarely adopted on any basis 
of traffic conditions. If heavier locomotives and heavier, faster and more 
numerous trains become necessary to handle the business of an existing road, 
little consideration is given to the ability of the track to carry the increased 
loads and traffic with safety and economy. Many engineers and roadmasters 
have experienced the increasing difficulty in maintaining track which has not 
been improved or strengthened to correspond with the heavier locomotives, 
higher speeds and increased train service of recent years. 

With a track that is light in relation to the loads imposed upon it, there is 
an increase in expense for maintenance. Rails are more rapidly worn and more 
liable to break, rail joints become low and loose, ties are damaged, soft ballast 
is crushed, frogs and switches are battered, and the track may be shifted bodily 
in the ballast. Apart from the increase in renewals due to wear, there is a 
decided increase in the various items of work required to maintain the track 
in line and surface. All this is due to the disturbance and dislocation caused 
by the heavier conditions of traffic and the lack of proper relation between 
the track structure and the traffic. It is a very evident fact that in general 



8 TRACK. 

the track has not been strengthened or improved in due proportion to the 
increase in service imposed upon it by (1) the heavier loads, (2) the higher 
speeds, and (3) the denser traffic. Train equipment is adopted and train 
speeds are arranged without much consideration of the character of the track 
construction, the cost of maintenance-of-way or the factor of safety involved. 
That these matters should be considered admits of no dispute. 

The lack of proper relation between track and traffic is evidence of the neces- 
sity of improvement of the track. But it does not constitute any argument 
against the development of transportation or operating methods. The busi- 
ness of the railway is to carry traffic, and the methods of operation will be 
governed by the requirements of that business. It is useless for the mainte- 
nance-of-way department to complain about the effects of increased leads 
and speeds upon the track, with any view to a modification in traffic condi- 
tions. On the contrary, the track must be made to fit the traffic conditions, 
since it is the traffic which makes the business of the railway and earns the 
revenue. It is one duty of the engineer to present to the executive officers 
the desirability of improving the track as the traffic conditions become more 
severe. He should be able to show very clearly that there must be a certain 
factor of safety, and that better efficiency and higher economy of the railway 
s ervice as a whole might be obtained by building or improving the track with 
due regard to its proper relations to the locomotive equipment and the traffic 
conditions. In any case, it is the work and duty of the engineer and the road- 
master to maintain the track in the best possible condition and the best possi- 
ble relation to the traffic which it must carry. This subject has been dis- 
cussed in some detail in "Engineering News" of Sept. 13, 1906. Also in two 
papers read by the author before the New York Railway Club: "The Rela- 
tions of Track to Traffic" (1896), and "Maximum Trains; their Relations 
to Track, Motive Power and Traffic" (1902). 

Improvements for the purpose of getting the traffic over the road with the 
least possible delay and with a greater degree of safety are now largely needed. 
These include the track construction, the double-track and passing-siding 
facilities, the yard and terminal facilities, coaling and water-station equip- 
ment, block signals along the open line, and interlocking plants at such points 
as crossings, junctions, passing sidings and yard entrances. The important 
relation which double-track and yard and terminal facilities bear to the prompt 
movement and efficient handling of railway freight traffic has been forced 
upon the attention of railways by several periods of traffic congestion dur- 
ing recent years. The double-tracking of main lines to relieve this conges- 
tion is of perhaps greater importance than the building of new branches and 
extensions. The new lines bring more traffic upon the main lines and thus 
serve to increase the congestion. As to the yards, the delay of a car in any 
one division yard may be easily from 10 to 20 hours. This may be increased 
enormously under adverse conditions, and especially where the car has to be 
transferred from one yard to another at a terminal point. The cumulative 
detention to a car making a long trip may thus amount to several days. It 
may be reduced in many cases by improvements in the design of the yard 
and its connections, as well as in the methods of yard operation. These impor- 
tant matters of track and yard facilities were discussed by the author in " Engi- 
neering News" of Sept. 14, 1905, and April 4, 1907. 

The results obtained from expenditures on track are in very many cases 



INTRODUCTION. 



9 



unsatisfactory from the practical and the economic standpoint, owing to a 
failure to realize the governing conditions. In hundreds of cases, money is 
spent over and over again upon the same stretch of track without any per- 
manent improvement being obtained. This work is required to repair the 
track and maintain it in a normal condition. It may be made necessary by 
defects in material or construction, or by an increase in loads and traffic. In 
many such cases it would be a matter of evident economy to take up the prob- 
lem in earnest, discover the proper remedy, and carry out some permanent 
work. But this would mean a definite and large expenditure, and the com- 
pany is likely to consider that this cannot be afforded. As a result, the con- 
tinual but unnoticed drain of expense in "maintenance" and temporary 
repairs is allowed to continue. The principle should be more clearly and gen- 
erally understood that large expenditures on radical or permanent improvements 
may effect important economies in maintenance and in other departments of the 
service. The economics of track construction and maintenance-of-way, and 
their relation to the economics of railway operation and management, need 
to be impressed upon those who control the finances. But it is to be feared 
that these men are rarely interested in the science of the economics of railway 
transportation. 

The proportion which the charges for maintenance of way and structures 
bear to the total operating expenses of American railways is usually high, 
as shown in Table No. 1. This is largely due to the fact that a majority of 
the roads have been built with regard to immediate cheapness and rapidity 
of construction rather than to ultimate economy in operation. The condi- 
tions under which the railways have been built (often in advance of the pros- 



TABLE NO. 1.— RAILWAY MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EXPENSES 

Maint. 

^Percent 



Operating 

" Exp. to 

Railways. Miles. Gross 

Earnings, 
per ct. 

N.Y..N.H.&H. 2,060 68.07 

N. Y. Cen 3,780 77.06 

Penna 3,858 72.57 

B. & 4,462 66.73 

D., L. &W 957 57.80 

Le. Val 1,440 61.31 

Ph. & Read 1,000 60 . 00 

Erie 2,333 70.79 

L. S. & M. So.. .. 1,520 65.72 

C.,C.,C.& St. L.. 1,982 76.13 

Southern 7,547 78.89 

Cen. of Ga 1,913 79.50 

L. &N 4,340 74.14 

111. Cen 4,377 66.86 

Hock. Val 644 64.87 

T., P. & West.... 231 81.38 

So. Ind 246 59.00 

Cin. So 336 80.23 

C. & 1,832 64.50 

N.& W 1,877 62.62 

Ch. & A 970 65.53 

Ch. & N. W 7,623 65.30 

Ch.,M.&St. P. .. 7,186 62.63 

Wabash 2,514 71.10 

Mo. Pac 6,375 66.80 

St. L. S. W 1,454 68.19 

Den. & R. G 2,552 61.90 

A., T. & S. F 9,350 62.84 

So. Pac 9,694 64.21 

Un. Pac 5,916 53.36 - 

Max 81.36 

Min 53.36 

Ave 67 . 66 



^Mai nt enan ce-of- Way- 
Percentage of 
Per Oper. M. of W. 
Mile. Exp. and St. 



1,130 

2,570 

3,504 

1,863 

3,289 

1,700 

2,983 

1,748 

3,483 

1,470 

790 

600 

1,150 

1,123 

821 

915 

663 

3,000 

1,177 

1,465 

1,157 

882 

641 

870 

769 

73i 
1,239 
1,262 
1,318 
3,504 

600 
2.052 



per ct. 
10 
13 
12 
15 
15 
11 
12 
12 
18 
14 
13 
12 
14 
13 
13 
20 
17 
14 
13 
14 
13 
15 
12 
12 
15 

i4 

20 
17 
20 
10 
20 
15 



per ct. 
62 
78 
67 
78 
63 
78 
83 
71 
84 
85 
62 
73 
62 
72 
86 
75 
80 
77 
70 
71 
78 
75 
70 
80 
83 

79 
76 
77 
78 
86 
62 
74 



of W. 
and 

St. 

per 

Mile. 

$ 
2,660 
3,297 
5,253 
2,363 
5,198 
2,500 
3,606 
2,180 
4,163 
1,732 
1,015 

825 
1,860 
1,565 
1,069 
1,163 

831 
3,892 
1,686 
2,077 
1,473 
1,168 

828 
1,093 

926 
1,308 

920 
1,648 
1,362 
1,695 
5,253 

828 
3,040 



M. of W. 

and 

Struc. 

per ct. 
14.4 
16.4 
16.9 
19.2 
23.1 
14.5 
14.0 
13.3 
21.4 
17.0 
17.1 
16.4 
22.5 
18.5 
18.0 
25.4 
21.0 
18.6 
18.5 
20.0 
17.8 
19.9 
17.0 
14.1 
18.1 
23.0 
17.7 
26.0 
21.7 
24.9 
26.0 
13.3 
19.6 



of Op. 
Maint. 

of 
Equip- 
ment, 
perct. 
14.9 
19.6 
26.5 
24.5 
17.3 
27.5 
30.8 
21.3 
20.4 
29.0 
21.4 
23.4 
24.3 
25.3 
33.0 
26.2 
22.0 
24.1 
28.3 
26.8 
20.0 
19.4 
16.0 
20.1 
21.5 
18.5 
22.2 
20.0 
20.4 
19.5 
33.0 
14.9 
23.9 



Exp.-^ 
Con- 
duct- 
ing 
Trans, 
perct. 
66.8 
60.7 
53.4 
53.5 
57.0 
55.0 
52.4 
47.4 
55.3 
53.0 
53.6 
50.8 
50.0 
53.4 
45.8 
40.7 
50.0 
50.3 
50.7 
52.0 
58.1 
58.0 
56.7 
62.3 
54.1 
50.5 
56.0 
50.0 
53.3 
55.0 
66.8 
40.7 
53.7 



JO TRACK. 

pective traffic) have, on the whole, warranted the carrying out of the work on 
this principle. In too many cases, however, the original style of construc- 
tion has been allowed to remain unaltered and unimproved long after it has 
been outgrown by the traffic. The result of this is that such roads have to 
sustain a heavy continual charge for maintenance. These conditions and 
their relation to operating conditions are now being given much greater con- 
sideration, due largely to the necessity of handling more traffic and with greater 
economy. Within the past few years many roads have spent enormous sums 
of money in general improvements, such as reducing grades and curves, improv- 
ing the location, double tracking, improving yard and terminal arrangements, 
and replacing trestles and light structures with solid embankments and more 
permanent structures. 

The operating expenses of the railway system of the United States for the 
year ending June 30, 1906, amounted to 66.08% of the gross earnings, and 
72.26% of the total expenditures. The expenses for maintenance of way and 
structures (exclusive of general improvements) amounted to 20.28% of the 
operating expenses. Analyzing the details of these figures, it is found that 
repairs to roadway represent about 10.73% of the entire operating expenses; 
rail renewals and tie renewals represent 1.43% and 2.51% respectively. A 
consideration of the fact that the maintenance work on track and structures 
absorbs some 21% of the operating expenses, and the further fact that half of 
this is for ordinary every-day roadway repair work (exclusive of rail and tie 
renewals), will show the importance of the relation which the maintenance- 
of-way department bears to the financial affairs of the railway company. It 
becomes evident then that greater importance should be attached to the proper 
organization and accounting of this department. The distribution of expenses 
is given in Table A. 

TABLE A.— DISTRIBUTION OF RAILWAY EXPENSES. 

Distribution of . Per Cent of -^ Distribution of Exp. for Per Cent, of 

Total Expenses. Op. Exp. Total Exp. Main, of Way and St. Op. Exp. 

Maint. of way and struc . . . . 20.28 14.66 Repairs of roadway 10.73 

Maint. of equip 21.38 15.44 Renewals of rails 1.43 

Conduct, transp 54 . 41 39 . 32 Renewals of ties 2 . 51 

General and unclass 3.93 2.84 Rep. and renewal: 



Bridges and culverts 2.21 

Total op. expenses.... 100.00 72.25 Fences, road crossings, 

Fixed charges 27.74 signs and cattleguards.. 0.41 

Total expenses 100 . 00 Buildings and fixtures .... 2 . 30 

Docks and wharves . 24 

Telegraph 0.18 

Other expenses . 29 



Total 20.30 

This summary for the railway system as a whole gives, of course, but a general 
average of the distribution of expenses. The relations of the maintenance- 
of-way and operating expenses on a number of individual railways are shown 
in Table No. 1, which has been compiled from official reports. In many sta- 
tistics of this kind, the figures are given simply for maintenance of way and 
structures. But as the expenditures on structures vary widely, according to 
the number and character of the structures, these combined expenses do not 
afford a basis for comparison of maintenance-of-way expenses proper. In 
this table, therefore, the author has separated these latter expenses. The 
figures of maintenance-of-way in the table cover the following items: repairs 
to roadway, renewals of rails and ties, and repairs and renewals of fences, road 
crossings, cattleguards and signs. The cost for these items alone averages 
from $600 to $3,500 per mile of road per year, and it represents from 10 to 



INTRODUCTION. 



11 



20% of the operating expenses. The general classification of "maintenance 
of way and structures" includes the above items and also repairs and renewals 
to bridges, buildings, wharves, docks, signals, etc. The cost for this general 
classification averages from $830 to $5,250 per mile of road per year, and from 
13 to 26% of the operating expenses. The " maintenance-of-way " items, 
noted above, represent from 62 to 86% of the expenses for maintenance of way 
and structures. The analysis of railway maintenance expenses was discussed 
in "Engineering News" of July 27, 1905, and some results are shown in Table B. 

TABLE B— RAILWAY MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY EXPENSES. 

Expenses of Maint. of Expenses of Maint.-of- 

, Way and Struc. — — . , Way. . 

Railways. Bges. Bldgs. Roadway Rail Tie 

Way. and and and Re- Re- 

Culv. Do^ks. Track, newals. newals. 

% % % % % % 

Boston & Maine 76 7 12 74 4 17 

Erie 70 9 14 44 11 14 

Lehigh Valley 71 8 14 63 8 25 

Del., Lack. & West 58 14 25 67 10 16 

New York Central 80 5 13 67 10 18 

Norfolk & Western 80 9 10 40 20 15 

Chesapeake & Ohio 78 6 14 65 13 16 

C, C, C. & St. L 77 8 8 58 6 20 

Wabash 72 14 12 73 7 15 

Louis. & Nash 65 11 7 55 10 16 

Illinois Central 78 9 10 76 6 15 

Chicago & N. W 74 9 10 65 10 19 

C, M. «Sr St. P 77 13 9 70 10 15 

A., T. & S. F 75 13 10 65 8 18 

Union Pac 73 11 13 62 13 24 

Denver & R. G 82 8 7 60 9 14 

Maximum 82 14 25 74 20 25 

Minimum 58 7 7 40 4 14 

The cost of the several features of railway track construction will neces- 
sarily vary within extremely wide limits, due to the character of construc- 
tion and country, and the market rates for labor and material. In several states 
some attempt has been made to put a valuation on the railways, on the basis 
of cost of construction at the present time. Table C shows some of the items 
of the valuations in Wisconsin and Michigan, and also of a similar valuation 
made by the Great Northern Ry. 

TABLE C— ESTIMATES OF COST OF RAILWAY TRACK. 

< Wisconsin > ,— — Michigan — — i 

Per Cent. Cost Per cent. Cost Gt. N. Ry. 

of per of per Cost 

Total Cost. Mile. Total Cost. Mile. per Mile. 

Rails 12.91 3,773 14.05 3,674 4,680 

Ties and switch ties 4.95 1,529 5.46 1,426 2,820 

Fastenings* 2.00 617 1.88 492 1,110 

Frogs, switches and crossings 0.48 151 0.72 188 135 

Ballast 2.55 788 1.83 476 1,585 

Tracklaving and surfacing 1 . 45 447 3 . 21 839 1,055 

Fencing". 0.73 225 1 .36 353 115 

Road cross., cattleguards and signs. . 0.17 52 0.30 78 290 

Interlocking and signals 0.17 52 0.25 64 60 

Stations 1.54 476 2.01 526 495 

Water and coal stations 0.69 180 0.51 132 390 

Bridges, trestles and culverts 7.67 2,372 3.93 1,027 2,705 

Throughout this book there are given numerous rules and instructions as 
to methods of work, but it must be distinctly understood that rules cannot 
be made universally applicable and therefore must not be followed blindly. 
Owing to varying conditions of track, traffic, topography, labor, etc., a method 
which may be the best practice in one case may be entirely unsuitable in another. 
Therefore every man must exercise his own judgment. He should not adopt 
a method simply because he finds it has been used; nor should he assume 
that a method is wrong simply because it could not be applied to advantage 



12 TRACK. 

on his own road or division. Engineers and roadmasters should comprehend 
the principles underlying their work, should be familiar with the general rules 
of practice outside their own particular sphere, and should take into consid- 
eration the actual conditions under which their work is to be done. Upon 
this basis they should devise or adopt such methods or materials as will give the 
best and most economical results under these governing conditions. 

In concluding this introductory chapter, the author gives the following 
summarized statistics for the railways of the United States, compiled from 
the report of the Interstate Commerce Commission for the year ending June 
30, 1906. 

STATISTICS OF AMERICAN RAILWAYS. 1906. 

Mileage. 

Length of line 222,572 miles. 

Second track 17,936 * ' 

Third track 1,766 " 

Fourth track 1 ,280 ' ' 

Yard tracks and sidings 73,761 ' ' 

Total track mileage 317,083 miles. 

Employees. 

Per 100 Miles. Total. 

General administration 26 57,054 

Maintenance of way and structures 223 495,879 

Maintenance of equipment 142 315,952 

Conducting transportation 292 649,820 

Unclassified 1 2,650 

Total 684 1,521,355 

Trackmen (433,913, or 195 per 100 miles) (195) (433,913) 

Section foremen 18 40,463 

Section men 1 55 343,791 

Switchmen, flagmen and watchmen 22 49,659 

Enginemen, firemen and trainmen 128 285!556 

Shopmen 142 315,023 

Station agents and men, tel. operators, dispatchers. ... 94 209,808 

General officers, clerks 32 70,005 

Miscellaneous 93 207,736 

Total (nearly 2% of total population) 684 1,522,041 

Equipment. 

Locomotives. Cars. 

Passenger 12,249 42,262 

Freight 29,848 1,837,914 

Switching locomotives and company's cars 8,485 78,736 

Unclassified locomotives and fast-freight cars 1,090 *(32,168) 

Total (*Fast-freight cars included under freight) 51,672 1,958,912 

Traffic. 

Passengers carried 797,946,116 Passenger-train mileage 479,037,553 

Pass, carried one mile. . . . 25,167,240,831 Freight-train mileage 594,005,825 

Freight carried, tons 1,631,374,219 Total revenue train mileage.. 1,105,877,091 

Freight carried one mile. . 215,877,551,241 Av. journey per pass 31.54 miles. 

Ave. tons per train 344.39 Av. haul per ton 132.33 miles. 

Earnings and Expenses. 

Per Mile of Line. Total. 

Gross earnings from operation $10,460 $2,325,765,167 

Gross income 2,386,285,473 

Operating expenses 6,912 1,536,877,271 

Net earnings from operation 3,548 788,887,896 

Net income 1,732 385,186,328 

Ratio of total earnings: Passenger 21 . 93% 

Freight 70 . 54% 

Mail and express 4 . 23% 

Operating expenses; percentage of gross earnings 66.08% 

of total expenditures (fixed chgs., 27.74%) 72.26% 

Rev. per pass, per mile 2.003 cts. Rev. per pass, train mile $1 .20 

Rev. per ton per mile 0.748 cts. Rev. per frt. train mile 2.60 

Rev. per train mile (all trains) 2 . 07 

Ave. cost of running a train one mile (all trains) 1 . 37 

Earnings per mile of line: Passenger, $2,808; Freight 7,486 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

Financial. 
. Assets. Liabilities. 

Cost of road $11,588,922,421 Capital stock $6,929,670,244 

Cost of equipment 831,365,517 Funded debt 8,068,004,746 

Stocks owned 1,817,242,555 Current liabilities 1,093,207,505 

Bonds owned 642,805,004 Int. on funded debt, not 

Cash and current assets... 1,259,304,647 yet payable 48,941,415 

Materials and supplies.... 185,228,347 Miscellaneous 851,877)671 

Sinking funds, etc 130,566,158 Profit and loss 636,391,319 



Miscellaneous 1,172,658,251 

Total $17,628,092,900 



Total $17,628,092,900 



Capital: Stock (common, $5,403,001,960) $6,803,760,093 

Bonds and other obligations 7,766,661,385 

Total $14,570,421,478 

Per mile of railway $67,936 



CHAPTER 2.— ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 

The general work of railway construction does not come within the scope of 
this book. It is assumed that the cuts and embankments have been com- 
pleted to the level of the subgrade; and also that the bridges, culverts, tunnels 
and other works have been completed. The roadbed (by which is meant the 
surface at subgrade) has then to be made ready for the track. The tracks 
are usually spaced 13 ft. c. to c, sometimes 12^ ft. or 12 ft.; and more rarely 
14 ft., as on the Illinois Central Ry. Sidetracks are generally 13 to 16 ft. c. 
to c. from main tracks. The width of roadbed on embankments is from 26 to 
33 ft. for double track, and 16 to 20 ft. for single track. The width in cuts, 
exclusive of the ditches, is from 26 to 37 ft. for double track, and 18 to 25 ft. 
for single track. The minimum width should be 18 ft. in rock cuts, 20 ft. in 
earth cuts, and 16 ft. on embankments. It should be at least 3 ft. greater than 
the width over the toe of the ballast. With narrow banks there is much loss of 
ballast and more work is required to keep the track in surface, while much 
material is lost during such work as reballasting, or renewing ties and rails. 

The covering of slopes with sod or turf is a matter to which attention is being 
given in relation to maintenance work. It prevents the erosion of slopes of 
banks and cuts, and the consequent narrowing of roadbed or filling of ditches. 
Whether sod should be permitted on the roadbed is a disputed question, with 
general opinion in its favor. The objection made is that it prevents water from 
draining off, but water will readily make its way through the sod, especially as 
the edge of the bank is usually low. The advantage of the sod is in protecting 
the edge of the bank and preventing erosion. A width of 8 to 12 ins. should be 
left between the sod and ballast, for convenience in dressing up the ballast, and 
this strip may be covered with cinders, gravel or screenings. The sod should 
be used in cuts as well as on banks. The use of sod is practiced on such roads 
as the New York Central Ry., the Illinois Central Ry., the Delaware, Lacka- 
wanna & Western Ry., and the Pennsylvania Lines. 

The roadbed is very generally crowned transversely in order to drain water 
to the sides, but this crowning does not last long, even on a well-compacted 
roadway. Ballast is driven down into the material, and the original surface 
soon destroyed. This is now recognized, and the practice of making the road- 
bed flat is increasing. The crowning in first construction may serve to prevent 
the surface from becoming concave owing to settlement. Where the roadbed is 
crowned, it may be formed in different ways: (1) With one or more planes 
from each side to the center; (2) with a curved surface; (3) with planes from 



14 TRACK. 

each side to a fiat center portion. A slope will drain better than a flat curve. 
The rise varies from 3 to 6 ins. for single track, and from 4 to 8 ins. for double 
track, the smaller heights being the more general. The roadbed may be inclined 
on curves to conform to the superelevation, but this practice is rare. The more 
solid and compact the roadbed is made, the better will be the drainage and the 
more substantial will be the track. The use of horse or steam rollers in con- 
solidating the surface would in many cases have a material influence in reducing 
maintenance expenses, especially for such work as surfacing and reballasting. 
This is rarely done, however, and the importance of this matter appears not to 
be recognized. On an ordinary roadbed the ballast soon begins to work into 
the surface, and in clay cuts the clay will work up in ridges between the ties. 
The softer the ground, the greater will be the trouble and there will soon be low 
spots and an uneven surface. At wet spots, the material should be dug out and 
replaced with broken stone, slag, sand, cinders or clean gravel. A bed of coarse 
material as sub-ballast will also be of advantage in many cases. The cause 
of the trouble should be investigated, and drainage provided if necessary. 
The aim should be to form a solid and permanent bed for the track and its 
ballast. 

The drainage of the track is one of the most important items in economical 
maintenance, its importance increasing with the amount of rainfall. This is 
effected by the ballast and (to an uncertain extent) by the crowning of the 
roadbed, together with side ditches in cuts to carry away the water from the 
ballast, roadbed and slopes. There are two general types of ditches: 1, with 
a trench at the foot of the slope, extending below the roadbed surface; 2, with 
the roadbed extended on an unbroken incline to the foot of the side slope. Cli- 
matic conditions will largely govern the form of cross-section of roadbed and 
ditches. In dry regions with light soil, trenching is not required, and the second 
method is suitable. With ordinary rainfall, it is better to have a trench or 
ditch reaching well below the subgrade, so as to effectually drain the roadbed. 
Where the rainfall is only moderate, the ditches should still be of ample capacity 
to carry off the water in occasional heavy rains. The ditches should be kept 
parallel with the track, and not made to wind around obstructing stumps or 
boulders. They must be graded to carry water freely and to thoroughly drain 
the roadbed, so as to keep both roadbed and ballast dry and firm. The width 
should increase towards the ends, and if the standard width does not give suffi- 
cient capacity, the ditch should be widened on the outer side. The distance 
from the rail to the ditch varies according to the nature of the soil and the 
standard cross-section of roadbed. It is usually about 5h to 7 ft. The bottom 
of the ditch is 12 to 24 ins. wide, and 6 to 18 ins. below the center of the roadbed. 

The cultivation of sod through ditches has been tried with success on the 
Illinois Central Ry.; it is said to increase the economy of maintaining the slopes, 
as there is no line of bare excavation to be eroded. It does not interfere with 
drainage if the grass is kept short, and this is easily done. The plan has been 
tried in cuts where ditches had to be cleaned every year; after the ditches had 
been shaped and sodded no further treatment was necessary. The use of grass 
in ditches is not favored as a rule, and where the side of the roadbed forms the 
ditch it is sometimes sprinkled with oil to keep down weeds. In wet cuts the 
ditches may be paved with stone or concrete; in narrow wet cuts (especially 
where the earth slides or bulges) they may be lined with plank or old ties, with 
struts across the top. Subdrains of tile, brush, etc., may also be laid (see the 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 15 

chapter on "Drainage and Ditching"). The ditches may be carried under road 
crossings by cast-iron pipe, clay pipe or wooden box drains. The iron pipe is 
preferable. Wood soon rots and lets dirt fall in to clog the drain, and clay pipe 
is liable to be broken, as there is generally very little cover over it. The size 
of the pipe varies according to the amount of water to be carried, but is generally 
6 to 10 ins. The box drains are about 8 X 10 ins., having plank sides and bottom, 
and a top of cross strips nailed close together. 

Where it is necessary to carry water from one side of the track to the ditch on 
the other side, or from a center ditch to the side ditches (as on double track), 
cast-iron pipes or wooden box drains are laid in the ballast, between the ties. 
The box drains have the ends cut to conform to the slope of the ballast. They 
are open troughs with four or six flat strips across the top. On the New York 
Central Ry., with two or more tracks in gravel ballast, these box drains are 6X6 
ins., made of 2-in. plank creosoted or treated with three coats of woodilihe or 
fernoline. They are 400 to 500 ft. apart and are placed deep enough to permit 
tamping. They have an inclination of 1 in. per ft. or more. Stone paving may 
be laid from the end of the drain to the edge of the bank or ditch. The Penn- 
sylvania Ry. has adopted 6-in. cast-iron pipe for these cross drains. 

New York Central Ry. (Fig. 3). — The width of single-track roadbed is 16 ft. 
for banks (18 ft. for banks over 10 ft. high), and 24 ft. over ditches in cuts; 

hC- 15*0- ->j< l5'o" >|<— 5&-->| 

H/4i---5'f;>j^j< ]<-*Vf-H hzftzfetfl 




S+one Ballast. Gravel Ballast. 

Fig. 3. — New York Central Ry. 

the ditches are 12 ins. wide on the bottom and 12 ins. deep. There is a crown 
of 2 ins. in the width. Double track: 30 ft. wide (41 ft. over ditches in cuts), 
crowned 4 ins. Four track: 54 ft. wide (65 ft. in cuts), crowned 6 ins. The 
tracks are 12 ft. c. to c, and on four- track sections the two middle tracks are 
2 ins. above the others. The distance between main and side tracks is 13 ft. 
c. to c. Stone ballast is level, 1 in. below top of ties; at the outer side it is 
rounded off from end of tie to a line 4 ft. from gage side of rail. Midway between 
tracks it is 4 ins. below top of ties. Gravel ballast is sloped from tc£ of tie at 
center to 1 in. below at the rail and 3 ins. below at the ends. At the outer side 
it is rounded off to a toe line 5 ft. from the rail and 4 ins. above the roadbed. 
Between fhe tracks, it is 7 ins. below top of ties. An 18-in. strip of sod is laid 
along the edge of the roadbed, extending to the ditch or over the side of the 
bank. This extends to the toe of the gravel ballast, but with stone there is a 
12-in. bed of cinders 4 ins. thick between the sod and the ballast. The ditch 
has sloping sides with the bottom 12 ins. wide and 18 ins. below the edge of 
roadbed. The height from edge of roadbed to top of tie is 18 ins., except 14 ins. 
in rock cuts and in new construction. In rock cuts, the double-track roadbed 
is 27 ft. wide (32 ft. over ditches 6 ins. deep), with a 4-in. crown. The 6-in. 



16 



TRACK. 



bottom bed of large stone (like telford paving) formerly used, is now used only 
at track tanks. On new construction a 3-in. course of flat stone is laid, and the 
roadbed extends to the toe of the slope, the depth being 22 ins. below top of 
tie. The cross drains have already been mentioned, and in wet cuts there are 
longitudinal drains between the tracks. 

Pennsylvania Ry. — In 1905, a committee of maintenance-of-way engineers 
was appointed to revise the standard plans for roadbed, and Fig. 4 shows the 
adopted plan. A special feature is the protection of the slopes of cuts, which 
are sodded or grown with vines to prevent erosion; they also give a better ap- 
pearance than the ordinary bare rough earth slope, washed and gullied by rains. 
This will greatly reduce the work of keeping the ditches clear. Berm ditches 
are cut at the tops of the slopes on the high sides of cuts. The surface of the 
track ditch is sprinkled with crude oil to keep down dust and weeds. Ordinarily 
the sodded slope extends to the toe of the ditch, but in some cases a dry-stone 
retaining wall is built, as shown by dotted lines. The roadbed has a transverse 
slope of I in. in 12 ins. (1 in 48) from the center, and in cuts the ditch is formed 
by a steeper slope extending to the toe of the cut, where the depth is 3 ft. below 



r 



■e'e"- 



k- 



K- 



— ->k- >? ^->j<- g' e 

4'8i''~~—-V< 4'8"- ->k~ 

—6'6"- 1 *i | 



-4'I0"~ 



->1 



1 IT 



I 6' 'Drain for Wet Cuts-^ ,.„ --^ *r**-*-«Wfc/ 

k~ U6& " V7,7- >l 

K— - ja4-^"to Edge of Bank 




Fig. 4. — Pennsylvania Ry. 



base of rail. The bottom of the ditch is h\ ft. from edge of roadbed, or 10 \ ft. 
from the rail. This provides good surface drainage in ordinary weather, and 
sufficient waterway for rain storms. Where necessary, as in wet cuts, French 
drains or 6-in. cast-iron pipes are laid between the ties, discharging into the 
ditch, as shown. The top of drain is level with top of roadbed. An apron of 
broken stone is laid at the mouth of the drain to prevent washing of the surface 
of the ditch. In soft places, a bed of cinders is used under the ballast until the 
roadbed has settled. 

The tracks are spaced 13 ft. c. to c. The ballast cross-section is the same for 
both stone and gravel. The minimum thickness is 6 ins. below bottom of tie 
at the middle of the roadbed (8 ins. for single track), and the surface is level 
with the tops of the ties for the full width. At the sides it is sloped off directly 
from the ends of the ties. Under the outer ends of the 7-in. ties, the ballast is 
12 ins. thick. The widths of roadbed, etc., are tabulated below. Where an 
industrial spur or siding is laid, it is 16 ft. c. to c. from the nearest main track, 
and the extra width of roadbed is sloped 1 in 36. Gravel or cinder ballast is 
used for such tracks, 12 ins. deep below top of tie, and sloped from the ends to the 
roadbed. Where necessary, 6-in. cast-iron cross drains are laid, as already de- 
scribed, to carry water from the main track to the ditch. 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



17 



, — Width of roadbed.-^ 
Cuts (ex. of Banks- 



-Ballast .- 



Single-track . 
Double-track 
Four-track . . 



ditches). 
ft. ins. 
19 8i* 
36 8+ 
64 8+ 



ft. 
19 
32 
60 



ins. 
8* 
8* 
8i 



Width over 
toe. 
ft. ins. 
13 8* 
27 0* 
53 8+ 



* Width 23 ft. 8i ins. for heavy traffic. 



Quantity 

per mile. 

cu. yds. 

2,629 

5,127 

11,632 



New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. (Fig. 5). — The roadbed is practically- 
flat, being crowned only 3 ins. in a 57-ft. width for four tracks, so that it will 
not become concave by settlement. With stone ballast this slope extends to 
the edge of the cut or bank, but with gravel ballast there is a 6 to 1 slope from 
toe of ballast. The total width is 18 ft. for single track, 31 ft. for double track 
and 57 ft. for four track; this is the same for both cuts and banks. The tracks 
are 13 ft. c. to c. (formerly 12 ft., as in Fig. 5). Stone ballast is level with the 
tops of the ties, shouldered out 12 ins. beyond their ends, and then sloped 1 on 
1 to the roadbed. It is 17 ins. thick at the middle (four-track) and 20 ins. at 



K--Z£'-->k; 




_..>!< £{;» ->(<- ~fiV— 

. K-iTZi'--** 

_ ^x, : i,__,^xi r 

?>■>>;•■ ':'•. •••■,< ■;■; i:. •.■;;■; •■■«:: »■■■ >-i::'^r ■- V. • /■ Vi 



••->t< 5%' Z -y ^ib' *<■-& M 

-4'8i'- -x~/#r7^! ! 




15'0'- 

Gravel Ballast. Stone Ballast. 

Fig. 5. — New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. 

the ends. Gravel ballast is level with the tops of the ties for 18 ins. at the 
middle of each track, and then sloped to 2 ins. below top of tie at the ends. It 
is 11 ins. thick at middle of four-track roadbed (12 ins. for double track), and 
16 ins. at the ends.. Box drains are placed at intervals to carry water from the 
central depressed drain or ditch in the ballast to the side ditches. With 8-ft. 
ties the ballast toe is 2 ft. 6 ins. from end of tie with gravel, and 2 ft. 8 ins. with 
stone. 

Balcimore & Ohio Ry. (Fig. 6). — The standard designs are made for three 
classes of track, according to the classification of the American Railway En- 



Sod 



1 ' I 



H --,- /eV---- »->, 

H 6'6'-'----->^24£U---5'7l"--^l?'k--4'0"->\ 

j i i_ 




\ Section Stone Ballast on Bank. 1 Section Gravel Ballast in Cut 



-tfO- y^....-....../0'o"- ->| 

Stone Bal/ast f-5'i-o 5^'->\ I 

=; Section of Double Track on Curves. 



Stone 
Bal/prst 



I 

k -,o'o----^ 

i 



Single Track on Bank. 



Fig. 6. — Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 

gineering Association, already noted. The roadbed is flat, and the side ditches 
have a uniform bottom width of 12 ins. The dimensions for both stone (and 



18 TRACK. 

hard slag) and gravel ballast are tabulated below, but the figures for Class C are 
below what is generally considered as the proper minimum. 

Class A Class A Class B Class C 

(double). (single). (single). (single), 

ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. 

Width of roadbed: banks 33 20 18 16 

Width of roadbed: cuts 31 18 16 14 

Width over ditches: cuts 39 26 24 22 

Ballast, depth under ties 1 1 .. 9 .. 6 

Width over ballast: gravel 29 16 14 12 8i 

Width over ballast: stone 27 9 14 9 14 4 14 

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. — The double-track roadbed (Fig. 7) 
is 32 ft. 0J in. wide, with a crown of 5 ins. at the center, and the ballast width 
is 26 ft. 1 J ins. Stone ballast is 8 ins. deep under the ties at center of roadbed, 
and its surface is flat, but 2 ins. below the tops of the ties. Between the tracks 
it is slightly depressed, and the ends are rounded off sharply, leaving a 3-ft. 
berm. The ditch has its inner edge 12 ins. beyond and 18 ins. below edge of 
roadbed; it is 12 ins. wide on the bottom and the outer side has a slope of 1 on 

K--4b--->| . 
fl2#l8->t<"3b'-s*2'j%)\ i I**' ,5 '°''„"Y"r ~""H %^ &'3%K-3'o'->fZ4"->\ 

'„ ! ! ! *% 1— ... T- L !---^ s -^£ ^-'3l_?_ I -T-Td v - -'-*-*•- - 1 - x ! 6ravel or 

*~J.Z~\~~7X7, &X - ~ ' ^W^^ ^V / V /z w /w w/aw^ L "«vj i ■ Stone 



* f *mh^\ x- --IZ'0%— -H< - /30l--yf m - * j 



*" M\ " *!* -~K> 0/ 4 ' * 8'Ti/e Drain 

Stone Ballast. Gravel Ballast. 

Fig. 7. — Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. 

1£. Gravel ballast is level with top of tie at middle of track and sloped to 3£ 
ins. below at the ends. A V-shaped ditch is employed, with an 8-in. tile drain 
whose top is 26 ins. below top of tie, and its center line is 2 ft. from edge of 
roadbed. Gravel or broken stone is filled in over this, with a concave surface. 
On single track, the roadbed is 19 ft. 1J ins. wide, with a crown of 3 ins., and 
the width over ballast is 13 ft. 1J ins. Stone ballast is shaped as already de- 
scribed, but gravel is sloped to only 1| ins. below the top of tie; it is lOf ins. 
deep under the center of the tie. 

Virginia Ry. — This important road, built in 1906-1907, adopted a width of 
18 ft. on banks and 16 ft. in earth cuts (22 ft. over ditches), with a crown of 2 
ins. in both cases. In rock cuts the width is 15 ft. (20 ft. over ditches). The 
stone ballast brings the top of the ties 13 ins. above grade; it is 7 ins. deep under 
the rails, and sloped to 2 ins. below top of tie at ends. The width over ballast 
is 12 ft. 8£ ins. The ditches in earth cuts are 12 ins. deep, with 1 on 1 side 
slopes; in rock cuts they are 6 ins. deep. 

Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. (Fig. 8). — The roadbed is flat. The width for 
both cuts and banks (under the classification already mentioned) is 20 ft., 18 
ft. and 16 ft. for single track; and 33 ft., 31 ft. and 29 ft. for double track. The 
tracks are 13 ft. c. to c. In cuts, there is a slope of 1 on 1| from edge of roadbed 
to the flat bottom of the ditch. Ballast of stone, slag, gravel, disintegrated 
granite and cinders is sloped from middle of tie to 1 in. under the rail and 1£ ins. 
below top of tie at ends (8-ft. ties). It is then rounded off to a curve of 2\ ft. 
radius and sloped 1 on 2 to the roadbed. On double track, it is depressed 2\ 
ins. below top of ties at the middle. With chats and sand, the ballast is sloped 
to 1 in. below top of tie at ends, and then rounded off on a curve of 6| ft. radius, 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



19 



extending to the roadbed. With earth, the ballast is 2 ins. above tie at middle, 
rounded off and sloped to bottom of tie at end; then sloped 1 on 10 to edge of 
ditch or cut. Sod is grown on the edges of banks to a width of 12 ins., but with 



y 




w/w//////;////^^^ 



Sod 



XJ Broken Stone, Slag. Gravel, 
Disintegrated Granite, Cinders . 



%* 



£■ 



Chats and Sand . 



Sod 



8'0 n - 



->|f/2->K 3 ,4 or 5- ->j 



SlopeJO^ 



Earth. *"•'•■ W^a 



Fig. 8. — Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. 

earth ballast it extends to within 1 ft. of ends of ties. The depth of ballast under 
the ties varies fromJ3 to 9 ins.; and quantities, etc., are as follows: 



Depth 
ot 


,— Stone and gravel. — 

Width of ballast. Ballast 


per mile.* 


r Chats and 

Width of ballast. 


sand . , 

Ballast per mile.* 


ballast. 


Sin. t. 


Dble. t. Sin. t. 


Dble. t. 


Sin. t. 


Dble. t. 


Sin. t. Dble. t. 


ins. 


ft. ins. 


ft. ins. cu. yds. 


cu. yds. 


ft. ins. 


ft. ins. 


cu. yds. cu. vds. 


9 


13 6 


26 6 2,276 


4,912 


15 2 


28 2 


2,705 5,408 


8 


13 2 


26 2 2,061 


4,486 


15 


28 


2,476 4,967 


6 


12 6 


25 6 1,644 


3,645 


14 6 


27 6 


1,988 4,055 



* Quantities allowing 3,200 ties per mile; ties, 6X8 ins., 8 ft. long. 



Illinois Central Ry. (Fig. 9). — The roadbed is flat under the ties and then has 
a fall of 6 ins. to the edge of bank or ditch. The slopes are sodded, the sod 
extending on the roadbed to toe of ballast, and lining the ditches in cuts, as 
already noted. The ditch is formed by a slope from the roadbed, and is 12 ins. 
below and 4 ft. from edge of roadbed. On double track, the tracks are 14 ft. 
c. to c, and the ballast (of whatever kind) is formed to a center drain 8 ins. 
deep. For first-class track the ballast is uniformly 12 ins. deep under the ties, 
with side slopes of 1 on \\ for stone, gravel and cinders. The particulars for 
second- and third-class track (under the classification already mentioned) are 
tabulated below. With cementing gravel, the ballast is filled 3 ins. over the 
ties for 4 ft., then sloped to the bottom of tie and then to the roadbed at a dis- 
tance of 2 ft. 3 ins., 1 ft. 9 ins. and 1 ft. 3 ins. for the three classes; all with 
ties 8 1 ft. long. Earth ballast is used only on third-class lines; it is sloped the 
same as cementing gravel, meeting the roadbed at the bottom of the end of tie. 



20 



TRACK. 



The quantities of ballast, etc., are as follows: With earth there are 499, 541 
and 551 cu. yds. per mile with the three sizes of ties noted. 



Ballast. 



Ties, 
ins. ins. ft. 



Stone 6 

Stone 7 

Stone 7 

Gravel and cinders 6 

Gravel and cinders 7 

Gravel and cinders 7 

Cemented gravel 6 

Cemented gravel 7 

Cemented gravel 7 

Width of roadbed, bank (gravel ballast). 
Width of roadbed, cut (gravel ballast). 
Width of ballast (gravel ballast). 

Ballast under ties (gravel ballast). 



9 


9 


8 


8 


9 


8* 


9 


9 


8 


8 


9 


8* 


9 


9 



t Ballast: 

Double 
track, 
cu. yds. 
6,891 



cu. 



7,341 
7,496 
7,325 
7,924 
8,061 



ft. 
34 
46 
31 
1 



ins. 

6 
6* 




Class A. 
cu. yds. 
3,488 
3,784 
3,916 
3,825 
4,168 
4,302 
2,747 
2,887 
2,995 
ft. ins 
20 
32 6 
17 6 
1 



yds. per mile. 

—Single track. 

Class B. 

cu. yds. 

2,962 

2,966 

3,081 

3,014 

3,311 

3,428 

2,291 

2,414 

2,506 

ft. ins. 

18 

30 6 

16 

.. 10 



Class C. 
cu. yds. 



2,287 
2,536 
2,635 
1,868 
1,975 
2,050 
ft. ins. 



16 

28 
15 



* With stone ballast, 30 ft. 4 ins. 



rt**&i 




k no -- '*£;;;;*: — ;; l7 ° 



139 




Loose Gravel and Cinder Ballast. 






^Zb^-W-^ 



r*-jfc-'»*<f^ 



-<?*?-— >H -80---* 

K- I4'3 

Earth Ballast. 




Cementing Gravel Ballast. 
Fig. 9. — Illinois Central Ry. 



Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. (Fig. 10). — The width of single-track road- 
bed is 26 ft. in cuts, 18 ft. on banks (20 ft. if higher than 10 ft.). The middle is 
level, with slopes of 1 on 8 to the toe of cut or edge of bank. With 8-ft. ties, the 
ballast is level with the top for 9 ft., and has side slopes of 1 on If. This section 
is for stone, clean gravel, chert and burned clay. With cementing gravel, it is 
level for 3 \ ft., then sloped to 3 ins. below top of tie and continued to a width 
of 10 ft. 4 ins., beyond which is a side slope of 1 on 2. The width over ballast 
is 17 ft. 4 ins. Earth, or material that will not drain, is filled in 3 ins. over the 
ties for 2 ft. and then sloped to bottom of tie at the end. Beyond this is a slope 
of 1 on 8, the width being 18 ft.[on banks and 26 ft. in cuts. Through the deserts, 
the road is built on a 16-ft. bank with slopes of 1 on 1|, and the ties are bedded 
flush with the top of the bank. The quantities of ballast per mile are as follows: 



Depth under ties 12 ins. 

Stone, gravel, chert, burned clay; cu. yds 3,400 

Cementing gravel; cu. yds 3,470 



10 ins. 


8 ins. 


6 ins. 


2,880 


2,410 


1,940 


2,930 


2,380 


1,880 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



21 



Kansas City Southern Ry. (Fig. 11). — The width of roadbed is 18 ft. on 
banks and 17 ft. in cuts (20 ft. over ditches). It is crowned with a slope of 1 
in. per ft., and side slopes of 5 ins. per ft. to toe of cut. The ballast is level with 



n a t if 




>i^K t 6x8x80^ 



'** 




K '-"— /3V-- ---^^'(lO'for over 10' Height)-** 

Broken Stone, Clean' Gravel, Cinders or Burnt Clay Ballast. 

[* /3'o'.-~--- ^■■9'(IO , -foroverJO'Heiqrh+)*\ 




~ *& 



7///////////V///////////////S 




j Bank 



<y\ - 



Cementinq Gravel Ballast. 



K- 



^ 



~.-..i3'o'' ->k-— - — - *'o* 



±Cut 




^Bcrnk 



Earth Ballast. 
Fig. 10. — Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 

top of ties (8 ft. long), extending 6 ins. beyond their ends, and then sloped 1 on 
2. This is for washed gravel, chats (from the Joplin zinc mines) and cinders. 
The depth is 10 ins. under middle of tie and 12 ins. under the ends. 



l< 9'o'on Banks 

! K 

i K- 



->< 

■y60- 






7*772 
Half Section on Bank. Half Section in Cut. 

Fig. 11. — Kansas City Southern Ry. 



.-¥- 



Bridges and Viaducts. 

Masonry structures usually have the floor shaped to form drainage planes and 
ditches or gutters. The drains may be carried along the structure or lead to 
weeper holes or pipes forming outlets at the haunches of the arches, either at the 
spandrel walls or in the intrados of the arch. In the masonry viaduct ap- 
proaches of the Mississippi River bridge at Thebes, 111., the space between the 
spandrel walls is filled with red gravel, compacted by flooding. The surface of 
this slopes from the crowns of the arches to the piers and from the sides to the 
center. In the longitudinal valley is a drain of 6-in. tile, connecting with a 
6-in. vertical drain in the middle of each pier, the latter having a lateral outlet 



22 



TRACK. 



at the ground level. A branch from the vertical pipe has a grating (covered, with 
large stones) flush with the top of the pier, and serves to drain away water that 
passes through the filling. In some recent concrete arch structures, flat slab 
floors are used, requiring no spandrel filling. The floor construction of steel 
bridges and timber trestles is discussed in the chapter on "Bridge Floors." 

Tunnels. 

The roadbed arrangement will depend upon the style of floor, the amount of 
water to be dealt with, and the character of the ballast. In rock tunnels the 
floor is generally flat, sometimes with a trench drain down the middle, covered 
by flat stones to keep out the ballast, or else a pipe drain is laid in the trench, 
and the ballast is filled in around it. With this arrangement the ballast is usually 
filled in level with the ties for the full width of the tunnel; if there is no drain, the 
ballast may be sloped in the usual way to form side and center ditches. If the 
tunnel has an invert, there is usually an arched or box drain of brick or dry 
stone masonry, built upon the invert and covered by the ballast, although some- 
times a pipe drain is laid in the ballast. The brick and stone drains in the 
Howard St. tunnel of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. at Baltimore are shown in Fig. 12. 




Stone Drain, Brick Drain. 

Fig. 12. — Baltimore Belt Line Tunnel; Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 

In the arrangement in the Aspen tunnel of the Union Pacific Ry., Fig. 13, it 
would seem desirable to keep the ballast further away from the ditches. In the 



■I4'0' 



■jzm- '■ ,3'o-- -- .,...£$m 

•— •--■- 20'0 




Fig. 13. — Tunnel; Union Pacific Ry. 

tunnels on the Everett & Monte Cristo branch of the Northern Pacific Ry., Fig. 
14, the concrete floor forms a trough for the ties and ballast. The bottom is 
only 15 ins. below level of rail head, so that there is not much ballast. Outside 
of this trough is a rectangular ditch on each side. In the tunnels of the South 
& Western Ry., 18 ft. wide, the rock floor is flat, with ballast 15 ins. deep below 
top of tie; at each side is a ditch 16 ins. wide and 18 ins. deep. On the Vir- 
ginia Ry. there is a fall of 6 ins. in the 16-ft. rock floor to a rectangular trench 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



23 



18 ins. wide. This is filled with loose stone, in which is embedded a tile drain with 
open joints. The stone is filled in to form a level bed on the tunnel floor for the 
ordinary ballast (8 ins. deep under the ties and 12 ft. 8* ins. wide), leaving a 
strip of floor bare at each side. In the double-track tunnels of the San 
Francisco cut-off of the Southern Pacific Ry. the 30-ft. concrete floor has a 
fall of 3 ins. to the center, where a tile drain is laid in the ballast. The ballast 
is filled in level with the ties from wall to wall. Double-track tunnels on 




m 



Mff%^ ^ii^ ^;v4^ ifffi 







^Section Through ^ Section between 

Timber Rib. 

Fig. 14. — Tunnel; Northern Pacific Ry. 

the Harlem Division of the New York Central Ry. have a slight fall in the 
26-ft. rock floor to a central trench with tile drain. The footings of the con- 
crete walls form the bottom of the ditches (level with rock floor), and these 
are clear of the ballast. Long tunnels have refuges 3 ft. wide, 200 ft. apart on 
each side, staggered in position. 

For rapid-transit underground railways and circular iron-lined tunnels, 
special systems of construction are used. The New York and Boston rapid- 
transit subways use ballast and ties, but in the former the ballast is laid in a 
trench 10 ins. deep and 8 ft. 10 ins. wide, leaving only a 5-in. space for ballast 
under the 5-in. ties: Where an invert floor is used, as at Boston, the depth is 
from 6 to 24 ins. under the ties. The Philadelphia subway, Fig. 15, has a bare 




Fig. 15. — Underground Railway; Philadelphia Rapid Transit Co. 

concrete floor that can be flushed and washed. The local tracks have the rails 
supported on cast-iron chairs embedded in the concrete. The express tracks 
have the rails laid on wooden blocks G X 10 X 24 ins. ; these rest upon steel longi- 
tudinals embedded in the floor, each consisting of a pair of 12-in. channels, 15 
ins. apart, connected at intervals by horizontal diaphragms of 15-in. channels- 
A plan proposed by Mr. J. AY. Schaub provides for a reinforced concrete floor, 
with the top level with base of rail in the middle. A bench at each side forms a 
seat for a longitudinal timber 12X12 ins., transverse rods or bolts passing 
through the timbers and the middle part of the floor. From the bottom of the 



24 



TRACK. 



timber the concrete is extended to the tunnel wall and forms a drain. The 
middle portion of the floor may be hollow, forming a conduit for pipes, wires and 
cables. The track would consist of tee rails resting on tie-plates and secured by 
screw spikes. 

The Central London Ry. (England) is an electric underground line with a pair 
of single-track circular tunnels. The floor is of concrete so shaped as to form 
benches or supports for two lines of longitudinal oak timbers 5X11 ins., with a 
broad drain between, as shown in Fig. 16. At intervals of 7 5 ft. there are oak 




Fig. 16. — Underground Railway; Central London Ry. 

transoms, 5-|X5 ins., between the longitudinals. The rails are 60 ft. long, of 
bridge section, 7 ins. wide, 3§ ins. high, weighing 100 lbs. per yd. They are 
secured to the longitudinals by fang-bolts 2 ft. 8 ins. apart, alternating on either 
side of the rail base. These bolts have square heads and are screwed down 
through heavy triangular nuts placed under the timbers, the nuts having points 
or fangs which bite into the wood, and so prevent them from turning. The rails 
are laid with square joints, with a ribbed base plate, §X7X20 ins., under the 
joint, the rib fitting the hollow of the rail. The end of each rail is held by four 
fang-bolts, and has also two ^-in. holes for the rail bonds. Some of the later 
tubular underground lines in London have double-head rails in chairs on ties 
supported at the middle on a concrete base about 3 ft. wide, with stone ballast 
under the ends. The Great Northern & City Ry., however, uses 85-lb. tee rails, 
on rolled -steel shoulder tie-plates 10X8 ins., 26 ins. apart. These are laid on 
longitudinal timbers 6X12 ins., on a bench in the concrete floor, with transoms 
10 ft. apart (4 ft. at timber joints). Fang-bolts are used on the inside and 6-in. 
screw spikes on the outside of the rail. Fig. 17 shows the unballasted floor con- 




Port Cross Section. 
Fig. 17.— St. Clair Tunnel; Grand Trunk Ry. 

struction of the circular, iron-lined tunnel of the Grand Trunk Ry. under the 
St. Clair river. The concrete floor is shaped to form a central drain with bear- 
ings for longitudinal timbers supporting the ties, which are 6X8 ins., 6 ins. 
apart. A simpler construction is to lay the rails directly upon the longitudinals, 
as is done in many English tunnels. 

The roadbed in tunnels is practically free from heaving or settlement, having 
a solid floor of rock or concrete. Ballast, therefore, is not required to protect 
or level up the roadbed, but only as a cushion bed for the ties. The depth of 



ROADBED CONSTRUCTION. 



zo 



ballast is sometimes so small as to be of little value in this respect, and very often 
it cannot be increased on account of limited clearance. These conditions, 
coupled with the difficulties of maintenance and renewals in tunnels, and of 
keeping track in surface on a thin bed of ballast, make it desirable to consider 
the use of a more permanent type of track construction. This applies especially 
to rapid-transit tunnels. A concrete floor has been proposed, with rails laid upon 
or embedded in it, or supporting an open floor of ties or longitudinal timbers. 
This matter, as related to both ordinary tunnels and rapid-transit underground 
lines, has been discussed very fully in Engineering News, Aug. 2 and Sept. 20, 
1906 (pages 113, 123, 310 and 314). 



CHAPTER 3.— BALLAST. 



The ballast is a most important item in securing good track, with economy in 
maintenance and operation. Its purposes are (1) to distribute the load over the 
roadbed, (2) to form a support for the ties, (3) to provide efficient drainage under 
and around the ties, and (4) to allow of surfacing and raising track without dis- 
turbing the roadbed. It should not be laid until the roadbed is finally com- 
pleted to grade and should not be used for raising banks to grade. The quantity 
of ballast should be liberal, with a depth of at least 12 ins. under the ties for track 
with heavy traffic, and the depth should be kept as uniform as possible. Where 
an old roadbed has been frequently reballasted, the ballast will be found to 
extend to a considerable depth, gradually becoming poorer from being worked 
into the soil. This makes a good foundation for the ballast proper, but a bed of 
sub-ballast would be cheaper. As the ballast gradually works into the roadbed it 
necessarily settles from beneath the track, so that continual tamping and filling 
are required to maintain the track in surface. The settlement being very uneven 
it is difficult to maintain a uniformly good ballast and support under the ties. 
Under these conditions it is well to provide for thoroughly consolidating the 
roadbed in the first place (as already noted), and then to cover it with a founda- 
tion cause of sub-ballast. This may be a 6 to 8-in. bed of rough quany stones 
laid on edge, as in telford paving; or it may be of broken brick, gravel, coarse 
slag or cinders. This foundation will assist drainage, keep the roadbed from 
becoming soft, and keep the ballast proper from sinking into the roadbed. 

The standard depth of ballast under the ties is generally 8 to 12 ins. for first- 
class track. Anything more than 12 ins. is exceptional, but the Pennsylvania 
Lines use 13 ins. On the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. and the Michigan 
Central Ry., 8 ins. and 6 ins. of stone are laid on 6 ins. of gravel. The minimum 
depth on main track should be 8 ins., and on curves the minimum should be the 
standard depth under the low rail. There are many cases where the depth used 
is not sufficient to properly support the weight and amount of traffic, and it 
would often be economical to use a greater quantity (and better quality) of 
ballast. The relation of weight of traffic to the resistance of ballast and roadbed 
is rarely given consideration, but this has been discussed in Chapter 1. The 
material should be carefully selected, as it may have a decided effect on loco- 
motive and car maintenance, as well as on the traffic. A dusty ballast will 
cause greatly increased wear of the journals and machinery, and on roads with 



26 TRACK. 

extensive passenger traffic it is as important to avoid dust and dirt by the use of 
clean ballast, as it is to avoid smoke and cinders by the use of hard coal or coke 
for fuel. This is one of the principal reasons for sprinkling dusty ballast with 
oil, as noted further on. 

The best ballast is that which will best form a durable support to the ties, 
retain its solidity and position under the disturbing effects of weather and traffic, 
give good drainage, be free from dust, and make an easy riding track. Where 
water is retained under and around the ties, the ballast will soon deteriorate and 
be churned up, and bad track will result. In material that does not drain well 
the ends of the ties should be left entirely free, in order to allow water to escape 
quickly from under them, as in such material the ties will churn the wet ballast 
into mud. In many cases an expensive ballast hauled from a distance will 
be more economical than cheaper and inferior material nearer at hand. This 
applies especially to roads with heavy traffic. 

The materials most generally used are broken stone, gravel, furnace slag, 
burned clay, sand, cinders and earth. Shells, chert, etc., are also used locally. 
Stone ballast will drain readily (while clean), but gravel, burned clay, earth, 
etc., will retain water more or less (according to quality), and are liable to heave 
after frosty weather. The form of cross-section given to the bed of ballast 
varies with the material, the climate, and the ideas of the engineers, but several 
forms have been shown in Figs. 3 to 11. The ties should not be covered with 
ballast as a rule, as it prevents inspection, and leads to rotting by keeping the 
ties damp. In hot dry regions this may be permissible, in order to protect the 
ties from the sun. Earth ballast, however, is usually filled over the ties. 

Broken Stone. — This is in general the,best material for ballast, as it meets all 
the requirements above noted, and can be worked in wet or dry, cold or hot 
weather alike. The best stone is hard and tough, which will not disintegrate by 
climate or crush into dust by tamping or under the traffic, and which breaks into 
cube-shaped or angular pieces instead of thin flat pieces. Granite, trap and 
limestone are most used. The stone should be broken to a uniform size, and 
this has varied from 2 to 3 ins., but the present tendency is to use smaller stone. 
Stone broken to a f-in. size and screened has been used with good results; it is 
less noisy, wears the ties less, can be tamped more easily, and gives a better 
surface with less labor. Very coarse stone leaves too many voids, reducing the 
stability and increasing the difficulty of getting the track in good surface. In 
fact, it has sometimes been found desirable to apply a top dressing of screenings 
upon such ballast, making a close and dense mass which affords excellent support 
and is yet practically free from dirt. The American Railway Engineering As- 
sociation recommends that the minimum size should not pass through a screen 
with f-in. holes, and the maximum should not exceed pieces which will pass 
through 2-in. holes. On several roads a l|-in. or 2-in. size is specified, or sizes 
ranging from | in. to 2 ins.; some go as high as 2 \ ins., but rarely more. The 
Central Ry. of New Jersey, however, specifies 2| ins. for trap rock. Crusher-run 
stone screened to exclude only stones above the maximum size is not generally 
satisfactory. Where possible it is best to get the coarser material at the bottom, 
and the fine screenings at the top for surfacing. In cross-section, the ballast is 
usually level with the tops of the ties, and is either extended or shouldered out 
6 to 12 ins. beyond their ends so as to hold the track in line, or is sloped or rounded 
off from the ends of the ties. It is better, and looks neater, to shoulder it out, 
especially with coarse stone, with which there is more tendency to lateral motion 



BALLAST. 27 

of the ties on curves. A slope of 1 on 1^ is usually sufficient, but 1 on 2 is some- 
times preferred. The slopes are sometimes hand faced for appearance, and the 
toe is very generally lined up, using a board against which a row of stones is laid 
by hand. On double track, the ballast is generally continued level across the 
whole width, with sometimes a row of large stones between the tracks to form a 
drain, these being covered with the regular ballast. In other cases it is sloped 
to form a center drain. Large stones may be laid between the tracks and behind 
the bank sills of trestles, etc., but must never be placed directly under the ties. 

Stone ballast should be handled with forks instead of shovels, so as to avoid 
putting dirt into the track, which will hinder drainage and afford a chance for 
weeds to grow. While stone ballast will drain readily when clean, this is not the 
case when it is clogged with mud working up from the roadbed and cinders and 
dust from above. For this reason even stone ballast should be kept clear of 
the rails where a track circuit is used, so as to avoid any chance of holding water 
against them. To effect this, some roads keep the top of stone ballast 2 ins. 
below the rails for the entire width. Dirty stone ballast may often be made 
almost as good as new by digging it out and screening it. Near large cities this 
will often produce an almost incredible quantity of fine dirt, the accumulation 
of city dust and soot. On the New York Central Ry. Lines at New York, the 
stone ballast is 12 ins. deep under the ties, and is cleaned every year by turning 
it over with forks. From a maintenance point of view it may be noted that stone 
ballast on a poor road may involve greater expense for renewal (perhaps at a 
time when little money is available) than would be required for gravel. While 
the first cost of stone ballast is considerably greater, and the cost of maintenance 
is sometimes more, yet there is less liability of washouts, weeds do not grow, 
there is no dust, and the track holds its line and surface better. 

Gravel. — This material is more used than any other, and is of very varying 
quality. It may b£ coarse and clean, or sandy and dusty, or loamy and cement- 
ing (when weeds will grow, drainage will be affected and the track will heave); 
or it may be full of large stones, in which case it will make an irregular and 
rough riding track. Cementing gravel (containing clay) should be avoided as 
far as possible. The best gravel is clean and coarse, with stones of small and 
fairly uniform size, and as little sand as possible. Only very clean gravel will 
drain as well as stone. It is good economy to use plenty of gravel, giving at 
least 10 ins. (or better 12 ins.) under the ties, as this will enable a fairly good 
track to be maintained nearly all the year through without excessive work. It 
can be tamped by picks or bars, the latter being usually preferred, and is easily 
taken care of. Sandy gravel may cause undue wear of tires, journals, etc., as 
well as discomfort to passengers. As a general thing, the gravel excavated at 
the pit is put directly into the track, although it usually contains a considerable 
portion of undesirable material. A few railways have experimented with 
screened and washed gravel with good results, and the development in better 
construction and maintenance is likely to increase the use of such material. 
In Europe, gravel is very frequently screened and washed by machinery to free 
it from clay, earth and sand, and this practice is coming into use in this coun- 
try. Screened gravel is used to some extent on the Pennsylvania Lines and 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry.; the bank gravel contains 50 to 70% 
of sand, so that it is difficult to maintain the track in surface, the rains causing 
continual settlement by washing out the sand. In the screening plants of the 
latter road, the capacity is such as to handle the product from a 75-ton 3£ yd- 



28 TRACK. 

steam shovel at the pit, so as to furnish as much screened ballast per day as the 
shovel could furnish of unscreened ballast. This avoids a tendency to use 
ordinary gravel on account of insufficient supply of the better material. The 
gravel is dumped from drop-bottom cars into a hopper, from which an inclined 
belt conveyor carries it to a chute, down which it is washed by a jet of water. 
A bar screen removes all stones over 2 ins., these are delivered to a crusher, 
whose product is elevated to the chute. The material passing this screen goes 
through a f-in. screen, then |-in., and finally a double screen of ^ in. and J 
in. close together. The gravel falls upon the inclined face of each screen, and 
that going through rolls down a platform to the next one; that held by the 
screens falls direct to the bin above the loading track. The sand goes to a 
settler and another bin. Stationary screens are used, other plants have revolving 
screens. The cost is about 23 to 30 cts. per yd., while stone costs 50 to 75 
cts. The material is used to give the track a general raise of about 6 ins., 
covering the old dusty ballast. It has given good service, but stone will prob- 
ably be adopted eventually on the main line. (Engineering News, Aug. 1, 1907.) 

Washed gravel, which in the bank contained such a proportion of clay as to 
be unfit for ballast, is being successfully used on the Kansas City Southern Ry. 
(Fig. 11). This was first produced by a portable plant, as also used on the 
Chicago & Alton Ry. (Engineering News, Feb. 18, 1904). Better results have 
been obtained with a stationary plant. The clayey-gravel above mentioned 
is washed in a plant having 18-in. troughs 18 ft. long, in each of which is a shaft 
with spiral blades which churn the material and carry it up the trough, the upper 
end of which is 6 ins. above the lower. The troughs are set in a tank, and above 
and between each pair is a 5-in. pipe with f-in. holes 3 ins. apart through which 
streams of water are delivered into the trough. The clean gravel discharged 
from the upper end is elevated to storage bins. It ranges in size from | in. to 
3 ins. It would be of better quality if the very small .and very large sizes' were 
excluded. In a combined washing and screening plant, a jet washes the material 
down a hopper with stationary screens below. Plants of this kind were described 
in Engineering News, Aug. 1, 1907. 

There are various forms of cross-section used, depending upon the quality of 
the material and the climatic conditions. With good, clean coarse gravel, par- 
ticularly in warm dry regions, it is better to bring the ballast level with the top 
of the ties, and shoulder it out 6 to 12 ins. beyond them. The side slopes may 
be 1 on 2. With inferior, fine or loamy gravel, and where water and frost have 
to be considered (especially in connection with track circuits), it is better to have 
it level with the ties for only about 30 ins. ; sloping then (or from the middle) to 
2 or 3 ins. below the top of tie at the ends. This wilL allow water to drain off 
rapidly, the ballast being about 1 in. below the rails. With cementing gravel or 
chert, the slope should be from the top of tie at the middle to the bottom at the 
ends, and then 1 on 3 to the roadbed. The gravel is sometimes filled in 2 or 3 
ins. over the middle of the ties. In wet country this would keep them damp 
and lead to rotting. In dry country, however, it may protect them from the 
sun, as well as from the engine cinders. The Houston & Texas Central Ry. at 
one time filled in the gravel between the rails almost to the level of the under side 
of the rail heads, completely covering the ties. It is true that this causes a some- 
what more rapid decay of the ties, but the gravel was of such quality that the 
track could not be properly held without covering them either at the middle or 
the ends. The practice has been changed (to conform to that of allied lines), 



BALLAST. 29 

but it is still considered better to fill in as described and to leave the ends free so 
as to provide better drainage. It was also found that track thus filled held it s 
line better than when the ballast was level with the tops of the ties and had a 
6-in. shoulder at the end. On double track, gravel ballast is very generally 
sloped to form a drain or trench between the tracks. 

Slag. — Blast furnace slag is extensively used on roads in the vicinity of furnaces 
and steel works. It is of varying quality, but the best is abo ut as durable as 
broken stone and in ot her way s almost as good. The objection that it caus"es 
corrosion of the rails is not sustained by experience. Coarse, spongy slag is 
apt to pulverize and deteriorate, both in tamping and under the effects of traffic, 
but the most satisfactory results are obtained from the finer glassy and hard 
slag. There is now comparatively little lump slag produced. Some of the slag 
is excavated by steam shovels from slag banks a year or more old. This material 
is loosened by blasting, then crushed, screened and handled like stone. At many 
furnaces the stream of molten slag is struck by a horizontal jet of water, causing 
it to break up into particles like clean fine gravel but very light in weight. Heavier 
and finer material, like coarse sand, is obtained by the use of both a vertical and 
a horizontal jet. The granulated slag weighs only 15 lbs. per cu. ft. when dry, 
and it drains rapidly. The form of cross-section should be similar to that for 
clean gravel. The Norfolk & Western Ry. uses slag, as there are several furnaces 
in Virginia furnishing a hard silicious slag that makes good ballast. As it is 
poured from the slag car it falls over the bank in a thin sheet, and the cooling 
effect of the air causes it to break up in small pieces. Most of the material as 
loaded by steam shovels is ready for use in the track. It is as durable as good 
stone ballast, and is very much cheaper. As this road handles much coal, coke 
and iron ore, any ballast soon gets clogged up, and renewals with stone would be 
expensive. 

Burned Clay. — This has been used in England and other foreign countries for 
many years, and its use is extending in this country, mainly in the West. Brick 
clay is the most suitable, but almost any clay that has not too much sand may 
be used, as well as "gumbo" or clayey earth. The site for burning is cleared of 
top soil, and a row of cordwood, old ties, etc., about 3 ft. high, is laid the length 
of the kiln, 500 to 4,000 ft. This is covered with a few inches of slack coal, or 
slack and lump mixed, upon which is 9 to 12 ins. of clay. The wood is then 
lighted at intervals, the openings being closed when the fire is started. As the 
burning proceeds, another layer of coal is placed and another layer of 6 to 9 ins. 
of clay; these layers are repeated from time to time until the finished heap is 
about 20 ft. wide and 10 ft. high. One ton of* slack coal will burn 3 to 5 cu. yds. 
of clay, and the material swells in burning, so that a cubic yard of clay will make 
nearly two yards of ballast. About 1,000 cu. yds. per day can be burned in a 
kiln 4,000 ft. long, about 50 men being employed. The work is very generally 
done by contract, the company furnishing the land, sidetrack and coal. Partial 
estimates are given on kiln measurements, and the final estimate is made from 
car measurements when loaded out, so that worthless material is not paid for. 
Unless the material is thoroughly burned and by a clean fire it is liable to dis- 
integrate and turn to dust and mud. The absorption of water should not ex- 
ceed 15% by weight. 

The ballast is light (40 to 50 lbs. per cu. yd.), and should be used in liberal 
quantities to give good results and hold the track in line. The ballast crose- 
section is similar to that for stone, the material being well shouldered out and 



30 TRACK. 

at least 12 ins. deep under the ties. It is easily handled, drains well, does not 
heave, is free from weeds, is not dusty, and is in general satisfactory, requiring 
renewal in 6 to 8 years. The cost is from 50 cts. to $1 per cu. yd. Burned 
black-wax soil has been used with success on the Texas Midland Ry. since 
1896, and costs about 90 cts. per cu. yd. in the track. It is very absorbent, for 
with only 6-| ins. under the ties there has been no trouble with a soft roadbed, 
and examination made after 36 hours' rain has shown dry ballast 4 ins. below 
the bottom of the tie. It holds the track well, and during nine years it has 
required only 30 car loads per mile for renewals. 

Cinders. — Engine cinders make a cheap and serviceable ballast which will last 
for some time under light traffic. Being porous, it drains well and does not hold 
moisture, but it is apt to make a dusty track for a time, until the rain and traffic 
have thoroughly compacted it. It is sometimes applied over a bed of stone or 
slag ballast upon which the ties rest. It is easily handled by the shovel, does not 
heave much under the action of frost, and prevents weeds from growing. A 
good layer of cinders will much facilitate maintenance with a wet roadbed and 
earth ballast in the spring or in wet weather, when the earth is too soft to sup- 
port the loads and cannot be tamped. In very bad cases the mud holes or wet 
spots may be dug out and filled with cinders. The cinders should not be laid on 
earth ballast when the frost is coming out of the ground, or this action will be 
checked, and it will be late in the season b3fore it is thoroughly out. In cross- 
section, this ballast is sometimes forme I the same as for broken stone, being 
shouldered out 6 ins., but more generally it is sloped like gravel. It is very 
generally used for sidetracks and yards. On a sidetrack it may either be sloped 
down to form a drain between that and the main track, or it may be filled in 
level with the latter. 

Sand. — This makes a fairly good ballast under light traffic, but unless it is 
very coarse it requires constant attention and considerable maintenance work 
and renewal. The sand flows from under the ties as they move up and down 
under the traffic, is gradually drifted away by the wind, and is washed away by 
the rain. It is generally shaped the same as gravel, but if made level with the 
tops of the ties, and well shouldered out beyond them, it will hold the track 
better, and there will be less flowing from under the ties. Clean sand will drain 
well enough if shaped thus. Owing to its lightness and instability it does not 
keep track well in alinement. It. is liable to heave. It also makes a very dusty 
track, and is thus very hard on journals and machinery, but good results may 
be obtained by oiling the surface. In France and India, sand ballast is often 
covered with a layer of broken stone or broken brick to prevent strong winds 
from blowing it away. Special grasses or bushes may be used as wind breaks 
in sandy districts, as has been done extensively on the Siberian Ry. and to some 
extent on the Old Colony Division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
Ry. (See "Oiling" and "Grasses" in Index.) 

Earth. — Dirt, earth and mud are terms used for ballast composed of the 
natural soil along the line, which is the cheapest material to use but often the 
most troublesome and expensive to maintain. It is of variable quality, from 
sandy to clayey. Unless very sandy it cakes in hot weather, and if then dis- 
turbed by any work it becomes intolerably dusty. If well put up when dry, it 
will go through a wet season fairly well, but of course it cannot be handled when 
wet. It is liable to heave in the winter and to be washed by heavy rains. In 
continued wet seasons, or when the frost is coming out of the ground, it may 



BALLAST. 31 

become so soft as to make it impossible to keep the track in safe condition, the 
ties churning the saturated material into mud. In such a case, good results may 
be obtained by digging out the mud and filling in with cinders (as noted under 
Cinder Ballast), or sometimes sods, brush or coarse grass are packed under the 
ties. To keep the track in anything like good condition, thorough drainage is 
necessary. The ballast is usually filled in 1 to 4 ins. over the ties at the middle, 
and sloped sharply to the bottom at the ends, passing clear under the rail, and 
continuing on the same or a flatter slope to the edge of the ditch or bank. A 
flat slope will carry the water off more quickly than a curved cross-section, and 
if the earth is at all above the bottom of the ties at the ends it is. liable to form 
a pocket which will hold water and turn the ballast into mud. The roadbed 
should be thoroughly consolidated, so as to separate it from the earth ballast 
as far as possible, and thus assist drainage. On some lines in the Argentine 
Republic, which are ballasted with black loam, the surface is carefully formed 
and sloped in planes to drain rapidly to longitudinal and transverse channels, 
while grass is allowed to grow over the surface. 

Miscellaneous. — Oyster shells are used on some lines along the coast; the 
ballast is good for light traffic, but does not hold the track under heavy traffic. 
Chert is a finely disintegrated stone, used mainly in the South, and for branch 
lines. It usually contains clay, and so resembles cementing gravel. Chats 
are the rock tailings from lead and zinc mills; the material resembles coarse 
sand, with ^-in. particles. Disintegrated granite resembles clean gravel, except 
that the stones are angular instead of rounded. It is found in the Rocky Moun- 
tains. When blasted and handled by steam shovels, it breaks up to about the 
size of peas, but the stones are sharp and angular. It is easily handled, becomes 
very compact, makes little dust, and sheds water well. The weight is about 
3,000 lbs. per cu. yd. The cost on the Union Pacific Ry. is 23.32 cts. per cu. yd., 
exclusive of haul; on cars at pit, 9.19 cts.; unloading from dump cars and 
putting under track, 13.37 cts.; tools, engineering and maintenance, 0.76 cts. 

Ballast Cross-section. — There is a tendency to uniformity in shaping the ballast, 
using one form for different kinds of ballast instead of varying it with each material. 
The principal variation is for material that does not drain well. The American 
Railway Engineering Association recommends a practically uniform section 
for all ordinary material: Slope of \ in. per ft. from center to end of tie; then 
a curve of 4 ft. radius, and a slope of 1 on 3 (1 on U for stone) to the roadbed. 
For cementing gravel and chert, however, the curve is from beneath base of rail 
to bottom of tie, leaving the end of the tie entirely free. Several forms of cross- 
section have been described and illustrated in this and preceding chapters. The 
ballast must be shaped according to the standard sections, and these sections 
properly maintained. The toe should be neatly lined, and may be marked 
with pieces or stones of over 2| ins. in size, if the ballast contains enough of 
such material. Large boulders must not be allowed in the ballast, but may 
be raked out and piled for use in washes or at ends of bridges. 

Oiling Ballast. — Dusty ballast is objectionable both in regard to wear of 
the journals and machinery, and to the comfort of passengers. The latter is 
especially the case in summer, when the trains are almost enveloped in a cloud 
of dust or sand. While the use of stone and other dustless ballast is being 
extended, it will be a long while before its use is universal. The dust nuisance 
has been dealt with, however, on many roads by sprinkling the ballast with 
oil. This plan was first used in 1896 on the W r est Jersey & Seashore Ry. It 



32 TRACK. 

not only provides for the comfort of passengers, but also reduces the chances 
of hot boxes, kills or tends to check the growth of weeds, and reduces the 
heaving action of frost. With very fine sand, the dust will still fly, but not 
to such an extent as before oiling. The oil used is a residuum of crude petro- 
leum, having a high fire test, low gravity, and only a faint smell. The first 
application requires about 2,000 gals, per mile of single track, and about 500 
to 600 gals, per mile per year will suffice to keep the ballast dustless after tie 
renewals, etc. It was thought that after a year or two no further sprinkling 
would be required, but this is found not to be the case. The sprinkling is 
done from a flat car fitted with a 2-in. pipe across the rails and a 2-in. swinging 
pipe on each side, these pipes having slots ^X3 ins. on the under side. With 
the side pipes swung out, a width of 14 to 20 ft. of roadbed can be sprinkled. 
The rails are protected by shields. The regulating valves and the swinging 
pipes are all controlled by levers or handles on the car. The sprinkler pipes 
are connected to a 4-in. main coupled to a tank car in the rear, and this train 
is pushed by a locomotive at a speed of 3 to 4 miles an hour. For oiling sandy 
cuts and roadbed see chapter on "Drainage and Ditching." 



CHAPTER 4.— TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 

The importance of the question of the source of supply for ties is shown by 
the fact that with an average of 2,700 ties per mile, the 300,000 miles of track in 
the United States represent 810,000,000 ties. The annual consumption is about 
75,000,000 ties for renewals and 15,000,000 ties for new construction. If elec- 
tric railways are included the total may well be over 100,000,000 ties, represent- 
ing about 500,000,000 cu. ft. of forest grown material. This requires the annual 
culling of the best timber from about 1,250,000 acres (averaging 80 ties per acre), 
and the annual product of some 50,000,000 acres of forest, or about 10% of 
the forest area of the country. Many sources of supply have been practically 
depleted, and where local sources are exhausted the railways must use inferior 
local ties or obtain good ties from distant sources. The problems of the supply, 
durability and cost of ties are therefore being forced upon the attention of the 
railways. The reckless use, waste and destruction of timber in this country, 
and the utter disregard of economic principles, have been reprehensible features 
for years, and still continue. The government has made some advance in the 
protection of the remaining resources, but only the merest beginning has been 
made in the way of reforestation by railways or others. The Pennsylvania Ry. 
has plantations aggregating about 1,0C0 acres planted with black locust, chest- 
nut, tamarack, pin oak, red oak and Scotch pine for ties (ready to cut in 30 to 
40 years); also catalpa and locust for fence posts (15 to 20 years). The red oak 
and pine were selected with a view to their more rapid growth than white oak, 
while if treated and protected by tie-plates they will give about twice the life 
of untreated white-oak ties. These plantations, however, are too limited to 
appreciably increase the sources of supply. 

Wooden ties will continue to be generally used in this country for many years, 
but great economy in their use can be effected, to the benefit of the railways 
and the timber resources. The use of preservative processes to prevent decay, 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 33 

and of metal tie-plates to prevent wear and disintegration (and consequent 
rotting) at the rail seats, results in an increased life of ties and a reduced expense 
for renewals. It also gives a better and more permanent track, requiring less 
work for maintenance. The wider adoption of such preservative and pro- 
tective methods is to be strongly advocated, since ties of cheaper and inferior 
timbers may thus be made equal or superior to those of the better species in 
both cost and durability. The use of a better rail fastening than the common 
spike would also tend to increase the life of ties. Further than this, there is a 
possibility of introducing some more permanent system of track construction, 
especially in tunnels and for city street and rapid-transit railways, as already 
noted. There is no economy in using inferior ties simply because they are 
cheap. The cost of placing is the same, they give worse service and require more 
frequent attention, and the maintenance and renewals therefore cost more; 
while the frequent disturbance of track and ballast by renewals makes it almost 
impossible to maintain good track. Greater care in inspection for renewals, so 
as to insure that the ties give their full effective life, will result in better track 
being maintained at reduced cost. An important economy resulting from the 
use of good ties and of methods for increasing their life, is the lessened disturbance 
of the track, thus permitting the ties to come to a solid bearing in the ballast 
and to remain upon it. 

The principal timbers for ties are used in about the following proportions: 
Oak, 50%; pine, 23%; cedar, 9%; chestnut, 5%; tamarack, 4%; cypress, 
3%; hemlock, 2%; redwood, 1%; red fir, 1%; larch and spruce, 1%; various 
woods, 1%. Included as various woods are red gum, black locust, elm, hickory 
and red cedar: also beech, maple and birch, but these last represent less than 
0.1%. Those adopted for use with and without treatment are as follows-. 
Untreated: white oak family, long-leaf pine, cypress (except white), redwood, 
white cedar, chestnut, catalpa, locust (except honey), walnut, black cherry. 
Treated: red oak family, pines (except long-leaf), tamarack, hemlock, spruce, 
red fir, black and sweet gum, beech, birch, rock and red elm, hard maple, and 
hickory. Red oaks, gum, beech and other inferior timbers contain much water, 
and check or split badly by rapid drying before treatment and the drying out 
of water-solution preservatives. They should be closely piled before and after 
treatment to reduce the rapidity of drying, and laid in track with heart side 
down. Checking may be prevented by driving S-shaped pieces of hoop iron 
into the ends, as is done in Europe. The treated ties showing checks are not 
so liable to split by spiking as is often assumed. 

White oak (which is the species most largely used) is the best wood for ties 
not treated, in regard to both wear and durability. It is very hard, and is slow 
to rot, generally failing, by decay rather than wear. Its average life is about 
8 years under heavy traffic, though it sometimes lasts 10 or 12 years. Burr or 
rock oak and chestnut oak are next in value, lasting about 6 to 10 years, and are 
largely used for switch timbers. Pin oak is a medium quality. Black, red and 
yellow oak (which names are often used indiscriminately) are decidedly inferior 
species, lasting only about 4 or 5 years. Water oak lasts only about 4 years. 
Oak ties usually decay first in the part bedded in the ballast. 

Pine is very largely used in its numerous varieties, of which yellow and white 
pine are the best, as, although they (especially the latter) are soft, they are slow 
to decay, and last from 5 to 7 years under heavy traffic or 7 to 9 years under 
light traffic. Long-leaf heart pine in the South will last 7 to 8 or even 12 years; 



34 TRACK. 

loblolly pine not more than 4 or 5 years, even with tie plates. Southern pitch 
pine will last about 5 years in the South and 7 in the North. The checking of 
pitch pine ties is a serious defect, as the checks not only loosen the spikes, but 
allow moisture to penetrate the interior of the tie. Short-leaf yellow pine from 
Georgia, Florida and South Carolina will last 4 to 5 years. This very much 
resembles the Baltic fir extensively used for ties in Europe, but the latter is 
harder, being grown in a colder country. The objections to tapped pine (or 
timber from which the turpentine has been drawn) on the ground of impaired 
strength and inferior quality, have not been sustained by experience. Some 
specifications exclude long-leaf pine grown north of South Carolina. Most of 
such timber having already been cut, it is doubtful if it can be obtained in quan- 
tity, and the chance of substitution is therefore greater, especially as in a lot of 
southern pine few inspectors can distinguish the species. Yellow pine is very 
extensively used, but will decay in about 6 years, though it will resist wear for 
10 years or more. It is often preferred to oak for bridge ties, as it does not 
warp. Spruce pine is used to a small extent, and is said to be more durable 
than Pennsylvania oak, while holding spikes better than chestnut. Of the pine 
used, about 75% is southern yellow pine, 20% western yellow pine (Rocky 
Mountain and Pacific regions), and 5% white and Norway pine. 

Chestnut is equal to oak in point of durability. White chestnut may last 
10 years on tangents and under light traffic, but with heavy traffic it cuts under 
the rails. The ties have a tendency to split, and they usually decay first in the 
part above the ballast. Cedar is very durable. ' Red and white cedar will last 
from 9 to 12 or even 15 years, but with heavy traffic will cut under the 
rails unless protected by tie-plates. Being soft they do not hold the spikes well 
on curves, and they fail by wear rather than by decay. Hemlock is, as a rule, 
neither hard nor durable, and its life is very variable, from 4 to 8 years. It is 
extensively used on account of its cheapness, but is not good for first-class 
track, as it gets soft under the rails and at the spike holes. Spruce is about the 
same, lasting from 5 to 9 years. Tamarack is very commonly used, and will 
last from 5 to 8 years. Both tamarack and hemlock are being more generally 
used since the introduction of tie-plates. Black and red cypress are much used 
in the South, where there is an abundant supply. It is soft, but the heart 
cypress is very durable, lasting 9 to 12 years (or more) if protected by metal 
tie-plates. Sap cypress is inferior. Redwood is extremely durable but soft; it 
cuts badly under the rails unless protected. Its ordinary life on the Southern 
Pacific Ry. is from 5 years upward, depending upon the traffic; it will last 12 
years with tie-plates, and some specimens of black redwood (the best quality) 
last over 20 years if properly protected. It is only used in the Pacific 
states. 

Black and yellow locust (which are quick-growing) are good but scarce. 
They are about as hard as oak, and have a life of about 7 to 10 years. Honey 
locust is about the same, but softer. Black walnut and catalpa are used to a 
limited extent, and last about 8 years. The latter is another quick-growing 
timber, but its value for ties is disputed. All these are available only in small 
quantities. Beech is hard, but very poor unless treated, having a life of only 
4 to 6 years. Elm and cherry are fairly hard, and will last 4 to 8 years, but 
cherry has a tendency to split in spiking. Maple, hickory, ash, birch, butter- 
nut and white beech are used to some extent, but are of little value unless treated. 
They are rarely used except from local supplies on new construction. Soft 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 35 

maple is of little use even if treated. Sycamore is brittle, and white elm too soft 
for ties. Sassafras, mesquite and mulberry are used to a small extent. 

The use of Australian hardwoods has been suggested, but is only practicable 
to a limited extent. One of the best is jarrah (eucalyptus marginata); this is 
often confused with karri (eucalyptus di versicolor), which has less than half its 
life and is subject to dry rot. Jarrah is obtained mainly in western Australia; 
it is preferably hewed, to avoid cross-grained ties. In that colony it lasts 15 or 
20 years, and fails by spike killing and rail wear; its local cost is 45 to 60 cts. 
In South Australia it costs $1.25 delivered, and many local timbers are used 
which are equally good but limited in supply. In Queensland it is not grown 
or used, and the ties are of native timbers (17 to 18 years) and ironbark (20 to 
30 years). In New South Wales the ties are principally of red gum (20 years, 
life); this holds the spikes with very little redriving. In all these woods the 
spike holes are bored. Some so-called jarrah ties tried on the Mexican Southern 
Ry. failed in 5 to 10 years, due to improper species or to the moist climate. 
Jarrah may be distinguished from karri by burning a piece; the former leaves a 
black ash and the latter a white ash. 

Pole ties and slab ties have the faces hewed or sawed (respectively), and the 
sides left round. A half-round tie is the same but wider on the bottom than the 
top. Heart ties must have not more than 1 in. of sap wood on the corners, 
measured diagonally across the end of the tie. For inferior lines and sidetracks, 
second-class ties are used. Culls are inferior ties, not generally accepted under 
specifications. Ties made from trees of such size that only one tie can be made 
from a section are termed pole ties; when two or more ties can be made, they are 
termed split ties. 

The life of ties varies very considerably, and the apparent variation is 
exaggerated by lax systems of inspection for renewal and the lack of system in 
keeping records of the ties. This is discussed further on. The actual life varies 
in different sections of the country and on different railways, owing to the dis- 
similar qualities of timber of the same species grown in different parts, and to 
the influence of the varying conditions of climate, roadbed and traffic. Ties 
in sidetracks should not be included in estimating or averaging the life of ties. 
Ties on curves generally fail by the respiking and by cutting under the rail, so 
that they have to be taken out (as the gage cannot be maintained) perhaps two 
or three years sooner than similar ties on tangents. Ties usually last longer in 
good, well-drained ballast. Where ties are continuously obtained from one dis- 
trict, their life becomes less as the timbers' resources become picked over. Specific 
information as to the life of ties on individual railways is given in the tables of 
standard track construction at the end of this book, and may be generally 
summarized as in Table No. 2, but the figures are necessarily approximations, 
for reasons already stated. 

TABLE NO. 2.— LIFE OF TIES (UNTREATED). 

Oak 6 to 12; ave. 8 Locust (black or honey) 7 to 10 

White oak 9 to 12 Spruce 6 to 8 

Post oak 6 to 10 Red spruce 6 to 9 

Rock or burr oak 8 to 10 Fir (Douglas) 4 to 8 

Chestnut oak 8 to 9 Tamarack 4 to 8 

Red or black oak 4 to 5 Hemlock 5 to 8 

Pine 6 to 8 Catalpa 8 to 12* 

Heart pine 8 to 16 Walnut (black) 8 to 10 

Yellow pine 6 to 8; 9 to 11* Cherry 6 to 8 

Chestnut 5 to 9 Sassafras 5 to 8 

Cedar 5 to 7; 12 to 15* Hackberry 4 

Cypress 5 to 9; 9 to 12* Redwood 5; 12* 

Black cypress 10 to 12 

* With tie-plates. 



36 TRACK. 

The idea that ties of old coarse timber are more liable to decay than those of 
young timber is not of general application. Young wood is the more apt to 
decay, owing to its larger proportion of albuminates, which form the food of the 
fungi. It is sometimes assumed to be more tough and fibrous, and therefore 
better fitted to resist decay, but as the sapwood of such ties becomes rotten in a 
few years, the size is reduced so that they are apt to be renewed without regard 
to the soundness of the heart. Sound, mature and well grown trees yield more 
durable timber than either very young or very old trees. In hard woods, trees 
of rapid growth (indicated by broad annual rings), due to favorable conditions 
of soil and light, yield the most durable timber. Second-growth timber of 
proper age and quality should in general be equal to first growth. In coniferous 
woods, however, trees of slow growth (indicated by narrow rings) yield the 
better timber. The most durable timber for ties, therefore, is furnished by conif- 
erous woods from comparatively poor soils, high altitudes and dense forest; 
and by hard woods from rich, deep, warm soils and open forest. In all cases 
within the same species, the heavier and denser wood is the more durable, and 
the heart wood is, of course, more durable than the sap wood. Winter is usually 
the best time for felling tie timber, especially if it is to be used without being 
seasoned, as it then contains less fermentable sap, and seasons more slowly and 
evenly before the temperature is warm enough to cause rot. The timber may 
rot with or without fermentation, but usually without. Trees cut while in the 
leaf, as in the case of chestnut oak cut in May or June for tanbark, should be left 
for two or three months before being cut to size. In the South, pine is often cut 
during t'ie summer, for which there is no apparent good reason. Timber cut 
when the sap is at rest is more durable than that cut when the sap is moving, 
mainly because fungus growth is less active in the former case. In the West 
there are large tracts of fire-killed timber which, owing to dry climate and high 
elevation, is still quite sound. This is available for ties, as the strength has not 
been impaired while the durability has been often increased. In some cases these 
ties have lasted longer than ties of green timber in the same track. 

The importance of seasoning ties before use is not as generally recognized or 
practiced as it should be, although this practice is almost universally followed in 
Europe and accounts to some extent for the greater durability of the ties. Ties 
which are properly piled and left to season for six months or a year are far more 
durable than those put at once into the track. The ties should be barked and 
piled in rows of 8 to 12, spaced 4 to 6 ins. apart. In moist climates alternate 
rows should be separated by two ties at right angles to them. In very hot and 
dry climates the two end ties of each row may be set on edge, thus giving closer 
spacing. The pile should rest upon poles or blocking, as if laid directly upon the 
ground the fungus growth will soon attack the lower rows. Crib piles have four 
ties in each row. The ties of the top row should be placed close together, and 
inclined so as to shed water. The piles should contain 50 to 100 ties each, and 
be at least 5 ft. apart to allow an inspector to examine and mark the ties. If 
piled near the track, they should be at least 7 ft. from the rail, and, if possible, 
on ground higher than the rails. Ties should not be piled in damp places in 
the woods where cut, but in dry, airy and shady places. It has been said that 
seasoning may be expedited by sinking the ties in running water, but experi- 
ments indicate that this has but little such effect, and not enough to warrant 
the extra trouble. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., ties cut in June 
had lost 33% of their weight in the first 30 days, and only 1.6% more in the 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 37 

next 90 days. Ties cut in December were stacked for six months before the 
loss in weight amounted to 33%, and after the first month there was practically 
no further reduction until warm weather. Large timbers, as for switch ties, 
headblocks, bridge stringers, etc., should be seasoned under cover, as otherwise 
the sun may cause them to season irregularly and to check or warp. Ties 
treated by water solutions should be seasoned after treatment until thoroughly 
dry, before being put in service. 

Hewed ties are very generally assumed to be superior to sawed ties, and this 
has led to a custom of insisting that ties must be cut from trees that will make 
but one tie each, or to insist that the cut shall make but one tie. A 15-in. timber 
16 ft. long will make only two hewed ties, but it will make four sawed ties, with 
lumber as a side product. The economic advantages of sawing are apparent. 
Two reasons are given why sawed ties are apt to decay more rapidly: (1) They 
present increased end surfaces of the grain, as the cut cannot be kept parallel 
with the fibre (especially when the log is not quite straight); (2) The saw does 
not make a sharp smooth cut, but leaves a more or less woolly surface, which 
permits the accumulation of water and affords opportunity for fungus growth. 
The second objection may be overcome by the use of a planer saw, which cuts 
and planes the surface. On the other hand, the axe marks or score marks on 
hewed ties permit the lodgment of water. Tie hewing or dressing machines 
are in use to a small extent. Sawed ties are being more and more used, and if 
treated by preservative processes the above objections are eliminated. Opinions 
and experience vary as to their use, and some roads require them to be 1 in. 
wider than hewed ties. The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. specifies 7 ins. for pole ties, 
8 ins. for split ties, and 9 ins. for sawed ties. In 1905, 77|% of all the ties pur- 
chased were hewed, but of those purchased on the Pacific slope and the Rocky 
Mountain region 80% and 35% respectively were sawed. Ties sawed on four 
sides are used at switches and on bridges. The objections to split ties have 
largely disappeared, except as to the quick and deep season checking, which 
takes place in a split tie having the heart on one side. This side should always 
be laid downward. In Europe, S-shaped pieces of hoop iron are driven into the 
ends of checked ties to prevent the checks from widening. Warped, twisted and 
crooked ties should not be used, as they are liable to rock in the ballast. The 
bark should invariably be stripped off, or it will hold water against the tie. 
When it becomes loose it is very unsightly and interferes with proper tamping; 
it also allows the track to shift, the ties slipping against the smooth surface. 

Ties should be made from sound, thrifty, live or green timber, free from loose 
or rotten knots, worm holes, dry rot, wind shakes, splits or other imperfections 
which affect their strength or durability. They should have no sapwood on 
either face, and not more than 1 in. on the edges or corners. They should be 
hewed or sawed with the faces perfectly true and parallel, should be of the 
specified thickness, the faces out of wind, smooth and free from any inequality of 
surface, deep or bad score marks, or splinters, and should be not more than 3 ins. 
out of straight in any direction. They should be of uniform size, and those of 
the same kind should be kept together as far as possible, to insure approximate 
uniformity in wear. The specifications should be carefully and intelligently 
prepared, and their requirements strictly enforced. Inspectors should reject all 
ties which are not of the required quality or dimensions, and should be sustained 
in this by their superior officers. Accepted ties should be distinctly marked with 
paint by the inspectors. 



38 TRACK. 

There are two principal elements governing the life of a tie: (1) Its resistance 
to decay; (2) Its resistance to the wear resulting from the cutting and abrading 
action of the rail. The direct compression under the rail is too slight to enter 
into consideration. Ties are rendered unserviceable by three principal causes: 
(1) Mechanical disintegration and abrasion under the rails caused by the slight 
motion of the rail on the tie; (2) Injury by spiking and respiking; (3) Natural 
decay, induced by fungus growths. Under ordinary conditions ties have to be 
renewed largely on account of the cutting and abrasion (and consequent local 
decay) at the rails. On the New York Central Ry. it was estimated that 20% 
of the ties taken out were removed on account of this class of injury, from 10 to 
15% being reported as "crushed or broomed," and from 4 to 10% as "cut out" 
by respiking. This injuiy may be reduced by adopting improved rail fastenings 
to hold the rails and ties more firmly together. It may be almost entirely 
eliminated by the use of suitable metal tie-plates, which thus effect a decided 
economy in making ties of the softer and cheaper woods equally as serviceable 
as the harder and more expensive. Ties will wear out more quickly on curves 
on account of the lateral strain on the rails forcing the spikes back, enlarging the 
spike holes and reducing the frictional hold of the spike in the tie. They also 
wear out more quickly on heavy grades where the engines use sand. In both 
these cases metal tie-plates will aid materially to prevent the cutting and main- 
tain the track in good condition. 

The natural decay of the tie as a whole depends largely upon the wood, ballast, 
climate, etc. It usually begins at the ends and is much hastened by season 
checking, though this might be prevented by painting the ends with a cheap 
composition, so as to cause a slower exchange of moisture. Boring the holes for 
the spikes, as noted in the chapter on " Rail Fastenings," would prevent much of 
the checking, and if the size of the hole is proportioned to that of the spike it 
should increase the holding power. Ties should never be moved by sticking 
picks into them, as such practice forms places where decay may start. In some 
cases the ties have the rail seats "spotted" or leveled off by machine. This is 
very generally done in Europe, the rail seat being inclined so as to be parallel 
with the conical face of the wheel tires. The inclination or coning of the wheel 
tread is 1 in 20 both in England and in this country. The same machine may 
bore the spike holes. In facing the rail seats, whether by hand or by machine, 
it is not desirable to cut a depression in the tie. As a rule the machines are 
installed in a shop, but the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe* Ry. has proposed to 
have a portable machine that can be moved from pile to pile in the storage 
yard and can face about 300 ties per hour. 

Specifications for ties, as used by four railways, are given herewith, in 
abstract: 

1. New York Central Ry. — Yellow-pine ties must be of good southern long- 
leaf yellow-pine timber, grown south of North Carolina ; straight and free from 
rotten or loose knots, worm holes, shakes and other injurious imperfections. 
Faces parallel and free from deep score marks, splinters and other inequalities 
of surface. Well hewed on four sides; ends sawed square. No sap allowed, 
except 1 in. at the corners (measured on the face); the majority must show less 
than this. Variation not more than \ in. in thickness and 1 in. in length. Class 
A, 7 ins. thick, not under 9 or over 10 ins. wide, 8 ft. long; Class B, not less than 
8 ins. wide; Class C, 6 ins. thick, 9 to 10 ins. wide; Class D, 6 ins. thick, 8 to 9 
ins. wide. Sawed ties accepted only under special arrangement. — Yellow-cedar 
ties must be hewed or sawed on two sides, with faces true and parallel; sawed 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 39 

square at the ends. Hewed ties are preferred. Only one tie may be made from 
a section of a tree. Dimensions: 6 to 7 ins. thick, 6 to 12 ins. wide; average 
width 8 ins., and not more than 5% with the 6-in. minimum width. 

Local ties must be of white or burr oak and chestnut; timber felled between 
Aug. 1 and April 1. Class A (pole): 7 ins. thick, 7 to 12 ins. wide, hewed on 
two parallel sides; only one tie from a section of a tree. Class B: sawed on two 
sides. Class C: sawed on four sides or split and hewed top and bottom to 
7X9 ins.; two or more ties from one section of a tree. Class D: 6 to 7 ins. 
thick, face not less than 6 ins. at any point (not more than 15% with this mini- 
mum); hewed or sawed on two sides. Switch ties of yellow pine or white or 
burr oak (as above); sawed on four sides, square edged (pine not showing sap 
on any corner more than | width of face); sawed square at both ends to specified 
length. 

2. Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. — Local cross ties and switch tim- 
bers must be made from green or living white or rock oak or second-growth 
chestnut of good quality; straight and free from decayed knots, wind snakes 
or other imperfections, and stripped of the bark. Hewed or sawed to sizes 
given; ends cut square. All ties 8 ft. 6 ins. long. All timber must be felled 
between Aug. 1 and March 1 ; except that rock oak may be felled at other seasons, 
provided it is peeled promptly after being cut. All inferior oak ties (red, black 
and pin) are considered third class. First-class ties are flatted or two -side ties 
with not less than 7-in. nor more than 12-in. faces; uniform thickness, 7 ins. 
Square or four-side ties must have 9-in. faces on two sides and a uniform thick- 
ness of 7 ins. Second-class ties are those not good enough or large enough 
for first-class. Flatted or two-side ties not less than 6 ins. thick with 6-in. faces 
will be accepted. Square or four-side ties must have 8-in. faces on two sides 
and a uniform thickness of 6 ins. 

Yellow-pine ties must be of original growth, untapped, southern long-leaf 
variety, grown south of North Carolina. Hewed on four sides; 7-in. uniform 
thickness; faces not more than 10 or less than 9 ins. wide. Ends cut square. 
On each corner will be allowed 1 in. of sap, measured across the face. White- or 
yellow-cedar ties must be hewed or sawed smooth on two sides; uniform thick- 
ness, 7 ins.; width on face not more than 12 nor less than 7 ins. 

3. Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Ry. — Ties of sound white-oak, post-oak 
or chestnut-oak timber, well and smoothly hewed or sawed to proper dimensions, 
and saw-butted to exact length. Pole ties (made from one cut of the tree) 
must have top and bottom faces parallel, and the bark taken off. Sawed or 
split ties (with more than one tie made from one cut of the tree) must have top 
and bottom faces parallel. Split ties must be neatly counterhewed on all four 
sides, and have square corners. Sawed ties must be made from straight-grained 
timber. All ties 8£ ft. long, 7 ins. thick, and have a face of not less than 8 ins. 
for hewed and 9 ins. for sawed ties. 

4. Cincinnati, New Orleans & Texas Pacific Ry. — Ties must be cut from green 
or living long-leaf, close-grained, yellow pine, or white-, post- or chestnut-oak 
timber, of good quality; free from twists, cracks, decayed knots, worm-eaten 
timber, or any unsound parts, and hewed or sawed square at each end. All tie 
timber should be cut between the months of October and February. The ties 
must be made from a single section of a tree, and must be hewed or slabbed 
straight and true, parallel with the grain of the wood and on two parallel sides 
only, and stripped of bark. Ties with sawed faces may be accepted as first 
class. They must be 8£ ft. long, 7 ins. thick, and have 9 to 12 ins. heart face. 
A variation of only ^ in. in length and \ in. in thickness will be allowed. Split 
ties of above dimensions and specifications may be accepted as first class. Pole 
ties 7 ins. thick and with not less than 7 ins. of heart face, otherwise as above 
described, will be accepted as second class. Ties culled from first and second 
class to be third class, and to be taken at the option of the inspector. 

The size and spacing of ties should be considered in relation to each other, and 
to the roadbed and traffic conditions. Smaller ties may resist decay better than 
large ties; and with tie-plates to prevent cutting, such ties may advisedly be 



40 TRACK. 

used. A large number of ties of medium width is better than a smaller number 
of wider ties in making an easy riding track. The thickness varies from 6 to 8 
ins., but should never be less than 6 ins., or the spike may cause a crack in the 
bottom, besides which the deeper tie has greater stiffness to resist transverse 
bending. In view of present heavy loads and traffic, 7 ins. should be used in 
main tracks. The width is from 6 to 10 (or even 12) ins., but 8 ins. is a very good 
width for supporting the rail and bedding in the ballast. Where there is much 
difference, the wider ones may be used for joint and shoulder ties. Very wide 
ties are awkward to handle and tamp, require too much digging in renewals, and 
are liable to rock in the ballast. The necessity of uniform size has already been 
referred to, to form an easy riding track and to reduce the disturbance of the 
ballast bed in renewals. If the thickness is not uniform, then in renewals the 
tie-beds will have to be dug out or filled in, thus disturbing the stability of the 
track. The length varies from 8 to 10 ft., the latter being used (mainly in 
swampy districts) on some parts of the Southern Pacific Ry., Louisville & Nash- 
ville Ry., etc. The usual lengths are 8 ft. and 8| ft., and for ordinary track it is 
doubtful if an increase beyond the latter is of much real use. Ties 9 ft. long 
should not be less than 7 ins. thick. The length should be uniform, for it is easy 
to cut the ties to the right length, and this will be done if the inspector insists 
upon it. Where it is not uniform, the ends should be lined on one side of the 
track. To facilitate this, a notch should be cut in the handle of a spike maul at 
the proper distance (varying with the width of rail base and length of tie); in 
placing the tie, the end of the handle is placed against the outer edge of the 
rail and the tie pushed in till its end is at the notch. Ties 3 ins. shorter than 
standard should be reserved for sidetracks. 

There is little use in specifying uniform standard sizes for general use, as the 
sizes accepted will in each case be determined largely by the cost and available 
supply, and by conditions of track and traffic rather than by theoretical condi- 
tions. A list of adopted sizes is given in the tables of standard track construc- 
tion at the end of the book. The two most general sizes are 6X8 ins. X 8 ft., and 
7X9 ins. X 8| ft. The 7-in. thickness is much to be preferred for main track, 
on account of the greater stiffness and the less liability of splitting the bottom 
with long spikes. Other sizes are 7X7 ins., 7X8 ins., and 7X9 ins.; with 
lengths of 8, 8J or 9 ft. 

The spacing of ties varies with the size and traffic, and ranges from 2,640 to 
3,200 per mile, or from 14 to 18 per 30-ft. rail, but there should not be less than 
16 per rail in main track. The practice is usually 16 or 18 ties per 30-ft. rail, or 
18 to 20 per 33-ft. rail. On sidings, the number is from 2,400 to 2,800 per mile. 
The number should not be reduced as heavier rails are introduced, for the track 
as a whole has a certain deflection (in addition to the deflection of the rails), so 
that reducing the number of bearing points only serves to increase this deflection. 
This point is often overlooked in European practice. The deflection for a given 
rail and load varies practically as the cube of the tie spacing. Therefore, if we 
take 1 as the deflection between ties 20 ins. c. to c, the deflection for ties spaced 
24, 30 and 36 ins. c. to c. will be 1.73, 3.38 and 5.83 respectively. The Pennsyl- 
vania Ry. uses 16 ties per 33-ft. rail on main track, and 14 for sidings and yards; 
the Illinois Central Ry., 18 for 30-ft, and 20 for 33-ft, rails; the Atchison, To- 
peka & Santa Fe Ry., 18 ties for 33-ft. rails on tangents, 19 and 20 on curves up 
to and over 3° respectively; the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., 18 to 21 per 
33-ft. rail on tangents, and 19 to 20 on curves, depending upon the sizes of the 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 41 

ties. The New York Central Ry. uses 18 and 20 ties to rails 30 and 33 ft. long; 
with the three-tie joints, the joint ties are 14^ ins. c. to c. (5 ins. clear) and the 
intermediate ties 24& and 21^ ins. for 18 and 20 ties respectively. Where this road 
has suspended joints, there are 16 ties per 33-ft. rail, spaced 17 1 ins. at joints and 
25| ins. for intermediate ties. On running sidings and storage sidings there are 
16 and 14 ties, respectively, to a 30-ft. rail. The joint and shoulder ties should 
be somewhat closer together than the intermediates, so as to give increased 
bearing towards the rail ends, where the tendency to deflection is greater. The 
intermediate ties may be 16 to 24 ins. and joint ties 16 to 20 ins. c. to c. (8 to 10 
ins. clear). Some consider that less than 10 ins. clear spacing does not allow of 
proper tamping, but this is not generally accepted, and at three-tie joints the 
clear spacing is 5 ins. on the New York Central Ry. and 10 ins. on the Illinois 
Central Ry. Some roads having light rails with heavy traffic space the ties by 
the width of a shovel, without regard to any fixed number of ties per rail, it being 
considered that on such tracks about 50% of the rail should be supported. The 
Michigan Central Ry. proposes to specify a variable number of ties, so that the 
rail will be supported for a certain percentage of its length. A few roads specify 
a certain length of tie-bearing per rail (130 ins. on the Duluth & Iron Range Ry.), 
or a fixed clear spacing, regardless of width of tie. This is not necessary where 
ties of uniform width are supplied, but is adapted to roads where hewed ties of 
varying width are accepted to prevent waste and to utilize local supplies. The 
numbers of ties per mile of single track with different spacing are as follows, but 
many roads lay one or two extra ties per rail on curves: 

Number of ties per mile 2,640 2,816 2,992 3,168 3,344 

Number of ties per 30-ft. rail 15 16 17 18 19 

Spacing c. to c 24 22.5 21.2 20 19 

Longitudinals. — Longitudinal timbers are used to some extent in Europe, 
mainly on bridges and in tunnels or for rapid-transit underground railways. In 
such cases they have a solid bearing on concrete or steel, and are rarely laid in 
ballast. They were used on the old tubular Victoria Bridge of the Grand Trunk 
Ry. at Montreal and the old Long Bridge of the Pennsylvania Ry. at Washington, 
but the new superstructures have the ordinary type of floor. In the Broad St. 
station of the Pennsylvania Ry., at Philadelphia, the rails rest upon wooden 
blocks 2 ins. thick (19 blocks to a rail, but omitted at the joints), placed on 
longitudinal timbers resting on 11 cross-ties to each rail length; there is a tie 
under each joint, and the stone ballast is filled in level with the tops of the ties. 
In the Louisville & Nashville Ry. station at Louisville, longitudinal timbers 
12X12 ins. were laid on cross-ties, and covered with continuous iron plates upon 
which were placed the 80-lb. rails. The new Pittsburg station of the Wabash 
Ry. has the rails laid on longitudinals 7X14 ins., which rest on ties 8X10 ins., 
23 ft. long. These ties are laid across the top chords of plate girders, and 
are spaced 30 ins. apart. A 3X2-in. angle is laid on each edge of the longi- 
tudinal, and beneath it fits a curved rubber flashing which rests on the ties, 
the floor draining to longitudinal and transverse troughs of ^-in. sheet steel, 
with 4-in. down pipes. 

Steel longitudinals have been extensively used in Germany and Austria, but 
are now largely superseded by steel ties. In Germany there were about 6,000 
miles of main track with these longitudinals in 1889, and 500 miles in 1900. It 
has been found difficult to keep the longitudinals fully and uniformly tamped, 
and this, in connection with the wave movement of rails (especially light rails) 



42 TRACK. 

upon the continuous steel bearing, produced wear of both longitudinal and rail. 
It has been supposed that lighter rails could be successfully employed for the 
continuous supports, but this is not borne out by experience. The Duff trough- 
shaped longitudinals of pressed steel were used on a spur of the Pennsylvania 
Lines at Leetsdale, Pa., in 1904, and the Linden thai built-up steel longitudinals 
(but with intermittent supports for the rails) were tried on the Pennsylvania Ry. 
in 1908. Concrete longitudinals have been proposed, and have been actually 
used in the inclined shaft of a mine. (See Chapter 1.) 

Blocks or Compound Ties. — Many designs have been made for ties composed 
of separate blocks connected by a transverse steel member. Pairs of metal 
bowls with steel tie-bars are largely used in India and South America, and pairs 
of concrete blocks permanently connected by tie-bars have been tried in this 
country. With wooden blocks, the purpose is to use only 50 to 60% of the 
metal for a steel tie and to utilize good pieces of wood which are not long enough 
for ties. Ties of this kind were used in Holland in 1882, the blocks being the 
sound portions of old ties, laid in the ends of a steel channel. The Paris, Lyons 
& Mediterranean Ry. (France) has tried a compound tie having two wooden 
blocks 27.5 ins. wide and 5.3 ins. thick placed in an inverted trough of 0.20 in. 
steel, 7.2 ft. long, 5.5 ins. deep, 5.12 ins. wide on top and 8.66 ins. over the bottom 
ribs (7.87 ins. inside). Four cross bars with hooked ends were clamped across 
the bottom, holding the blocks in place and preventing the sides from spreading. 
A cheaper design has blocks 5.12 ins. thick and 8 ins. wide placed between 4-in. 
channels having the narrow ribs outward and connected by cross clamps. There 
is a through bolt at each block. The blocks project above the channels and 
carry tie-plates. The results were very promising as to strength and efficiency. 
A similar design has been tried on the Chicago & Northwestern Ry.; the 5-in. 
channels are 8 ft. long and placed with the flanges inward; between them are 
wood blocks 24 ins. long, 8 ins. wide, 6 ins. high, projecting £-in. above the 
channels and fitted with tie-plates. Ballast is filled in between the channels. 
The Chicago & Western Indiana Ry. has tried a few ties consisting of two creo- 
soted blocks 6X8X36 ins., grooved on top to receive the web of a steel tee bar 
5Xl| ins. Owing to the Carnegie I-beam steel tie being considered too rigid 
for high-speed main tracks on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry., Mr. 
Buhrer (the designer) has invented a compound tie. An 8§-ft. steel tee, 9 ins. 
wide and 4| ins. high (or a bulb angle 8 X 5? ins.), carries two blocks of white oak 
or treated red oak, 16X7X8 ins., slotted at the bottom to fit over the web of the 
tee bar. Two straps or stirrups pass under the bar and up the sides of the 
blocks, fitting notches in the bar and being bolted through the blocks. One 
advantage claimed for ties of this class is that they cannot become center-bound 
by tamping the ballast too hard at the middle. (See also " Concrete Ties.") 

Tie Renewals. 

The tie renewals are too frequently considered by executive officers as a com- 
paratively unimportant item in the expense account of maintenance o c way. 
They fail to appreciate the expenses involved, which include the cost of all labor 
for removing the old and putting in the new ties. As a consequence of this, tie 
expenses are continually increasing, while much of the general maintenance 
expense for labor can be charged to the deterioration of track due to the softening 
of ties from incipient decay, and to the more frequent renewals of ties. The 
cost of putting a tie in the track is estimated at 20 to 50% of its first cost. On 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 43 

the Erie Ry. the cost of labor has been estimated at 9 to 14^ cts. per tie; on the 
Southern Ry., 10 cts. is considered a fair averaga for labor, including removal, 
replacing and tamping. On the Pennsylvania Lines, 20 cts. in stone and 11 
cts. in gravel; the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., 8 and 10 cts. respectively; 
and the Chicago & Alton Ry., 20 cts. in stone ballast. 

Tie renewals average about 250 to 350 ties per mile per year for main tracks, 
and 200 to 250 for sidetracks, but these figures may be considerably reduced 
by the use of preservative processes and metal tie-plates. The average number 
of tie renewals per year per mile of main track on some leading railways has 
been as follows: Pennsylvania Lines, 179 to 273 (average 228); Chicago & 
Northwestern Ry., 280; Chicago & Alton Ry., 3C0 (200 in sidetracks), without 
tie-plates; Illinois Central Ry., 300; Louisville & Nashville Ry., 360. The 
Southern Ry. reports 330 with first-class oak ties and 500 to 600 with inferior 
oak, according to ballast and drainage; on side lines with first-class oak ties 
the number is less than 300. It will readily be seen that a road which has to 
renew its ties every 5 or 6 years is at a disadvantage as compared with one 
whose ties last 10 years or more. The former must not only figure into its 
expense account almost double the cost for material and track labor, but must 
consider the additional amount of disturbance for renewals. 

The average cost of tie renewals is now considerably in excess of that of rail 
renewals, and shows a tendency to increase, for the following reasons: (1) In- 
crease in price of ties, owing to the increased value of timber as the supply is 
diminished, and to the increased haul as the sources of supply become more 
distant; (2) the use of the best timber for other purposes, so that the poorer 
qualities must be cut for ties; (3) less rigid inspection and the acceptance of 
inferior ties; (4) increased tendency to cutting and decay under the rails, due to 
increased wheel loads and traffic; (5) spike killing, caused by regaging, redriving 
loosened spikes, etc., which also is due to increased wheel loads and traffic. 

Ties have a most irregular life, even when cut at the same time from the same 
locality, and as the annual renewals average from 225 to 350 per mile, there 
is probably hardly a rail length of main track which has not at least one tie 
renewed each year. The cost involved includes the first cost of the new tie, 
the labor cost of renewal, and probably the cost of some new spikes. Some 
of the ties from main track are good for sidings, fence posts, etc. Others, 
unless available for fuel, are valueless, so that there is no credit for "value of 
old material." If any of the old spikes are bent or broken in pulling, they 
are as likely to be thrown away as to be sent to the scrap pile, thus involving 
another incidental expense. It is practically impossible to get the new tie at 
once as well and firmly bedded as the old one, which has probably been cut into 
by the rail so as to reduce its thickness. When the new tie is in place, there- 
fore, it may be either tight (raising the rail slightly above its normal surface) 
or loose (allowing the rail to deflect before the tie gives it proper support). 

If we consider such conditions as occurring once in each rail length of track, 
it will be seen that a certain increase in wear of rails and wheels, and in the 
motion of cars, must result. These effects will continue until the traffic (pound- 
ing from above) and the section men (tamping from below) have restored the 
normal surface of the track, as far as may be in view of the increased wear which 
has been sustained. By the use of metal tie-plates, and treated ties of longer 
and more uniform life, all this expense and work may be required only at long 
intervals, and individual renewals will be much less frequent. Under such con- 



44 TRACK. 

ditions there would be a saving in operating expenses, distributed partly in the 
roadway department and partly in the transportation department. This is one 
of the advantages resulting from the use of steel ties. The renewal of all ties on 
a stretch of track has been tried in some cases, but is generally by "spotting," 
or putting in ties here and there as required. The lack of uniformity in the 
supporting power of individual ties is one of the weak points of the track struc- 
ture, and is one reason for the proposed use of longitudinal I-beams under the 
ends of the ties, as noted in Chapter 1. The whole track would then be raised 
or surfaced as a unit. 

Close attention should be paid to requisitions for ties. If they are granted too 
liberally or without due inspection, there will be a tendency among the foremen 
to take out ties before they have given their proper service. If they are habitu- 
ally cut down below proper requirements, there will be many ties left too long 
in the track. A marked saving in renewals may be effected by systematized 
checks and the preparation of careful estimates of each season's requirements. 
In this respect practice varies very widely, some roads being very careful and 
others careless. The section foreman should determine by actual count, and 
not by a guess estimate, the number of ties on each mile of his section, which he 
considers will need to be renewed. This will be reported to the roadmaster, who 
should personally verify the estimate on a mile here and there in company with 
the foreman, so as to educate him, for while ties are often left in too long, yet 
many foremen condemn ties which are still good. On the Chicago & North- 
western Ry., each foreman marks with an axe the ties which he thinks should be 
removed, after which the roadmasters go over their divisions to check the fore- 
man's judgment, and they generally cut down the estimates very considerably. 
On the Southern Pacific Ry., the roadmasters prepare the requisitions in June, 
after a personal examination of the track. On some roads, the foremen are for- 
bidden to remove ties having more than 4 ins. of good timber left under the rail. 
Broken ties must of course be removed at once. Ties should not be renewed 
without orders, and those taken out should be piled by the track and not 
destroyed or removed until after inspection, so that good ties may not be 
wasted. 

On the Illinois Central Ry. the practice is as follows: The supervisors (in 
charge of about 100 miles) walk the track with their section foremen and make 
a memorandum of the number of ties in each mile that in their judgment needs 
renewal. The reports (showing the number for each mile) then go to the road- 
masters (with 225 to 486 miles), the superintendents, the general superintendent, 
and the engineer of maintenance of way. The roadmasters and superintend- 
ents take the reports and personally walk over individual miles to check the 
judgment of the officers below them. The engineer of maintenance of way 
and the general superintendent also pick out certain miles, walking the track 
and counting the ties, in order to check the judgment of the division officers. 
In preparing the final requisition, these reports are considered, together with 
the normal renewals for a period of ten years, the number of ties removed, 
and the general judgment as to the necessity for i,hese renewals. This system 
has an important influence in educating all the officers who work under it, 
and in affecting an economy in tie renewals. After the old ties have been taken 
out, in the spring, they are piled up and inspected by the officers concerned 
before they are destroyed or used for any purpose. In some cases the selection 
is taken out of the hands of the roadmasters. On the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



45 



this is done by the tie inspectors, who walk over the track and make a mark 
with white paint on the tie and the web of the rail. These inspectors also 
examine the ties after removal. In general, however, the practice is as already 
described, the roadmasters preparing the estimates and submitting them to the 
superintendent, chief engineer, or engineer of maintenance of way, accord- 
ing to the organization. 

Records and Marking. — Very few railways have kept systematic or reliable 
records from which the average life and cost of ties of different kinds under 
different conditions of soil, climate and traffic can be computed. Without such 
records, the calculations and estimates of comparative durability and economy 
of different ties (treated and untreated) are little more than guess work. The 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. has established a tie and timber department, 
having charge of purchase, treating, records, etc. A uniform and carefully 
formulated system of records should be kept by the roadmasters or officers of 
similar position. ' The record should include the cause of tie renewals (decay or 
rail cutting), and should keep ties in sidetracks separate from those in main 
track. As a rule, the only statistics of untreated ties show the number pur- 
chased in a given time or the number removed on a certain length of line, without 
regard to the wood, the ballast, or other influential conditions. And even such 
statistics are not kept in a uniform manner. With the more general use of 
treated ties the importance of keeping a reliable and uniform system of records 
has begun to be recognized, and the American Railway Engineering Association 
has a standard form of record blank for this purpose which is being adopted on 
a number of railways. This record should be kept for each division separately, 
since if it were made to cover the entire railway it would be too vague to be 
of any use. The real difficulty, however, is to get exact and accurate statements 
from the section foremen who actually handle the ties, and if their reports are not 
complete and accurate the statistics are of little value. In renewing treated 
ties, the foreman should report on special blanks the number put in and taken 
out each day, with cause of renewal and date of stamp on removed tie. A 
dating nail should be driven into each new tie as soon as it is placed on the 
track. The information given in tie records above noted should include the 
following: 



Information for Tie Records. 



1. Length of division. 

2. Length of all main track. 

3. Average number of ties per mile. 

4. Average number of ties renewed per mile. 

5. Per cent, of renewals to number in track. 

6. Total number of ties renewed. 

7. Kinds of timber used. 

8. Number of each kind renewed. 

9. Cost of new ties in track. 

10. Place where new ties were obtained. 

11. Date when the old ties were laid. 

12. Main track curved; per cent. 

13. Main track tie-plated; per cent. 

14. Number of tie-plates per rail. 

15. Kind and depth of ballast. 

16. Weight of rail. 



17. Treated ties; per cent of total in track. 

18. Preservative system employed. 

19. Average cost of treated ties at distrib- 

uting point. 

20. Average cost of untreated ties at dis- 
tributing point. 

Average life of treated ties. 
Average life of untreated ties. 

23. Total cost of tie renewals per mile of 

main track. 

24. Gross tonnage of traffic per annum. 

25. Maximum weight of locomotive. 

26. Ties renewed in sidetrack; number. 

27. Ties renewed in sidetrack; per cent. 

28. Number of old main track ties put in 

sidetrack. 



21 
22 



It is desirable to mark both treated and untreated ties to indicate the date 
when they were placed in the track, so that their life can be ascertained. This 
is very rarely done with untreated ties, and except for the uncertain memory of 
a foreman or roadmaster, there is no nreans of ascertaining the life or history of 
ties in the track. One method is to mark each tie as it is put in the track by 



46 TRACK. 

cutting a small V-notch in the edge, the position of the notch indicating the year. 
Another method is to mark the tie by means of a 3A-lb. stamping hammer or a 
die struck with a sledge. The hammer or die has one or two figures about 1^ 
ins. long, £-in. in relief, indicating the year. This is now little used, as in a very 
few years the marks are illegible. The best method is to use a dating nail, and 
this is now the general practice where treated ties are used. It is a |-in. gal- 
vanized nail, 2 J ins. long, with a f-in. circular head having the last two figures 
of the year stamped in it. These are supplied to the foremen, who mark each 
tie when it is placed in the track. They report monthly the number of ties 
removed, the cause of removal, and the date the ties were laid. From these 
reports the records are compiled. 

Old Ties. — Ties which are taken out and are not good even for sidetracks may 
be used for fence posts, for cribbing in wet slopes and on construction work (as 
in track elevation), or for various incidental purposes. They are usually burned 
on the right of way or used for fuel at roundhouses, etc. They' should not be 
destroyed or disposed of until inspected, as already noted. Old ties and bridge 
timbers intended for fuel may be economically cut up by a shearing machine 
having the upper (moving) blade set about 1 in. out of line from the lower (fixed) 
blade, thus allowing old spikes or bolts to pass through without injuring the 
knives. The machine will cut timbers 8X16 ins., and has an attachment with 
knives by which the wood is split lengthwise to the size desired. They may be 
cut to length by a circular saw, and then split by a 500-lb. drop hammer operated 
by a vertical air cylinder 6 X 48 ins. The Chicago & Western Indiana Ry. uses 
a cutting and splitting machine whose knives are operated by two air cylinders. 
Where ties have been burned or cut, the ashes or chips should be raked over for 
old iron, which has an intrinsic value in the scrap heap. They should not be 
burned too near the track, or the heat may injure the varnish on cars. 

Tie Plugs. — These are used to fill old spike holes, whether spikes are to be 
driven in the same place or not. It is usually economical to use machine-made 
plugs. Elm is the most satisfactory wood. 

Preservative Processes. 

An extensive development in the use of treated ties and the establishment of 
tie-treating plants has taken place during the past few years, with a view to 
securing a more permanent track with reduced expenses for ties and maintenance 
of way. The long neglect of this important matter, in the face of long and ex- 
tended experience in foreign countries, has been due largely to the failure to 
properly appreciate the economics of the tie supply question, with a consequent 
disinclination to incur initial outlay to obtain permanent economy. The number 
of tie and timber-preserving plants has increased from about 15 in 1900 to 33 in 
1904 (12 being then operated by railways), and 50 in 1907. In 1905, about 
7,500,000 ties were treated, or nearly 10% of all the ties purchased. There is 
now ample evidence as to the efficiency of the preservative processes and the 
economies resulting from their use in this country. While a first-class tie would 
be somewhat expensive when treated, yet the use of preservative processes en- 
ables cheaper and (if untreated) inferior timbers to be used at about the same 
cost as (or even less cost than) untreated ties of a more expensive timber. Thus, 
mountain-pine ties that last only about 4 to 5 years, and sap-pine ties that last 
only 2 to 3 years, have been proved to last from 10 to 12 years and from 7 to 10 
years, respectively, when treated. The same applies to many other species of 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 47 

timber in greater or less degree. As an example of the results, the Southern 
Pacific Ry. found that by the use of burnetized ties since 1887, the tie renewals 
were reduced from 243 per mile of track (including sidings) in 1891, to 240 in 
1892, 203 in 1893, and 145 in 1894. Most of the progress in the use of treated 
ties has been made on western railways. 

On roads where a fairly good quality of timber is used for treating, the economy 
will be in the maintenance expenses rather than in the cost of the ties. But 
where good ties are expensive and the available ties are poor, there may also be 
a very material saving in the first cost of the ties. To arrive at any definite con- 
clusion in regard to the advisability of using treated ties on any particular rail- 
way, it is necessary to carefully and thoroughly consider the relations of ex- 
penses for ties and tie renewals and track work, and the cost and life of treated 
and untreated ties under the conditions of location and traffic of that road. 

In most of the processes, the principle of the treatment is to extract the sap 
and replace it (under pressure in a closed vessel) by a material which will fill the 
cells of the wood and prevent fermentation and decay. The timber should be 
thoroughly seasoned before treatment, and the ties should be allowed to stand 
for some weeks after treatment, before being put in the track, in order to allow 
the chemicals to become permanently settled in the wood. It is waste of time 
and money to hurriedly treat fresh timber for immediate use, though this is 
sometimes done, owing to contracts for ties not being placed in time. With 
certain kinds of inferior woods, however, decay begins so soon that long seasoning 
may not be practicable. Some close-grained woods (such as Oregon red fir) are 
also best treated green because the pitchy sap coagulates in seasoning and so 
prevents the entrance of the preservative. The ties for seasoning should be 
stacked in the storage yard, and marked with the date on which they were 
received. 

The preservatives mainly used are creosote oil and zinc-chloride. The former 
is the more effective, but the more expensive, although processes are being intro- 
duced which are designed to render it more economical, as described below. Pine 
ties that last only 3 to 5 years when untreated will last from 8 to 12 years when 
impregnated with zinc-chloride. A creosote treatment might give 25 to 50% 
longer life, but (with ordinary methods) at 3 or 4 times the cost. Mechanical 
destruction by spike wear and rail wear might easily prevent the realization of 
the extra life. For either system the ties are treated in a horizontal cylinder or 
retort, 6 to 8 ft. diameter and 120 to 200 ft. long, with a narrow gage track 
inside. Each charge should be composed of ties of the same kind and about the 
same age, to insure a uniform result. Each car or buggy load of ties should be 
weighed as it passes in and again as it passes out of the cylinder, and any load 
showing an insufficient amount of absorption should be treated again. What- 
ever process is used, it is essential that it should be carried out carefully and 
thoroughly, if the best results are to be obtained. For this reason, among others, 
several large railway companies prefer to operate their own plants, which plan is 
likely to give satisfactory and economical results if the work is carried on sys- 
tematically. The details must vary with wood, climatic conditions, ballast, 
etc.; also with different uses, as for ties, piles, poles, bridge timbers, etc. A 
few railways have portable plants which are operated on sidetracks near the 
source of supply, thus reducing the amount of transportation. 

One stage of the treatment has been the steaming of the wood in the cylinder 
to soften the cell walls, and dissolve the contents of the cells; the sap and moisture 



48 TRACK. 

are then caused to flow out by creating a vacuum. The advisability of this is 
now disputed, especially for ties to be treated with oil, as the moisture in the 
tie (due to condensed steam) tends to resist the entrance of the oil. For such 
material, the practice in Europe is to thoroughly air-season (or artificially dry) 
the ties, and to omit the steaming, the first stage being to create the vacuum. 
Another plan is to boil the ties in the creosote oil (charged hot) so as to evaporate 
the sap. In this case the cylinder is filled with oil, and a temperature of 230° to 
240° F. is maintained for from 6 to 12 hours, depending upon the size of the tim- 
ber and the extent to which it has been air-seasoned. After this " oil seasoning," 
the oil is cooled below the vaporizing point of water, and the water and sap are 
drained off from the upper part of the cylinder. Pressure is then applied to 
force the creosote into the wood. When mineral-salt preservatives are used, 
made into solutions with water, the steaming is not objectionable, as the solu- 
tion will readily mix with any moisture in the tie. A light steaming may be 
employed with timber that has not been well seasoned, such as timber that 
would begin to decay before properly seasoned. In any case, care must be 
taken not to carry a high steam pressure, or the wood will suffer injury. The 
safe maximum is 20 lbs., except that in the case of very wet timber it may be 
as high as 30 lbs., but only at the beginning. 

Creosoting. — This process consists in impregnating the timber with creosote 
oil or dead oil of coal tar. It is very extensively used abroad, but its introduction 
in this country has been hindered by the higher cost of creosote oil, and the con- 
sequent expense of the treated ties. It is the best process from a chemical point 
of view, and methods for employing it in more economical quantities or in com- 
bination with a cheaper medium are being tried. The stages of the process in the 
closed cylinder are essentially as follows: (1) Exhausting the air; (2) heating 
the ties by steam to soften the cell walls and dissolve the contents of the cells, 
(3) creating a vacuum to draw the sap out of the wood, and (4) filling the cylinder 
with hot creosote oil and applying pressure to force it into the wood. The 
creosote is heated to make it sufficiently fluid to thoroughly penetrate the wood. 
The first and second stages may be omitted under certain conditions, as noted 
above. If steaming is employed, the cylinder should have an open vent, and 
steam should be blown off before the second vacuum is created. After the oil 
has been drained out of the cylinder, a light vacuum may be created to draw off 
oil near the surface, leaving the wood clean and dry. The ties should be well 
seasoned, as a wet tie will absorb but little oil, while a thoroughly dry tie will 
readily absorb a large quantity which, when solidified, is not affected by moisture 
in the air or ground. The oil should be thoroughly forced in, and, if possible, any 
cutting, framing or boring should be done before the tie is treated. The 
absorption is about 8 to 12 lbs., or 1 to 1| gals, of creosote per cu. ft. of timber. 
In France, it is from 11 to 15 lbs. for oak, 25 to 30 lbs. for pine, and 28 to 50 
lbs. for beech. Creosoting sometimes softens the wood, and renders it more 
easily cut by the rail- This effect is only temporary, and if the ties are stacked 
for about six weeks after treatment, no trouble is likely to be experienced. 

The oil is obtained by the distillation of coal tar. One of its principal pre- 
servative constituents is naphthalene; in this country and France this is 10 to 
25%; in England only 6 to 8%. It melts only at about 175° F., and if liquefied 
during the treatment it penetrates the wood cells and then becomes solidified and 
permanently fixed. Acridine and anthracene are important constituents and 
also remain permanently, protecting the timber from decay and from boring 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 49 

animals. The tar acids, which were formerly supposed to induce coagulation of 
the albumen in the tie, and thereby to be the principal preservatives, are found 
to disappear in a comparatively short time. The character of the oil in any case 
will depend somewhat upon the use to which the wood is to be put. This quality 
depends upon the method of manufacture, and the character of by-products ex- 
tracted. 'Where carbolic acid or naphthalene are recovered, the creosote oil will 
be low in tar acids and naphthalene respectively. In this country, it usually 
contains a large amount of naphthalene, and very small amounts of phenol (car- 
bolic acid) or cresol. There is practically no anthracene, as the temperature 
required to distill this from the tar would result in a hard pitch, while soft pitch 
is desired, being in great demand for roofing purposes. Thus American creosote 
oils are of varying character and of varying efficiency as preservatives. Much of 
the creosote for tie preservation is therefore now obtained from Europe. The 
specifications of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. provide that the oil must 
have a specific gravity of not less than 1.03 at 100° F. as compared with water 
at 60°. It must be thoroughly liquid at 100° and remain so on cooling to 90°. 
Up to 340° nothing must come off by distillation, not more than 5% of its weight 
up to 410°, and not more than 35% up to 455°. Above 670° F. not more than 
4% should remain as solid residuum. If there is more than 2% of water in the 
oil an additional amount of oil must be injected, but oil with more than 6% of 
water must not be used. The weight of the oil is about 8| to 9 lbs. per gallon. 
Wood creosote oil, obtained by the destructive distillation of pine, has been tried 
but is not satisfactory. Its paraffine oils have been claimed to act as preserva- 
tives, but their value is very much questioned. One analysis is as follows: tar, 
10%; tar acids, 36.7%; neutral oils (mostly paraffine oils), 53.3%. 

A description of the methods employed in creosoting ties for the Cleveland, 
Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. is given in Engineering News, Sept. 13, 
1906. The ties are -of the red-oak family, hard maple, beech, hickory, ash and 
rock elm; they cost 35 cts., or 65 cts. when treated with 2\ gallons of oil per tie. 
It is thought that with tie-plates and screw spikes to reduce the mechanical 
injury to the wood, the ties might well last 12 or 16 years. The ties accepted for 
use without treatment cost from 65 to 75 cts., and have an average life of 9 
years. On the Southern Pacific Ry., creosoting is used for timbers only, with 
the exception of ties for special work. The details of the process are identical 
with those of burnetizing (described farther on), except that the steaming 
period is from 4 to 12 hours, varying with the size and seasoned condition of 
the timber. The vacuum after steaming is maintained for 1 to 2 hours, when 
oil at 150° to 170° F. is admitted, the cylinder filling in 10 to 15 mins. The 
pressure is then applied, and maintained for 1 to 6 hours, varying with the size 
and condition of timber, and the amount of absorption required. The time 
consumed is 10 to 20 hours. 

Burnetizing. — This process (or the zinc-chloride process) consists in impreg- 
nating the timber with a solution of metallic zinc in hydrochloric acid. If the 
solution contains free acid (which may exist in minute quantities and be un- 
equally distributed through the solution) it will tend to make the timber brittle. 
To guard against this, slabs of metallic zinc may be kept in the storage tanks and 
the solution occasionally stirred, the zinc taking up the acid. In this country 
several million ties. have been treated with a solution of 5° Baume (3.9%), 
without making them brittle. The process is not considered adapted to stringers 
or bridge timbers. The quantity used must depend upon the character and 



50 TRACK. 

condition of the wood, the ballast, and also the climatic conditions, as the material 
is soluble and may be leached out. It should be at least 0.50 lb. per cu. ft. of 
timber, and more for damp locations. The Southern Pacific Ry. has used 0.30 
to 0.50 lb.; the Union Pacific Ry., 0.40 lb.; and the Great Northern Ry., 1 lb. 
At the Las Vegas plant of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., the solution is 
about 1 lb. of chloride to 4 gals, of water, and the dry chloride injected is about 
0.50 lb. per cu. ft. of timber. The ties treated at this plant cost 25 cts. and 
have an average life of nearly 12 years. The records of 13,700,000 burnetized 
ties on this railway's lines east of Albuquerque, N. M., show an average life of 
10.62 years for those removed for decay. The Illinois Central Ry. has found 
that newly treated ties are of such greatly increased conductivity that for some 
time they cause trouble with the rail circuits of the signal system. Red-oak 
ties treated by this process are sometimes badly checked, which may be reduced 
by piling the ties closely while seasoning before and after treatment, to prevent 
rapid drying out, being held for at least 4 weeks after treatment. To prevent 
checking while in the track, the ties should be laid with the heart side down. 
The checking tendency may also be prevented by driving S-irons (above men- 
tioned) into the ends of the ties before treatment or in treated ties as soon as 
received by the railway. 

On the Southern Pacific Ry., burnetizing is used only for ties and loblolly sap 
pine. The treatment is such as to get an absorption of ^-lb. of pure zinc-chloride 
per cu. ft. of timber. Also to get the maximum amount of absorption of solu- 
tion; that is, the weakest possible solution is used that will give the required 
absorption of zinc-chloride. The present operation requires a 1.15 to 1.20% 
solution. The ties absorb 2.4 to 2.6 gals, or from 20 to 22 lbs. per cu. ft. 
This gives an absorption by volume of about 33%, and by weight 30 to 50%. 
When the cylinder is closed, live steam is admitted, and the pressure rises 
to 20 or 25 lbs. in 30 to 50 min. Temperature, 240° to 250° F. During the 
steaming period, water of condensation is drawn off from the bottom of the 
cylinder. After 3^ to 4 hours, steam is blown off (25 to 40 mins.). Th e 
vacuum pump is started, and a 22-in. to 24-in. vacuum is produced, and main- 
tained for 45 mins. to 1 hour; then a solution of zinc-chloride 1.2% strong and 
at a temperature of 100° to 130° F. is admitted, filling the cylinder in 8 to 10 
mins. Pressure pumps are started, and the pressure carried up to 100 or 120 lbs., 
which is held until the required amount is absorbed. This takes from 45 to 
90 mins., varying with the size and condition of the ties. The solution is then 
drawn off in 10 to 15 mins. The charge is removed and another charge is pulled 
in. Time consumed in treatment, 7 to 8 hours. Burnetized ties removed 
between 1894 and 1902 showed an average life of 9.25 years. 

Wellhouse or Zinc-Tannin Process. — In wet or damp locations the zinc- 
chloride (being soluble) may be leached out by the dampness in the atmosphere 
and the ballast, and several auxiliary or combination processes have been intro- 
duced to seal the wood cells after the impregnation has been completed and thus 
retain the preservative medium. The best known of these is the Wellhouse or 
zinc-tannin process, which has been extensively applied in this country. The 
operations at the portable plant of the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. (treating 
water, red and yellow oak) are as follows: The cylinder being closed, the air is 
exhausted by a pump, and live steam at 20 lbs. pressure is admitted for 3 hours, 
the interior temperature not being allowed to exceed 200° F. A vacuum is again 
maintained for 1 hour, to cause the sap to flow, the liquid being then drawn off. 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 51 

The cylinder is then filled with a zinc-chloride solution of 3% to 4% strength, 
which is retained under 100 lbs. pressure for 2 hours or more. The cylinder is 
then emptied and filled with the gelatin solution; again emptied and filled with 
the tannin solution, both under 100 lbs. pressure for 1 hour.. The absorption 
averages 31 lbs. per tie. By applying the three solutions separately, a much 
greater penetration and absorption are obtained, as the zinc solution (which 
is the preservative) is very fluid, while the other solutions (which are to close 
the cells) are thick and ropy, and penetrate but a short distance. Under the 
other method, glue is added to the zinc solution (2 lbs. per gallon), and the 
tannin solution is applied separately. The tannin and gelatin (or glue) com- 
bine to form a waterproof leathery substance which permanently closes the 
outer cells of the wood, excluding the damp and retaining the zinc. Of 1,250,000 
ties laid by the above road from 1899 to 1905, only 6,087 were removed in the 7 
years; many removals were due to changes in tracks, and only about 1,500 due 
to failure. Ties treated by this process are extensively used on the Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific Ry., which employed the two-injection system up to 
1895, and then the three-injection system. The average life of the treated ties 
east and west of the Missouri River has been respectively 10.66 and 11.66 years. 
On the Pennsylvania Lines, the average life of burneti ed hemlock ties has been 
9.65 years for those removed, but is estimated at 10.68 years for those in the 
track. 

Zinc-Creosote and Zinc-Gypsum Processes. — In the zinc-creosote process, as 
first employed in this country, the timber was impregnated with a 2% solution 
of chloride of zinc (12 lbs. of solution per cu. ft. of timber), and then with creosote 
(about 3 lbs. of oil per cu. ft.) in order to seal the outer cells. As used in Ger- 
many, a special quality of creosote oil is added to the zinc solution in the propor- 
tion of 4.4 lbs. of oil per tie, or 1.25 lbs. per cu. ft. of timber. This last method 
has also been used here, the creosote and chloride solution being mixed as an 
emulsion. The penetration (even in red oak) is said to be as good with the 
zinc-chloride solution alone, and as effective as the two-process zinc-tanmn 
treatment. A zinc-gypsum process has been tried on a small scale. 

Rueping Process. — This is designed to reduce the cost of treatment with expen- 
sive preservatives, by extracting that part which fills the wood cells, leaving 
the cell walls impregnated. It may be applied with either mineral-salt or oil 
preservatives, but is mainly used with the latter on account of the high cost of 
creosote oil. The timber in the treating cylinder is first subjected to an air 
pressure of from 60 to 70 lbs., compressing the air within the wood. The oil is 
then forced in under a higher pressure (75 to 85 lbs.), the air being given a vent 
without reducing the 65-lb. pressure. When the cylinder is full, the vent is 
closed and a pressure of 105 to 125 lbs. applied. When this is reduced (after 
the necessary time) the air compressed and confined in the wood cells expands, 
forcing out the oil from the cells while leaving the cell walls impregnated with 
the oil. The efficiency of a limited dose, however, remains to be proved, and 
the advisability of very high pressures is disputed. Compact or dense woods do 
not appear to respond well to this treatment. As a rule it is considered better 
to induce the entrance of oil by first creating a vacuum in the wood than to force 
it in under heavy pressure. As to the economy, it is said that 33% of the oil 
first put in will be driven out again, the wood being preserved with 4 to 5 lbs. 
of oil per cu. ft., as against 10 or 15 lbs. In the plant of the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry. at Somerville, Tex., the proceedings are as follows: An air 



52 TRACK. 

pressure of 75 lbs. is created in the treating cylinder and in an overhead oil 
cylinder, which takes about 30 mins. The creosote is then allowed to flow by 
gravity into the treating cylinder (20 mins.). The pressure is slowly increased 
to 150 lbs. (in 1| hours) and maintained for 15 mins. It is then released and 
the oil drained off, while the air in the wood cells, compressed to 150 lbs., forces 
out the surplus oil. To remove the oil around the outside pores, a 22-in. vacuum 
is gradually created in 1^ hours and then maintained for 15 mins. The oil 
thus removed is then drained off (10 mins.). Total time, 4 hrs. 20 mins. This 
plant has six treating cylinders 6X133 ft., and between and above each pair 
is a pressure cylinder 6X100 ft. for the oil. (Engineering News, May 3, 1906.) 

Kyanizing Process. — The ties are steeped in open tanks in a solution of about 
1 part of bichloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) to 100 parts (by weight) of 
water; or 1 lb. to 8 or 10 gals. One day is allowed for each inch of thickness of 
the wood. Care is necessary, as the material is an active poison. It hardens the 
wood, but is generally more satisfactory for timber that is kept dry. The Boston 
& Maine Ry. used kyanized hemlock ties at one time, and found that the process 
paid when well done. 

Thilmany Process. — The ties are impregnated under 80 to 100 lbs. pressure, 
with a solution of sulphate of zinc (or sulphate of copper, but this is more 
expensive), and then a solution of chloride of barium. These form a chemical 
combination of insoluble sulphate of baryta and chloride of zinc. It has only 
been used experimentally for ties, and unsatisfactory results were reported, 
owing apparently to the combination failing to take place thoroughly in the 
small wood cells. 

Boucherie Process. — A solution of 1 lb. of sulphate of copper to 100 lbsr of 
water is applied, either in a cylinder or by a cap fitted to one end of a log or 
tie, the solution being forced through by pressure or vacuum. It would require 
about 80 to 100 hours for the solution to travel through a log as long as a tie. 
The rails and spikes decompose the solution, producing free sulphuric acid, 
which attacks the fibers of the wood. It has been used but little. 

Vulcanizing Process. — The timber is placed in the cylinder and subjected to an 
air pressure of 100 to 175 lbs. at a temperature of 300° to 500° F. This was 
claimed to chemically change the sap into a preservative composition, but 
knowledge of the chemistry of wood does not sustain this claim, and tests 
made by the U. S. Forestry Bureau showed no increase in strength and no 
chemical or physical change. Tests have also shown that the temperatures 
claimed did not reach the interior of the tie. It is practically a seasoning process, 
and with resinous woods it may effect a more complete distribution of the 
resinous matter, which is of a preservative character. A subsequent treatment 
with creosote, formaldehyde and resin, and a final treatment with resinate of 
lime were afterwards proposed to make the process effective. The latest 
suggestion is to use a vacuum instead of pressure, removing the water in the 
sap, while the denser fluids retained are operated upon by the heat. It is said 
to be adapted for soft woods (pine, cypress and gum). Some experimental ties 
laid on the Erie Ry. were said to have lasted for 25 years. 

Giussani Process. — This is for treatment in an open bath. The tie, fence 
post, pole, etc., is immersed for 1 to 4 hours in a bath of anthracene and pitch or 
heavy creosote oil heated to about 285° F., the boiling point being 400° F. 
The sap and moisture are thus believed to be boiled out and the air also expelled. 
The tie is then rapidly removed to a bath of cold creosote oil of lighter character, 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 53 

where it remains for about 5 minutes, the vacuum due to expulsion of air and 
condensation of the enclosed vapor inducing a penetration of the oil. It is 
finally immersed for 2 or 3 hours in a bath of cold chloride of zinc. The process 
has been used in Italy. In this country, experiments with open-tank treat- 
ment have been made by the U. S. Forest Division, and it is considered as 
the result of experiments that the conditions should be as follows: (1) For green 
timber: temperature, not over 230° F.; 8 to 10 hours in the hot bath; 8 to 
10 hours in the cold bath. (2) Seasoned timber: temperature, not more than 
10° above the boiling-point of water; 3 to 6 hours in the hot bath, and 3 to 8 
hours in the cold bath. The process is best adapted to woods of open texture, 
such as gum and the inferior species of pine. 

Crude-Oil Process. — The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. has had promising 
results from the use of California crude oil, which has an asphalt residuum of 
about 77.5%, the balance being mainly light oils. Thoroughly air-seasoned, ties 
were treated with this oil heated to 180° F. and forced in under 150 lbs. pressure. 
At that temperature most of the light oils had evaporated and the residuum was 
as fluid as creosote. The ties absorbed 4 to 7 gallons of oil each. They were 
laid where untreated loblolly and long-leaf pine ties last only 2 and 4 years 
respectively on account of heat and moisture, but afer 5 years' service the 
treated ties were in first-class condition. It is not claimed to have any anti- 
septic properties, but to seal the wood cells and so exclude heat, air and 
moisture. 

Miscellaneous. — Fernoline, spirittine, pinoline and woodiline are preparations 
resembling wood creosote oil. They are used either as a bath for ties, poles and 
timber, or as a paint for bridge and station timber, planking, piles, ferryboats 
and scows, etc., to prevent decay and the attacks of boring worms. The Penn- 
sylvania Ry. wood preservative for such purposes is a distillate from Georgia 
pine. The specifications require 5% tarry matter (not over 12%), 45% tar 
acids (not less than 30%), 50% neutral oils; flashing point, 172° to 200° F.; 
burning point, 200° to 220° F.; running point, 15° to 20° F.; specific gravity, 1.03 
to 1.0-5. The bath is usually heated to about 150° F. Carbolineum and other 
preservatives are used in a similar manner. Old spike holes may be filled with 
tar or refuse resin from turpentine distilleries, but the materials are awkward to 
handle. When piles (treated or untreated) are left with the heads exposed, as 
in the case of fender piles, the heads should be well coated with tar, which is 
better than creosote oil, as it forms a mechanical cover to exclude the moisture. 
On framed work for bridges, trestles, docks, etc., the framed portions may be 
well painted with some preservative before being put together, unless the timbers 
have been treated after framing. Poles for telegraph lines and electric railways 
may be treated by painting with or by boiling in preservatives. Material 
applied with a brush should be warm enough to be fluid, but should not exceed 
200° F., or some of the oils will readily evaporate as the material is applied. 
The painting should cover a zone extending about 2 ft. above and 4 ft. below 
the ground line. In some cases the entire pole is treated in a closed tank or 
retort by the processes above described; experiments are being made by treat- 
ing the butt end only, and in an open tank. The open tank may be of triangular 
section, the poles being laid on the inclined bottom. The preservative employed 
with this open-tank boiling process should contain practically no light oils, 
and the temperature should not exceed 275° F. 



54 TRACK. 



Metal Tie-Plates. 



There is usually considerable trouble from the cutting of soft-wood ties by the 
rails, and this is aggravated by the resulting local rot under the rails and around 
the spike holes, and by the further wear and disintegration of the softened wood. 
The cutting also decreases the hold of the spikes, letting the rail drop loose below 
the spike head and allowing it to get out of gage and to tilt on curves. The 
direct pressure of the rail on the tie has little destructive effect, but it is the 
slight wave motion of the loose rail which causes the cutting, grinding and 
abrasion of the wood, and the wear or " necking" of the spikes. One of the 
most important of modern improvements in railway track is the use of metal 
tie-plates, placed between the rail and the tie. They involve only a small 
additional cost, but effect a most decided economy in ties and in track work. 
They act as a tie protector and are in no way to be classed with the chairs (obso- 
lete in this country, but still extensively used abroad), whose office was to hold 
the rails in position. They are usually of steel, but the self-attaching tie-plate 
which becomes an integral part of the tie, independent of spikes, bolts, etc., is 
a distinctive feature of American railway track. The cheapness of tie-plates, 
combined with their advantages in efficiency and economy, has led to their very 
extensive use. They not only increase the life of ties of durable but soft timber 
(whether treated or untreated), but also effect a direct economy in renewals and 
maintenance of way. At the same time they add to the permanence and security 
of the track by giving a durable and uniform bearing to the rails, and lessening 
the disturbance of track for tie renewals. They prevent the widening of the 
gage which occurs (particularly on curves) by the tilting of the rail as the lateral 
pressure causes the outer edge of the rail base to cut into the wood. If accu- 
rately punched they also cause the spikes on both sides of the rail to act equally 
to resist the outward lateral pressure. On curves they have been successfully 
used instead of rail braces, as they resist the tendency to tilt the rail in the manner 
above described. On steep grades, the plates prevent the increased cutting of 
the ties due to sand from the engines getting under the rail and helping to abrade 
the wood. 

Besides their use on open track (especially with soft ties and heavy traffic), 
tie-plates may be used with special advantage as follows: (1) At terminals and 
yards, where, on account of frequent switching and the use of sand, the rails cut 
into the ties very soon, while tie renewals are difficult and expensive, and inter- 
fere with traffic; (2) on hard ties on curves, to save the uneven wear of the rails 
and the loss of thickness in the ties by frequent adzing of the rail seats; also to 
save the frequent lining and respiking, and to maintain correct line and gage to 
insure easy riding curves; (3) at switch leads on main track, under the rails that 
cut into the long ties, thus saving expensive renewals of ties otherwise perfectly 
good; (4) at rail joints, to prevent the rail ends from deflecting by cutting into 
the ties; (5) on bridges and trestles. The plates may be used on every tie with 
soft wood. With good, hard ties they are sometimes used only at joints and 
quarter ties; or 6 to 10 plates to each rail. 

Flat-Bottom Tie-Plates. — A flat plate is the simplest form, but it is impossible 
(with spike fastenings) to keep such a plate tight, so that there will be a con- 
tinual movement of the rail on the plate and the plate on the tie, with a con- 
sequent admission of dirt and moisture to cause wear and decay. At the same 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 55 

time, there will be a clattering under traffic, and thin plates will buckle. The 
New York elevated railways laid some flat plates 6X8 ins., |-in. thick, in 1888, 
but in addition to buckling and cracking at the ends, they induced premature 
decay of the yellow-pine ties, and were very noisy. The fear that flanged tie- 
plates would injure the wood fiber and also cause the entrance of moisture has at 
different times led to later experiments with flat plates, and some roads are using 
them extensively. As a general thing, however, there is little foundation for 
such objections, as the flanges compress the fibers tightly, while the base of the 
plate is in contact with the face of the tie and prevents water from working 
in. This has been shown in many cases where the wood under the plates has 
remained in good condition while the remainder of the tie decayed. 

The flat tie-plates must of course, be made heavier, having no ribs or flanges 
to stiffen them. The St. Louis & San Francisco Ry. and the Chicago, Rock 
Island & Pacific Ry. have adopted a plate somewhat on European lines (Fig. 
22). It is thick enough to prevent buckling, and has V-shaped bottom flanges 
only deep enough (i-in.) to indent the surface and prevent slipping. The plates 
are 8| ins. wide, 6J ins. lengthwise of the rail, with a thickness of ^-in., tapering 
to i^-in. at the edges. On the outer side of the rail seat is a ^-in. shoulder. 
The plate has four spike holes. The Southern Pacific Ry. is using flat-bottom 
plates on treated ties. They are 8X8J ins., Tg-in. thick for 5 ins. under the rail, 
and having a shoulder at the outer side. Some of them have two 1-in. channels 
^-in. deep in the face or rail seat to allow the escape of sand or dirt; this also 
reduces the weight. The Union Pacific Ry. and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe Ry. have also used flat plates extensively 'in recent years, but have had diffi- 
culty in keeping them tight. On the latter road they are 8| X6 ins., with a thick- 
ness at the rail seat of 29/64 to 33/64-in. This variation gives a slight inward 
inclination to the rail. The plate has a shoulder for the rail, and four shallow 
grooves run along the rail seat. The rattling is most serious on soft-wood ties, 
and has been largely overcome by using three spikes; one of the inside spikes 
is so placed as to hold the plate in one direction, and does not touch the rail. It is 
proposed to try a different pattern of flat plate in connection with screw-spike 
fastenings. The Pennsylvania Lines are also using flat plates, but in connection 
with screw spikes. This is in accordance with European practice, the screw 
spikes being relied upon to hold the rail and plate rigidly to the tie. A shoulder 
on the plate takes the edge of the rail (or the splice bar). The thickness is J-in. 
(except directly under the rail, where it is reduced by a channel in the under 
side), and the plates are 9|X6 ins. for intermediate and 11X6 ins. for joint 
ties. The holes are 29/32-in. for the f-in. necks of the spikes. 

Flange and Claw Tie-Plates. — To effectually attach the plate to the tie, various 
arrangements of flanges, spurs and teeth have been devised, to secure a firm hold 
and to do as little injury as possible to the wood. This appears to have been 
most efficiently attained by longitudinal flanges, which are forced into the wood 
and are tightly held by the fibers compressed between them. The flanges are 
of V section, and of such size as not to split or crush the wood, and they also 
serve to stiffen the plate. Long experience shows that the plates become 
immovably fixed upon the tie, do not cause checking or cracking, and do not 
cause decay. For plates with chisel-edged claws or spurs cutting across the 
grain, it is claimed that the grip is equal to that of four good spikes, but such 
plates must rely on their thickness for stiffness. The objection that outward 
thrust on the plate will force out the fibers cut by the spurs does not seem 



56 TRACK. 

reasonable, except with very soft and poor ties. The more serious objection is the 
direct cutting and severing of the fibers, and this also applies to tie-plates having 
flanges across the face of the tie. 

Shoulder Plates. — Some plates are made with a rib or shoulder on top, in order 
to relieve the spike from the outward thrust of the rail and the wear due to 
abrasion by the edge of the rail base. This certainly seems reasonable when we 
consider the inefficiency of the spike as a fastening for rails under heavy traffic. 
There is also a tendency to use this form of plate to afford the rail extra resist- 
ance or support against lateral thrust, or excessive spike shear due to low coef- 
ficient of friction between rail and plate. The flat-top plates have in general 
been found satisfactory, and there has been little or no "necking" of the 
spikes, even on sharp curves, provided that the holes are so punched that the 
rail base is the full width between them and that there is not more than ^-play 
between the back of spikes and plate. With screw spikes, the tie-plate should 
have ribs to give a bearing to the outer side of the spike head. This gives im- 
portant resistance to displacement or distortion by lateral forces exerted on the 
rail head. 

Dimensions of Tie-Plat es.— The plates should be large enough to give a good 
bearing on the tie, with room for the spike holes, but if too large they will not 
allow for the wave motion of the rail and may cause the ties to rock in the ballast. 
Plates 5 and 6 ins. lengthwise of the rail, 8 or 9 ins. wide, are now most generally 
used, but flat plates the full width of the tie (8 X8J ins.) are being used, as already 
noted. The thickness is from ^-in. to f-in. for flanged plates, and up to §-in. 
for flat plates. The wear of the plate by the rail is slight, except in some excep- 
tional cases, so that great thickness is not required to resist such wear. The 
depth over the flanges is about 1-in., as a maximum, or say f-in. under the plate. 

Application of Tie-Plates. — The plates should be fully bedded into the ties in 
the first place, and not left to be driven home by the weight of the trains. The 
traffic will not do this uniformly or efficiently, and meanwhile there is a liability 
of gravel, etc., getting under the plates and preventing them from becoming 
properly bedded. The face of the tie must not be adzed more than is absolutely 
necessary to get a flat and even bearing. In setting these plates, the line side of 
the tie is marked and the plate put on at the proper distance from the edge. 
The other plate is then set in its proper position by a gage. The plates may be 
forced into the tie by machine, but the most general method is to use a sledge 
or wooden beetle of about 15 to 20 lbs., with a 36-in. handle. A wooden or metal 
block or follower is put on the plate to distribute the force of the blow. Unless 
this is done, a careless man may bring the edge of the maul upon the plate and 
buckle it. In applying plates to ties already in the track, the rail may be lifted 
and the plate slipped under. An iron plate is then placed on it, or one upon each 
projecting end, and the ends are struck simultaneously with mauls. One end of 
a flanged plate may be settled into the tie, and the free end then driven with a 
sledge, causing the flanges to plow their way through the wood under the rail. 
Special tools are used for setting the plates in right position. (See Tools, and 
Maintenance.) The Union Pacific Ry. at one time had a hand car fitted with a 
drop hammer (like a pile-driver) at each side. A saddle block was set astride 
the rail with its legs resting on the projecting ends of the plate, the plate being 
driven home by the drop hammer. A similar block may be used and struck with 
sledges. When plates are put on old ties a flat seat must be adzed or the ties may 
be turned. 



TIES AND TIE-FLATES. 



57 



Considerable economy in track work may be insured by setting the plates 
before the ties are distributed. In the construction of the San Francisco & San 
Joaquin Valley Ry. (A., T. & S. F. Ry.), the ties were unloaded in the material 
yard and put through a steam tie-plating machine, which gaged the plates and 
drove both plates home. Ties could then be stored, or shipped to the front and 
put into the track without a loss of plates. This method gave exceptional 
results as to cheapness and as to effective bedding of the plates. As the track 
was laid, the plates which came under joints were removed and joint tie-plates 
substituted at very small expense. Machines of this kind operated by steam 
or hydraulic power can be established at tie-treating plants or mounted on a 
car for use at division points where ties are stocked. 

Shimming. — The self-attaching tie-plate is intended to be a permanent part 
of the tie, and no attempt should be made to remove the plate when shimming 
is required. The shims should be placed between the rail and the plate, being 
bored to correspond with the spike holes in the plates. Where shuns more than 
1^ ins. thick are required, a piece of plank should be spiked to the tie and the 
shims placed upon it. If the traffic is very heavy, a second tie-pLate may be 
placed on the shim. 

Examples of Tie-Plates. — The Servis flanged tie-plate (Fig. 18) was the first 
used to any practical extent. The Wolhaupter plate (Fig. 19) has longitudinal 




r<- : 

FiT. 19.— Wolhaupter Tie-plate. 



Fig. 20.— Q. & W. Tie-plate. 




l<-/g->t<— -5/i— • 






Fig. 21.— Goldie Tie-plate. 



•j*K--2/6 —>| 



7 " 



-H« 



Fig. 22.— Heavy Tie-plate of Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific Ry. 




Fig. 23.— Post Tie-plate; 
Netherlands State Railways. 



flanges, but closer together and more wedge-shaped, to compress the fibers. 
The edges also project beyond the outer flanges so as to prevent moisture from 
entering. It has grooves on the face of the plate to receive any sand, etc., that 
might get under the rail, and may have lugs or shoulders to fit the outer edge of 
the rail base. The Q. & W. plate, Fig. 20, is a combination of the features of 
the two former. It has longitudinal flanges and grooves, but no lug or shoulder. 
Plates 5X8 ins., ^-in. thick, weigh about 3 lbs. The Goldie tie-plate, Fig. 21 , is 
6X7£ ins., f-in. thick, weighing about 5 lbs. It has a rib on top, and at each 
corner is a flat chisel-edged or pointed lug which is driven into the tie, cutting 



58 



TRACK. 



across the grain. There are other forms of tie-plates in use, all more or less 
closely resembling those above described. Fig. 22 shows the heavy plate adopted 
by the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry., and already mentioned In Europe, 
tie-plates or base plates are heavier than those generally used in this country, 
owing partly to the fact that they are not self-attaching but are held only by the 
rail spikes, screws or bolts. In the Post tie-plate, Fig. 23, the bottom is 
either flat (but with the maker's mark in relief) or has small sharp teeth to 
prevent slipping. It is 8X8 J ins., |-in. to f-in. thick under the rail. The outer 
edge of the rail base bears against a shoulder and is held by a screw spike; 
the inner edge is held by a clamp and screw spike. The Sandberg plate is 




Fig. 24. — Sandberg' s Tie-plates. 

shown in Fig. 24, with three styles of fastenings. It is about 12X18 ins., 
J-in. thick, weighing 13 lbs. 

Wooden Tie-Plates. — These have been extensively and successfully used in 
France for several years. Those of the Eastern Ry. (France) are of hard wood, 
8 ins. long, 5 ins. wide (the width of rail base) and |-in. thiek. The ties have 
seats trimmed to receive the plates, which are held by the pressure of the screw 
spikes, but this cutting of a recessed seat is not advisable or necessary. The 
plates cost about $2 per 1,000 and last from 1 to 1^ years in main track. When 
worn outj the spikes are slackened, the old plate is pushed out, a new one 
inserted and the spikes again screwed home. Experiments in this country are 
also giving satisfactory results. The object is to prevent the disintegration and 
cutting of the tie by the rail, and while this has been effectively obtained by the 
steel tie-plates, the wooden plates are of course much cheaper. The Northern 
Pacific Ry., the St. Louis & San Francisco Ry. and the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe Ry. have used them on stretches of 40 to 50 miles of track. They are 
of red cypress, red gum, white and red oak, beech and elm; some are creosoted, 
but this is not considered necessary with hard woods. The plates are | to £-in. 
thick, with a length equal to the width of tie, and a width equal to that of the rail 
base. The grain of the wood is lengthwise of the rail. The Cleveland, Cincin- 
nati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. has put in 100,000 creosoted beech tie-plates; each 
weighs about 0.4 lb. and costs 0.6 ct. (creosoted). The Gulf, Colorado & Santa 
Fe Ry. finds that they wear slightly and occasionally split, but they do not tend 
to cause the rails to creep. They are considered preferable to steel tie-plates for 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 59 

roads of medium heavy traffic and equipment, for the reason that they are 
cheaper and the cost of application is nominal. They can be placed in track for 
1 ct. per plate, or 2 cts. per tie. The plates which this road has been using are 
of cypress, birch, gum and elm. Plates which had been in track a year were 
found to have worn slightly, but were still good for two years. Some difficulty 
was experienced at first by reason of the plates slipping endwise from under the 
rails, and two small nails are now driven in the corners of the plate. 

Metal Ties. 

Metal ties have been used on a very extensive scale and with very satisfactory 
results in other countries, on main lines with heavy traffic, as well as for secondary 
lines and pioneer railways. They have as yet made but little progress here, 
owing to the hitherto abundant supply of cheap and good timber. With the 
decreasing quantity and quality and the increasing price of wooden ties, the 
steel tie becomes a consideration from an economic point of view. The few 
experiments made in this country up to 1905 were of little importance, and on too 
limited a scale to give any definite results. No reliable conclusions can be based 
on tests of a few ties, but at least a mile should be laid for experimental work. 
Since 1904, there has been, an important development in this direction, due 
largely to the work of the engineers of the Carnegie Steel Co. in studying the 
matter with a view to the introduction of a rolled steel tie which would be suc- 
cessful in service and therefore open a new line of product for the steel mills. 
This is noted below. Metal ties are extensively used in Europe, India, Africa, 
South America and Mexico. Details of these ties and their service are given 
in the author's reports on "The Use of Metal Ties for Railways'' (issued by the 
Forestry Division of the United States Government in 1890 and 1894). In 1894 
there were 35,000 miles of railway laid with metal track, or 17*% of the total 
mileage of the world, exclusive of the United States and Canada. In 1907, 
Germany had 15,000 miles of track (33% of the railway system) laid with steel 
ties. The great majority of steel ties are in the form of a rolled or pressed 
trough or channel laid inverted in the ballast. This is developed from the type 
of tie invented by Vautherin, the French engineer, in 1864. It has the advantage 
of making a complete tie in one piece, without rivets or extra parts. Built-up 
ties are in general more expensive and less satisfactory. Cast-iron and cast-steel 
bowls and plates, connected in pairs by transverse tie-rods, are extensively 
used in India and South America. The latest pattern used in India weighs 230 
lbs. complete, and renewals average only 0.6 to 0.8% per annum. 

The advantages of metal ties are in longer life, reduced wear of rails 
reduced cost and labor of maintenance, superiority of track, permanence of 
roadbed due to reduction in renewals and maintenance work, and a decided 
ultimate economy. Excellent and easy-riding track is made with good metal 
ties, but of the innumerable forms of ties which have been tried, only a com- 
paratively small number have proved successful. The fastenings should be 
of as few parts as possible, giving good resistance to the lateral thrust of wheels, 
and providing for an adjustment of gage at curves, switches, etc. Some of the 
bolted clamp fastenings are found to remain tight and prevent rattling. To 
prevent noise due to the contact between the steel rail and tie, packings of 
felt, wood, asbestos, tarred canvas, etc., have been tried, but without much 
success, and there is little need of such packing with good fastenings that do 
not work loose. Where track circuits for automatic signals are used, insulating 



60 TRACK. 

plates must be placed under the rails, and washers and sleeves on the bolts 
The ends of the tie should be closed, to resist lateral motion, and the friction 
of the core of ballast thus enclosed over the bed of ballast greatly increases 
this resistance. Stone ballast about 1-in. in size is generally best for main 
tracks, although close-packing coarse gravel is sometimes preferred. Wooden 
ties are generally substituted at frogs and switches, but long steel ties can 
be (and are) used, affording extra security. Steel ties bent and distorted 
by derailment, etc., can often be made serviceable again by straightening in 
a hydraulic press, as is done where such ties are used extensively. Old steel 
ties also have a market value as scrap. The design and manufacture of the 
tie and fastenings should be such as to insure good material, strength and 
accuracy of fit; also to allow of the tamping, surfacing and lining of track. 
Bessemer, Thomas and Siemens-Martin steel is used abroad with about 0.1 
to 0.2% carbon, and having a tensile strength of 50,000 to 60,000 lbs. per sq. in., 
with an elongation of 18 to 20% in 8 ins., and a reduction in area of 30 to 40% 
at the point of fracture. The ties for the New York Central Ry. were of soft 
steel, to stand pressing to shape; the steel had 0.1% carbon, 0.4% manganese, 
0.081% phosphorus and 0.033% sulphur. Corrosion occurs in certain saline soils, 
in ashes, etc., and the ties are usually dipped hot in a bath of tar. Cracks are 
less likely to start from drilled than from punched holes. The tie should be 
of simple design, and with the smallest number of parts consistent with 
security and the necessary adjustment; the thickness should be sufficient for 
strength and wear, and the weight sufficient to hold the track down. From 
120 to 175 lbs. is probably the best weight for a tie for first-class track carry- 
ing modern heavy engines and heavy rolling stock. Of the numerous designs 
of metal ties invented, few are of practical value, owing mainly to the failure 
of the inventors to comprehend or provide for conditions of service. Light- 
ness and cheapness are too often aimed at, with the result of making the tie 
unserviceable and uneconomical; or in other cases the design is so unwieldy 
or complicated as to be impracticable for manufacture or use. 

The life of steel ties will vary from 20 to 40 years, and even 50 years is 
claimed. For the first 2 to 4 years the labor and cost of maintenance will be 
about the same as, or perhaps more than, with wooden ties, the expense being 
mainly on the ballast and the rail fastenings. The metal track, however, 
then becomes permanently consolidated and the attention required for the 
fastenings and for maintenance of surface and line steadily decreases. With 
wooden ties, however, the work and expense continue to increase year by 
year, until renewals are necessary. One of the great advantages of metal 
track is that it is not disturbed frequently for tie renewals, and is thus kept 
in good condition for running. A part of the Netherlands State Railways 
(Holland), laid with Post steel ties and carrying 25 trains daily, was carefully 
tamped and put in condition, and was then left for 40 months without any other 
work than occasional tightening of the nuts. 

American Steel Ties. — The Carnegie tie (Fig. 25) is a special rolled I-beam 
with wide flanges, as designed by Mr. Buhrer, of the Lake Shore & Michigan 
Southern Ry. While the trough type has been most generally adopted in 
steel-tie designs, I-beam ties were designed several years ago by a French 
engineer, Mr. Severac, and were extensively used. Those on the Northern 
Ry. (France) were 4.8 ins. deep and 3.2 ins. wide over both flanges; to the 
bottom was riveted a plate 9.6 ins. wide with the ends turned up against the 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 61 

ends of the beam to form anchors. Rail chairs or seats were also riveted to 
the top flange. These ties weighed from 150 to 200 lbs. each. The Carnegie tie 
is similar, but with all rivets and extra parts eliminated, the rolled shape being 
a complete tie. The I-beam is 5h ins. deep, with top and bottom flanges 4^ 
and 8 ins. wide. The length is 8 ft. 6 ins., and the weight 164§ lbs. (19.36 
lbs. per ft.). At each rail seat are four holes 25/32-in. diameter, so spaced that 
two will carry the bolts at joints and two at intermediate points. The rail 
is secured by bolted clamps of such shape as to allow of |-in. change of gage 
for curves, wear of rails, etc. The ties can readily be supplied of any length 
for use as switch ties, and are used for this purpose on the Bessemer & Lake 
Erie Ry. Where track circuits are used, a ^-in. fiber tie-plate is placed under 
the rail, and fiber bushing between the bolt and clamp. About 500,000 of 
these are in use on important railways and also on street railways. The Besse- 
mer & Lake Erie Ry. has over 250,000 in main track (with 100-lb. rails and 8 
ins. of slag ballast) carrying very heavy engines and traffic. The wear of the 
rails is reduced, and is more uniform. These ties are used in first construction 
and are also mixed in with wooden ties in renewals. On the Pittsburg & Lake 
Erie Ry., the f-in. bolts have button heads with the bearing face sloped to 



Plain Clip, 
2k"xl%" 



Joint Clip, 
3x1%' 







4 H £ 



• T 



i . 



.H 



H 

Fig. 25. — Carnegie Steel Tie. 

fit the flange of the tie. The holes in the clamps are so placed that by reversing 
them and turning them upside down four widths of gage can be secured. Each 
rail rests on a |-in. fiber tie-plate 4|X12 ins., with holes for the bolts. In 
each bolt hole of the tie and clamp fits an insulating bushing with a flanged 
top; in this again fits a malleable-iron bushing of the same shape, the nut lock 
resting upon its top flange. A derailment on a stretch of track laid with 
these ties on the Pennsylvania Ry. in 1907 was not due to the ties, but some 
investigators considered that the damage to track was greater than if wooden 
ties had been used. But if track with rails bolted to steel ties is better than 
with rails spiked to wooden ties (as may be the case with proper design and 
construction), a possible liability to greater injury in case of derailment is 
no valid argument against it. Mr. Shand, Chief Engineer of the road, con- 
siders that the steel tie is the best substitute for wood and that its use will 
increase. It may be made heavier, and with improved fastenings, especially 
in regard to resisting the lateral thrust on the rail. There is, however, an 
impression that steel rails on steel ties make too rigid a track, and some steel 
ties with wooden blocks are now in use, as described under Compound Ties. 

About 1,000 steel trough ties were laid on the Bessemer & Lake Erie Ry. 
in 1901. They were 8? ft. long, 5 ins. and 8| ins. wide on top and bottom, 
and 3^ ins. deep inside. The weight was 205 lbs., which was too heavy for 



62 



TRACK. 



practical use. At the middle (or at each end) was a transverse diaphragm to 
anchor the tie in the slag ballast, but these caused trouble in lining the track 
after it was surfaced. There were rectangular holes for T-head bolts, and the 
outer ends of the rail clips fitted into the holes. The track was ballasted with 
slag, and surfaced with limestone screenings blown under the ties by a Patterson 
air-jet machine. One piece of track after being surfaced and lined was left 
for two years without attention, but remained in good condition in spite of 
heavy traffic. It was proved that such ties could be properly tamped with 
picks, and that the rigid and secure rail fastenings resulted in less wear of rails 
on curves. This latter feature has also been observed with both steel ties 
and concrete ties on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. The trough 
ties were still in use in 1907, but were less satisfactory than the I-beam ties 
already mentioned. The McCune steel tie, tried on the Monongahela Connect- 
ing Ry., is a rectangular inverted channel 8 ins. wide, 3| ins. deep, with the 
ends raised |-in. to form shoulders for the rails. It is pressed to shape cold 
from a 5/16-in. plate and weighs 160 lbs. The first ties were of 3/16-in. steel 
and 4 ins. wide, weighing 97 lbs., but such light and thin ties were not stable 
or durable enough for heavy main-track service. 

Extensive trials with steel ties were at one time made on the New York 
Central Ry. In 1889, about 800 Hartford ties were laid ; these were successful, and 
the cost of maintenance was low. A few years later a number of pressed steel 
ties were made (Fig. 26), having a bolted clamp fastening devised by Mr. Katte, 

6aqe4'8i 




Hcrff Ran. 
Fig. 26.— Steel Tie of New York Central Ry. 

then Chief Engineer. They weighed only 86 lbs. (100 lbs. with fastenings), which 
was too light for the heavy traffic. They were durable, but required nearly 
twice as much work to keep them in surface as was required for the adjacent track 
with wooden ties. They were hard to line, the ballast shook away from them, 
and they made a noisy track. The quality of the steel, already referred to, was 
probably not suitable for the purpose. The Standard tie, tried on four or five 
railways, but now obsolete, was of channel section, placed with the open side up. 
Wooden blocks (with grain vertical) supported the rails, which were secured by 
clamps held by horizontal bolts through the blocks. The tie was filled with 
ballast, and the bottom was bent up at the middle to offer resistance to lateral 
motion, the ends being open. The weight was about 90 lbs. The Chester tie, 
tried on the Huntington & Broad Top Mountain Ry., had two in verted- trough 
rail-bearers, 12 ins. long, with stamped lugs to hold the inside of the rail base, 
the troughs being set parallel with the rails. They were connected by an 
inverted tee-bar passing through the sides of the troughs and having the top of 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



63 



its web notched to hold the outer edge of the rail base. This did not admit of 
a change in gage or width of rail base, and when new rails were laid the ties had 
to be removed. The troughs weighed 25 lbs. each, and the tie-bar 20 lbs., or 
70 lbs. for the tie complete. 

Foreign Steel Ties. — The tie invented by Mr. Post, Division Engineer of the 
Netherlands State Railways, is used in many countries for lines of broad and 
narrow gage carrying light and heavy traffic. Fig. 27 shows the standard gage 
tie, its length being from 8 ft. 4 ins. to 8 ft. 10 ins. and the weight from 120 to 
163 lbs. It is of varying section, being thinner, narrower and deeper at the 
middle than at the ends, thus combining strength and stiffness with an economical 
distribution of metal. The thickness is from 0.48 to 0.52-in. at the rail seats, 
decreasing to 0.24-in. at the middle, w T hile the sides are from 0.24 to 0.36-in. 
thick. At the middle the tie is 4| ins. deep and 5^ ins. wide over the bottom, 
with sides sloping 1 to 3. At the rail seats it is flat for \\ ins. on top, 10| ins. 
wide over the bottom, and 2 ins. deep. The bolt holes are lXli ins., oblong, 
with rounded corners to prevent cracks. The bolts are £-in. diameter, with 
T heads passing into the tie and held between ribs under the rail seat. An 
eccentric washer on the bolt allows for an adjustment of gage, and this is 



•-K 







Half Plan 
Fig. 27.— Post's Steel Tie. 



secured by the clamp which holds the rail base. Tie-plates are sometimes 
placed under the rails. The joint or shoulder ties are 2 ft. apart, and the inter- 
mediate ties 3 ft. apart. The Post steel ties on the Gothard Ry., Switzerland, 
are 8 ft. 10 ins. long, 15/32-in. thick (at rail seat), and weigh 163 lbs. Allow- 
ing for the value of old material, these ties were actually cheaper in first cost 
than oak ties costing $1.20, and in tunnels the life is about the same, or from 
8 to 10 years. Even if they were less economical than wood, the steel ties 
would still be used on account of the greater security of the track on the heavy 
grades and sharp curves on this mountain road, with its heavy engines and 
traffic. (Engineering News, April 7 and Aug. 25, 1898.) The latest ties of 
the German railways are of the Haarmann pattern; these are of trough section, 
5 ins. wide on top, 10? ins. over the bottom flanges, and 3 ins. deep; the metal 
is 0.35-in. thick in the top. On each side of the top is a rib, and between these 
lie the steel tie-plates. The outer end of the tie-plate has a hooked lug on the 
bottom which passes through a hole in the tie, while on the upper surface is 
a hooked lug to hold the rail base. Only one bolt is required to each lail, and 
this is on the inside. The ties are nearly 9 ft. long, and weigh 195 lbs. each. 
They are spaced 30 ins. c. to c, or 12 ins. at rail joints. 



64 



TRACK. 



The Rendel steel tie, Fig. 28, is extensively used in India, South America and 
Mexico for lines of 5 ft. 6 ins., 4 ft. 8^ ins. and 3 ft. 3f ins. gage. For the widest 
gage it is 9 ft. long, 4^ ins. wide on top, 8£ to 13 ins. wide on the bottom and 4| 
to 5 ins. deep. The thickness is 13/32-in. on top and i-in. on the sides. Two 
lugs are stamped up at each rail seat, and a flat taper key is driven between the 
rail base and each of the lugs. The tie weighs about 135 lbs., and the keys 1 lb. 
each. The ties are usually laid about 3 ft. c. to c. Ties of this type on the 
Mexican Southern Ry. after 12 years' service appeared to be good for 12 years 



5'b"baq8 



B; k'i-a 




si B-B 



Fig. 28. — Rendel's Steel Tie; Indian State Railways. 

more. The engineer proposed, however, to use a U-bolt fastening in place of the 
lug and keys, the horizontal leg of the bolt lying inside the tie. Most of the steel 
ties used in Europe are of inverted trough section. 

Concrete Ties. 

The extensive and varied applications of concrete within recent years have led 
to numerous experiments with concrete ties, but with poor results as a rule. If 
successful, they would have the advantage of enabling railways to make their 
own ties. They are of varying designs and with varied systems of steel rein- 
forcement: old rails, rods, wire netting, boiler tubes, etc. In general the con- 
crete is cut by the rails, if laid directly upon it, and it also disintegrates and 
cracks. About 5,000 of the Buhrer ties have been used. These are of practically 
rectangular section, but wider at the base, and the reinforcement is a piece of old 
rail placed inverted in the top of the tie, so that the track rails rest upon it. 
Bolted clamps fasten the track to the reinforcing rail, pockets in the concrete 
affording space for the bolt-heads. The tie is 6| ins. deep, 4 ins. wide at the 
middle, and for about 4 ft. at each end it is 4 1 ins. wide on top and 9 ins. at the 
bottom. With an 8-ft. piece of 65-lb. rail the weight is about 400 lbs. (230 lbs. 
concrete and 170 lbs. steel). The concrete is of 1 cement to 4 gravel; or 1 
cement, 1 fine washed limestone, and 3 of J-in. stone. On the Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. they have been considered (after considerable experience) 
as making too rigid a track for high-speed trains (especially when the ground is 
frozen), being liable to cause breakage of rails. On the other hand, they are 
considered specially adaptable for sidetracks and yards, where they would be 
practically permanent and reduce the cost of maintenance. 

Many concrete ties have wooden cushion blocks for the rails. The Percival 
tie is of inverted triangular section, reinforced by one rod in the bottom 
and three in the top, with wire stirrups at intervals. Blocks of hard wood are 
set in recesses in the face, and the screw spikes enter holes in the ties which are 
filled with babbitt metal or have threaded sleeves. The Campbell concrete tie, 



TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



65 



used on the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern Ry., is of rectangular section, 6X7 ins., with 
beveled corners. At the rail seat, the width is increased to 10 ins., and the top 
corners are not beveled. The concrete is a 1 : 2 : 3 mixture, using crushed stone or 
slag or screened gravel; the reinforcement consists of two old boiler tubes, out- 
side of which is an oval wrapping of wire netting. The weight is 356 lbs., 
including 35 lbs. of reinforcement. A steel tie-plate is embedded at each rail seat, 
and has holes at diagonally opposite corners for the legs of a U-bolt. Cast-iron 
rail clamps are fitted on the threaded ends. The Kimball tie, Fig. 29, tried 
on the Chicago & Alton Ry., has two concrete blocks 7X9X36 ins., 2 ft 
apart, connected by a pair of 3-in. steel channels 8 ft. long and 2 ins. apart. 
Between the channels are spacing pieces into which are screwed bolts holding 
hard-wood blocks 3X9X18 ins. Each block has two f-in. holes for the spikes, 
and elm plugs embedded in the concrete receive the points of the spikes. The 




-* I'll" bet. Blocks >k— 



Half Side Elevation. 



«■ g"- .» 

Cross Section. 




Half Plan. 
Fig. 29.— Kimball's Concrete Tie. 

concrete is composed of 1 part of cement, J sand, and 2 of lj-in. stone; or 
1 cement to 2 J gravel. The weight is 436 lbs.: concrete, 374 lbs.; metal, 
52 lbs.; wood, 10 lbs. 



Relative Economy of Wood, Steel and Concrete Ties. 

The results of an investigation made by Mr. W. C. Cushing, Pennsylvania 
Lines, as to the relative cost and economy of various kinds of ties are con- 
densed and tabulated in Table No. 3. The first series of columns (A) show, for 
instance, that with white-oak ties costing 70 cts. and giving a life of 10 years, 
only 20 cts. can be paid for a tie of inferior wood treated with the zinc-tannin 
process and lasting 14 years; only $1.48 can be paid for a steel tie lasting 20 
years. The second series of these columns (B) shows the price which a white- 
oak tie (10 years' life) must reach before it will be economical to use any of the 
others. Thus with oak at 70 cts., it is economical to buy inferior woods at 46 
cts. and treat them by the zinc-chloride or the zinc-tannin process; at 86 cts. 
for oak, the same inferior ties may be treated by more expensive processes, or a 



66 



TRACK. 



steel tie may be used at $1.75, lasting 20 years. Column C shows the life which 
ties of the prices given in columns 6 and 7 must have to be equivalent in economy 
to oak ties at 70 cts., 10 years. Thus a steel tie costing $1.75 must last 28J 
years. A uniform spacing of 1.833 ft. c. to c. is assumed, with prices as 'follows 
for the items included in "cost of tie in track": Laying, 12 cts. for wooden, 15 
cts. for steel and concrete ties; spikes, 6.4 cts.; screw spikes, 15 cts. (3 cts. extra 
for helical steel linings); bolts, 10 cts. in steel ties, 16 cts. in concrete. Tie-plate, 
32 cts. Application of fastenings, 3 cts. fpr spikes, 12 cts. for screw spikes, 7 
cts. for bolts. 

TABLE NO. 3.— COMPARATIVE ECONOMICS OF TIES. 

A. Life and cost of tie equivalent to white oak at 70 cts., 10 years' life. 

B. Cost of white-oak tie at which it will be economical to use others; life as in Col. 3. 

C. Life of ties equivalent to white oak at 70 cts., 10 years; cost as in Cols. 7, 8. 

. A . . B , ^C^ 

1- 23456789 10 

Ties ^st- "-» Oost , Cost W <*$S?£*& Cost 

T ' eS ' "rings. SZ 1=1- tra'clt def* «$• (Col. L *- treat- 

years. $ $ $ $ $ yrs. cts'. 

White oak, untreated Spike 10 0,70 0.91 10 

Inferior woods: 

No tie-plates; zinc chloride. " 10 0.48 0.91 0.68 0.46 0.89 9| 15 

No tie-plates; zinc tannin. . " 10 0.45 0.91 0.71 0.46 0.92 10£ 18 

Tie-plates; zinc chloride ... Screw 12 0.10 1.06 1.01 0.46 1.42 18 15 

Tie-plates; zinc tannin .. . " 14 0.20 1.19 0.90 0.46 1.45 18^ 18 

Tie-plates; zinc creosote .. . " 16 0.23 1.31 0.86 0.46 1.54 20i 27 

Tie-pl.; creosoted, 30cts. . . " 16 0.20 1.31 0.87 0.46 1.57 21 30 

Tie-pl.; creosoted, 85 cts. . . " 30 0.29 1.95 0.78 0.46 2.12 36 85 

Steel Bolt 20 1.48 1.86 0.86 1.75 2.13 28£ 

" " 30 1.79 2.17 1.03 2.50 2.88 °T? r .. 

Concrete " 20 1.15 1.53 0.91 1.50 1.88 28^ 

" 30 1.57 1.95 1.02 2.25 2.63 < gj jr .. 

* Cost delivered; without treatment, fastenings or tie-plates. 

t Cost in track includes freight, handling, laying, treatment, tie-plates, and rail fastenings. 



CHAPTER 5.— RAILS 



The T-rail or flange rail, which is now in common use all over the world, was 
invented in this country in 1830 by Robert L. Stevens, Chief Engineer of the 
Camden & Amboy Ry., and the first order was placed in England by him for this 
road. He also designed the hook-headed spike and flat splice bar, which have 
developed into the modern spike, fish plate and angle bar. The first rails weighed 
36 and 40 lbs. per yd., and were in 16-ft. lengths. This rail was re-invented in 
England in 1836 by Charles B. Vignoles. The fish-plate joint was also re-invented 
in England by W. Bridges Adams, in 1847. A modification of the English bar 
rail was patented in England by Birkinshaw in 1820 ; this had a thin web with 
enlarged top and bottom ribs or flanges, being the forerunner of the English 
double-head and bull-head rails. It was not self-supporting, however, and had 
to be carried in cast-iron chairs. Thus it was entirely different from the Stevens 
design, which eliminated this complication by an entirely different section in the 
flat-bottom flange or tee-rail, which is self-supporting. The bridge rail, shown 
in Fig. 16, was designed in this country by Strickland in 1834, and in England by 
Brunei in 1835. It is rarely used. 



RAILS. 67 

When railway development was recommenced in 1865, after the close of the 
Civil War, attention began to be paid to the design of rails, and in 1865 Ashbel 
Welch designed a T-rail whose proportions approximated to those of modern 
sections, but whose head was rounded in accordance with the English practice of 
that day. About 1874, R. H. Sayre designed a rail having a head with top cor- 
ners of large radius and sides sloping outward from the top, with the idea of 
reducing the wear caused by the wheel flanges. The Sayre 76-lb. rail adopted 
on the Lehigh Valley Ry. in 1883 had a flare of 10°, but in the 80-lb. rail, adopted 
in 1891, the flare was reduced to 5°, which was retained in the 90-lb. rail of 1895 
(Fig. 30). The present standard of this road, however, is the Am. Soc. C. E. 
90-lb. rail with vertical sides to the head. The Milholland section, proposed for 
the George's Valley & Cumberland Ry., carried the Sayre design to extremes, 
having a flare of 20°. It was based on the form of wear on sharp and frequent 
curves, but no such rails were made. The typical Sayre section is now obsolete, 
and it is generally recognized that the best results are obtained with sharp top 
corners and vertical sides to the heads, as noted further on. Some designers still 
adhere to a slight flare of 4° to 5°, with the idea of keeping the wheel flanges away 
from the corner of the rail head. The Providence & Worcester Ry. rail of 1885 
had the sides sloped inward from the top, a design which is decidedly bad. Be- 
tween 1880 and 1888 there was a tendency to give the rail head a large top corner 
radius of f to |-in., to fit the fillet of the wheel tire. This, however, caused a 
considerable rubbing friction of the wheel flange on the rail head (aggravated in 
some cases by outward flaring sides to the head), in addition to the normal rolling 
contact with the wheel tread. 

In 1873, the American Society of Civil Engineers appointed a committee to 
report upon the form, size, manufacture, test, endurance and breakage of rails, 
and also upon the comparative economy of iron and steel rails. In 1885, another 
committee was appointed to consider the proper relations of railway wheels and 
rails. It was asserted on the one hand that the rail head should have a round 
top corner and a head flaring outward from the top, to conform to the outline of 
the wheel fillet and flange. On the other hand, it was claimed that such a long 
line of contact would be dangerous (tending to cause derailment with sharp 
flanged wheels) and would cause undue wear and friction, and that therefore the 
rail head should have a sharp top corner and vertical sides in order to keep the 
wheel flange away from the rail head as long as possible. This committee's in- 
vestigation showed the following: (1) The number and disadvantages of sharp- 
flanged worn wheels had been greatly exaggerated; (2) Sharp corners did not 
produce this character of wheel wear to the extent claimed; (3) Round-cornered 
rails showed greater side wear due to cutting by the wheel flange, while the rail 
wear became more rapid as soon as the side of the head began to be attacked; 
and (4) Rails often fail with little material abraded from the top by wear proper, 
being crushed after the flow of metal has reached its limit, and thus failing by 
rapid disintegration due to heavy wheel loads. In 1889 the committee recom- 
mended a broad head relatively to depth, with a top radius of 12 ins., |-in. top 
corners, 1/16-iri. bottom corners, and vertical sides starting from a sufficient 
base width to give ample bearing for the joint. 

This led to the appointment of a third committee to prepare designs for stand- 
ard rail sections. At that time there was an almost entire lack of uniformity in 
rail design, each engineer having his own ideas, and desiring to have his own 
special form of section on his own line. The rail mills therefore had to carry 



68 TRACK. 

enormous stocks of rolls for all these sections, though many of the sections were 
practically identical, having minute variations as the result of the whim of the 
designer or his ignorance of the existence of a practically identical section. This 
committee made a very thorough investigation, and in 1893 presented its report 
(which was adopted), recommending standard sections, in which the metal was 
distributed as follows: Head, 42%; web, 21%; base, 37%. This is a good dis- 
tribution for rails of good material, and thoroughly rolled. This type of section 
is shown in Fig. 31. The sections vary by 5 lbs. from 40 to 120 lbs. per yd., and 
in all of them the height and width of base are equal, while the following dimen- 
sions are constant: 

Radius. Radius. 

Top of head 12 ins. Side of web 12 ins. 

Top corners of head ^ in. Top fillets of web i in. 

Bottom corners of head ^s in. Bottom fillets of web i in. 

Corners of base & in. Fishing angles 13* 

These sections have been very extensively adopted, with advantage to rail 
makers as well as users, as their adoption enabled the mills to roll rails for stock. 
The rails can be rolled at a lower temperature and require less cambering than 
sections having a greater proportion of the metal in the heads. There are also 
fewer " wasters" or "seconds" from rails rolled to these sections, and the sharp 
corners have no material effect upon the life of the rolls. It will be noticed that 
the third committee adopted ^-in. as the radius of the top corner, instead of 
i-in., as recommended by the second committee. This was partly to effect a 
compromise with the advocates of a round corner, and partly to make the section 
more generally applicable on curves. The section was designed particularly for 
the tangents and easy curves which compose by far the greater part of the rail- 
way system. It is, however, largely and successfully used on lines having a 
large percentage of very sharp curves, and special sections are rarely desirable. 
An investigation made by the author in 1900 showed that out of 50 leading rail- 
ways (120,000 miles of road), 35 railways (with 75% of this mileage) had adopted 
this form of section as standard. It also showed that no excessive wheel wear 
had been caused by the sharp-cornered rails. 

Modifications of the Am. Soc. C. E. sections for the heavier weights have been 
proposed at different times; in 1902 another committee was appointed to report 
upon this matter, and upon the chemical composition and the methods of manu- 
facture. The report presented in 1906 showed the great extent to which these 
sections had been adopted, representing from 65 to 99% of the output of leading 
mills. It pointed out also that since the adoption of these sections in 1893, 
wheel loads and train speeds had been greatly increased; driving-wheel loads had 
increased 60%, while the maximum weight of rails had increased only 25%. It 
should be noted also that in many cases the increased wheel loads were not 
accompanied by any increase in weight of rails. The committee, however, 
did not then feel justified in recommending any change of section, but showed 
that unsatisfactory service of the heavy rails was largely accounted for by 
the changes in methods of manufacture. The principal of these were in the 
rolling of rails with too rapid a reduction and at too high a temperature. 
One proposed modification was to increase the depth of the rail head to enable 
it to resist bending or crushing down under heavy loads; on the other hand, 
it was proposed to increase the proportion of metal in the web and base in 
order to equalize the cooling during mill operations. In 1907, however, the 



RAILS. 



69 



committee decided to prepare modified designs for the heavier sections. The 
Am. Soc. C. E. type of section is undoubtedly in general satisfactory, and it 
is to the manufacture we must look for improvement in quality. A committee 
of the American Railway Association in 1907 reported that there was no neces- 
sity for a radical change in this type of section so far as its relation to the 
wheel is concerned, but that criticisms are based on an effort to strengthen 
the rail by a better disposition of the material, or an effort to so modify the 
section as to obtain better results in manufacture. The relation of wheels to 
rails and frogs is discussed in Chapter 7. 




e £- * 



— f . 

SO lbs. 

Fig. 30.— Sayre Type. 




BOIba 

Fig. 31. — Type of American 
Society of Civil Engineers. 



"*- 




72 lbs. 

Fig. 35. — Sandberg Rail Section. 




100 lbs. 
Fig. 32.— Dudley Type. 



As to the form of section, then, it may be said that the consensus of experience 
and investigation is that the head should be broad and relatively thin, with sharp 
top corners of J-in. (or ^-in.), sides vertical (or nearly so), and having fishing 
angles of not less than 13°. The flatter the under side of the head can be made, 
without affecting the rolling, the better; and the top and bottom fishing angles 
should be the same. In England, the standard is 14° for tee and 20° for bull- 
head rails. The web may be made with either vertical or curved sides. The 
latter design gives no greater strength, but is claimed to give a better com- 
pression of the metal in the thick parts at the union of the web with the head 
and base. In the Am. Soc. C. E. sections the minimum thickness is at the 
middle of the rail, but in the Dudley sections (noted below) it is nearer the 



70 TRACK. 

head. Flat- topped rail heads have been advocated, but early experiments 
showed that the metal in the head would not get so much work or compression 
from the rolls, and would thus be of less dense texture on the wearing surface 
than is desirable. In addition to this, the lateral play of the wheels would 
soon wear the top to a curved outline. The usual top radius is 12 or 14 ins. 
A 20-in. radius has been used, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. made 
it 18 ins. for its 75-lb. rails, but has adopted the Am. Soc. C. E. section with 
12 ins. radius. Any less radius is objectionable, but the Pennsylvania Ry. 
has adopted 10 ins. and the Sandberg sections have 6 ins. 

The width of base should be equal to, but not greater than, the height of the 
rail; if metal tie-plates are to be used, the width of base may be less than the 
height. The edges should not be too thin, and should be vertical, with 1/16-in. 
top and bottom curves, the latter reducing the cutting of the ties by the sharp 
edges. Increasing the width of base has little effect in reducing the cutting of 
ties, which is due to the motion more than to the direct pressure of the rail, while 
the metal in the extra width of base between the ties is practically useless. In 
order to roll the very wide thin flanges while hot the rails have to make the 
finishing passes with the metal in the head too hot to be properly compacted and 
hardened in rolling. Mr. Sandberg some years ago increased the width of rail 
base in his sections so as to avoid the use of tie-plates, for while he advocated 
their use, he found it difficult to get them introduced by the European railways 
which largely use his sections. The rail section as a whole suffered in conse- 
quence. In 1905, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. made a trial of a 101-lb. 
rail designed to give a larger bearing on the ties and to be used without tie-plates. 
It was 5 J ins. high and 6| ins. wide (even wider than the Sandberg rail above 
noted) ; the head was that of the 85-lb. Am. Soc. C. E. section. The mills had great 
trouble in rolling the rails, and when laid they broke very readily in the base. 
The effect upon the ties was said to be satisfactory, but under heavy traffic and 
wheel loads the ties (especially if of soft wood) would almost certainly continue 
to be cut by the rail. It is generally recognized as better to protect the ties by 
metal or wooden tie-plates. The Italian approach of the Simplon tunnel is laid 
with a tee-rail having a base much narrower than the height but of more than 
usual thickness, so that it is a favorable section for rolling. This is laid on 
heavy cast-iron tie-plates and secured with screw spikes. 

The rapid increase in weight of locomotives, cars and train loads has led to the 
use of heavier and stiffer rails in the sense of girders to carry the increased loads; 
and correspondingly wider heads are required to sustain the increased wheel 
pressure ratios per square inch of surface contact between rails and wheels. 
Where this was not done, the metal of both rails and tires has been in some cases 
overtaxed, excessive wear and flow taking place, and neither wheels nor rails 
giving as good service as had been expected. Broad, well-worked heads are 
required for the best efficiency of both rails and wheels. With this in view and as 
the result of the inspection of some 25,000 miles of track with his dynagraph car, 
Mr. P. H. Dudley designed a set of rail sections to meet the conditions of service 
thus ascertained. This type is shown by the 100-lb. rail of the New York Central 
Ry., in Fig. 32. It will be noticed that the fillets are of large radius, and that the 
narrowest part of the web is above the center line. This was designed to give 
extra resistance to twisting, so that the head will not bend over the web, nor 
the web over the base. The first of these was designed in 1883 for the New York 
Central Ry. The relation of good heavy rails to economy in operation is shown 



RAILS. 71 

by experiments in which hauling a train load of 378 tons at a speed of 55 miles 
per hour required 820 HP. on 65-lb. rails, and 720 HP. on 80-lb. rails, while 
it was estimated that only 620 HP. would have been required on 105-lb. 
rails. Broad-top rails replacing narrower rails may show apparently excessive 
wear at first, owing to the wheels having been worn to the narrower head, and 
this insufficient bearing may also cause the wheels to slip. The train resistance 
of freight trains of 25 to 30 cars (800 to 700 tons) on light rails at 18 miles per 
hour was 6 to 8 lbs. per ton; while with trains of 80 cars (3,428 tons) on Dudley 
SO-lb. 5|-in. rails at 20 miles per hour, it was only 3 lbs. per ton. These stiff 
heavy rails also reduce the work of maintenance and renewals from 20 to 50% 
and are especially valuable where maintenance work is heavy, as on steep 
grades, in tunnels, etc. The following is from a statement by Mr. Dudley: 

"The static pressures under passenger-car wheels on rail heads 2\ to 2-| ins. 
wide, range from 30,000 to 100,000 lbs. per sq. in., while those of locomotive 
driving wheels range from 110,000 to 150^000 lbs. To sustain such wheel 
pressures without undue flow and wear requires not only broad heads, but a 
high grade of metal in the rails. Comparisons of tire records on the New York 
Central Ry. before and after the use of the Dudley 80-lb. rail (5^ ins. high, 5 ins. 
width of base, 2 21/32 ins. width of head and 5/16 in. corners of head) show that 
with an increase of 40% in weight per driving wheel the mileage per 1/1 6- in. 
of wear per tire is about the same for the heavier locomotives on the 80-lb. rails, 
as formerly for the lighter locomotives on the 65-lb. rails. The former carried 
20,000 to 23,000 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,300 miles per 1/16-in. wear of 
tire. The latter carried 13,360 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,400 miles per 
1/16-in. wear. Since the general use of this 80-lb. rail, the locomotives rarely 
go to the shop to have the driving-wheel tires turned unless other repairs are 
needed, the wear of the tires no longer determining when the engines must go to 
the shop, as was the case when running on the 65-lb. rails. The mileage before 
re-turning the tires is from 150,000 to 190,000 miles. These facts show the value 
of the broad heads in increasing the life of tires as well as of rails." 

A new rail section of notable design was introduced in 1907 by Mr. R. W. 
Hunt, the expert in steel manufacture and rails. Its special features are the dis- 
tribution of metal and the form of the base, giving a good section for rolling, and 
causing the head and base to cool at about the same rate, thus avoiding cooling 
stresses. The base is thick and narrow, and in this respect the section resembles 
the Italian rail above noted. Less favorable features are the narrow head, and 
round top corners. The dimensions of the 100-lb. rail (Fig. 33) are given in the 
accompanying table; it has a cross-sectional area of 9.87 sq. ins. (head, 3.53; 
web, 2.27; base, 4.04). This rail was designed with a special view to re-rolling 
when worn; giving an 80-lb. rail after two such treatments. Another peculiar 
rail is that of the Great Northern Ry. (Fig. 34), having flaring sides and a f-in. 
corner radius, which is the largest radius now in use. A somewhat similar sec- 
tion is standard on the Gould railway system. The Chicago, Burlington & 
Quincy Ry. has an 85-lb. rail conforming very closely to the Am. Soc. C. E. 
section, but modified unfavorably with a 5° slope and f-in. corner radius for the 
head. The tee-rail sections adopted by the British Engineering Standards Com- 
mittee in 1905 are similar to the American sections in that the height and base 
width are equal and that the head has vertical sides and a top radius of 12 ins. 
They differ from them as follows: (1) The distribution of metal is not uniform 
for all weights; (2) the top corner radius is larger, and is not uniform; (3) the 
fishing angle is 14°; (4) the upper surface of the base has not a uniform slope, 
being 1 in 10 beyond the splice-bar seat; (5) the sides of the web are vertical. 



72 



TRACK. 



The form of the base is such as to give less depth in the center, and consequently 
a slightly smaller percentage of the metal than in the American sections, but 
it also gives a somewhat greater thickness in the outer part of the base. In 
the section designed by Mr. Sandberg, the European rail expert, and used 
somewhat extensively, the heads are wide, with corners of large radius, as 
shown in the accompanying table. He claimed that tho wide radius was 
necessary for the long rigid wheel base of European care, but this has been 
disputed, and in any case the cars are now largely mounted on trucks. The 
dimensions and proportions of a numbor of modern rail sections are given in 
Table No. 4. 





Fig. 33. — Hunt Rail Section. 



Fig. 34. — Rail Section of Great Northern Ry. 



The advantages of heavy rails for tracks carrying heavy loads and heavy 
traffic, and the increased efficiency and economy due to the use of such rails, 
are now widely recognized, as shown by the very extensive adoption of heavier 
rails which has been noticeable for the past few years. The increase in weight, 
however, has been by no means proportionate to the very striking increase in 
traffic and in wheel loads. Besides properly sustaining the traffic, the rails must 
be heavy enough to have a margin of safety to provide against the exigencies of 
badly tamped or widely spaced ties, the heaving of the roadbed in winter, and the 
effects of flat or eccentric wheels. Stiffness is as important as weight in rails 
under heavy and fast trains, and this is one of the principal reasons for an 
increase in weight. It is also one reason why a reduction in weight of rail 
cannot properly be made for a closer spacing of ties or even with a continuous 
bearing for the rails. As the weight is increased the fiber stresses in the rail 
decrease, as shown later on. Increase in weight of rails should be accompanied 
by a corresponding increase in strength or stability of the substructure which 
carries them. 

Mere increase in weight does not necessarily insure improved service, but 
design and manufacture are of great importance (especially the latter). In a rail 
having a large proportion of metal in the head, the metal will not be thoroughly 
rolled, and this coarse-grained or soft metal is more rapidly worn. As 
only a certain depth of surface wear can be allowed before the rail becomes 
unserviceable, the large head may really give no more wear than a lighter rail 
with a head so proportioned as to be rolled hard and dense. A good heavy rail, 
however, is a profitable investment, not only in point of service, but also in giving 
a stiffer and easier riding track. The heavier and stiffer rails give a better dis- 



RAILS. 



73 



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74 TRACK. 

tribution of the stresses within the rail itself, and a better distribution of the 
load upon the ties and the roadbed, with considerably less dynamic effect. 
Having less deflection, they do not creep so much; they do not deflect so much 
at the joints, and the receiving ends do not cut out so much; while the rails do 
not "roll" so much, even without tie-plates, so that there is less work in main- 
taining the gage. The great trouble of recent years has been that the heavy 
rails are of inferior quality, giving poor service and being specially troublesome 
on account of fracture. As steel is homogeneous, the failure of rails in service 
is not by splitting and lamination, as in iron rails, but by (1) normal wear or 
abrasion of the head, .(2) cutting out and bending at the joints, due to the blows 
of the wheels, (3) the flow of the metal of the head under heavy wheel pressures, 
and (4) largely by fracture due to various conditions of improper composition, 
defective manufacture, excessive loading and low atmospheric temperatures. 

Rails of 100 lbs. per yd. are in use on the busy divisions of several important 
lines, and also in such special locations as tunnels and terminal approaches. 
That of the New York Central Ry. (Fig. 32) was the first to be rolled in this 
country. It was first adopted for the four-track line approaching the New York 
terminal, in order to reduce the difficulty and expense of maintenance and 
renewals on tracks so crowded with traffic and laid largely in tunnel and in open 
cut with retaining walls. With light rails under considerable traffic, the dimin- 
ished life of rails and ties, the increased cost of material and labor for mainte- 
nance and renewals, and the occasional sums involved in repairs and damage suits 
after wrecks, more than balance the cost of rails of suitable weight which will 
make a better track. For ordinary freight and passenger traffic on roads with 
easy curves and grades, the weight should be from 70 to 75 lbs. For extra heavy 
freight traffic or fast passenger traffic, or on lines with sharp curves and steep 
grades, the weight should be from 80 lbs. upwards, and rails of 80, 85, 90, 95 and 
100 lbs. are in service on various roads. A 110-lb. rail 6£ ins. high and wide was 
designed for the Chignecto Ship Ry. (Canada), but this line was never built. In 
calculating the weight of any section, the weight of steel is usually taken as 10.20 
lbs. for a 36-in. bar of 1 sq. in. For rails of 95 lbs. and over, however, 10.18 
lbs. is found to give a closer result. It may be pointed out that the rail is only 
one part of the track, and that improvements in ballast, ties, fastenings, joints, 
etc., are of equal importance in the construction and maintenance of a first-class 
track. At rail joints the corners (on new rails) may cut the wheels unless the 
rails are in perfect alinement. New rails laid on old ties may be given a wavy 
surface or a permanent set due to careless handling or to uneven bearing sur- 
faces. This cannot afterwards be remedied, and will materially reduce the 
benefits that should result from the new rails. The laying of heavier rails on 
ordinarily good track should reduce the work of maintenance and renewals. 
It has already been explained that the number of ties should not be reduced when 
heavier rails are introduced. 

The ordinary length of rails is 30 ft. (at 70° F.), but many railways have 
adopted 33 ft. as the standard length, thus reducing the number of joints by 
10%. The Lehigh Valley Ry. has used 45-ft. rails, which are also employed in 
the Hoosac Tunnel (Boston & Maine Ry.). Rails 60 ft. long are used to some 
extent at tunnels, bridges, etc., as well as in ordinary track. There is some- 
times difficulty in turning these long rails on the right of way, but the Norfolk 
& Western Ry. has 85-lb. 60-ft. rails which are not found particularly awkward 
to handle. The use of 60-ft. rails is limited, partly on account of the very 



RAILS. 75 

wide expansion opening at the joints. They are being used by a number of 
electric interurban railways, which find them more difficult to handle and to 
keep in line, but in some cases easier to keep in surface, than 30-ft. or 33-ft. 
rails. Continuous rails, with the ends welded together in the track, are 
extensively used on street railways, and have been tried experimentally (but 
with bolted or riveted joints) in railway track. With this arrangement no 
expansion spacing is given. In 1893, Mr. Torrey, Chief Engineer of the Michigan 
Central Ry., laid six consecutive stretches of continuous rails, 800 ft., 500 ft., 
250 ft. and 100 ft. in length. The rails were laid end to end, and the rails and 
splice bars were then drilled for 1-in. turned bolts. Switch points were used to 
allow for expansion at the ends of the lengths. The 800-ft. length was after- 
wards reduced to 500 ft., on account of excessive expansion, but the track is said 
to have given very satisfactory service. 

Steel rails were first rolled in England about 1855; and in the United States 
experimentally in 1865, and to order in 1867, when the improvement of the 
Bessemer process of 1862 (largely due to and introduced in this country by 
A. L. Holley) led to greatly increased facility of manufacture and a decrease in 
cost. This process (with Holley's improvements) and the consequent introduc- 
tion of steel rails at moderate prices were great factors in the enormous railway 
development of this country, and iron rails are now obsolete. The acid Bessemer 
process, in its turn, is declining. It is not adapted to ores high in phosphorus and 
sulphur, of which immense quantities are available in this country, and little has 
been done in the introduction of the basic-Bessemer process. There is, how- 
ever, a marked development in the use of the basic open-hearth process, which 
allows for the use of these high-phosphorus ores and the better control of the 
phosphorus. The most important metalloids in the metal are carbon, silicon, 
manganese, phosphorus and sulphur. The first three have a high affinity for 
oxygen, and are readily removed from the metal at high temperature by the 
oxygen of the air. The other two, being chemical acids (forming acid compounds 
when oxidized), must be exposed to the action of lime or other mineral bases 
having sufficiently active affinity for the phosphorus and sulphur to remove 
them from the iron. A silicious (or acid) lining in the Bessemer converter or 
open-hearth furnace will be fluxed and destroyed if these mineral bases are 
used, and can consequently be used only with metal sufficiently low in phos- 
phorus and sulphur to yield a satisfactory product without this treatment. A 
basic lining (of magnesite or dolomite) allows of large additions of lime to the 
molten metal and also of oxides of iron (ore, mill scales, etc.). 

In the Bessemer process, the metal from the blast furnaces is delivered by 15- 
or 20-ton ladles to a mixer or tank. From this the molten metal is taken by 
other ladles and charged into 10- or 15-ton converters, a certain proportion of 
scrap being then added. Air at about 25 lbs. pressure is blown in from the 
bottom of the converter and in a few minutes burns out the silicon and carbon. 
The proper degree of carbon and manganese are then added by a charge of 
spiegeleisen (in the converter or the casting ladle), and the steel is then poured 
into the casting ladle and thence into the ingot molds. The ingots are generally 
about 18X22 ins., 5 to 5h ft. long, weighing from 5,000 to 6,000 lbs. When solid, 
the ingot is taken from the mold and set upright in a furnace called a soaking pit 
until needed. The ingot is first rolled in a blooming mill, which reduces it to a 
bloom or bar about 8 or 9 ins. square and 24 ft. or 15 ft. long. The bloom is 
then cropped at least 12 ins. at the ends, to cut off any spongy parts or piping, 



76 TRACK. 

and cut in two or three lengths according to the weight of rail to be made. The 
bloom may then be reheated or go direct to the rail mill. Here the roughing 
rolls and intermediate rolls (with five passes each) give it the approximate 
shape. The finishing rolls give it the required section and form the name of 
maker, date, weight of rail and other marks on the web of the rail. The hot 
rails are then cut by circular saws to such a length that they will be 30 ft. (or as 
required) when cold. They then go to a cambering machine, and then to the 
cooling beds, where the camber (6 to 12 ins. according to the distribution of 
metal in the section) is taken out in cooling. When cooled, the rails go to the 
cold-straightening press, where any kinks are taken out. The burr left by the 
saws is then chipped off and the ends are filed. The rails are then measured for 
length, drilled for the bolt holes, and placed on the inspection or shipping 
beds. (Blooming, 6 to 12 passes. Finishing, 1 to 5 passes. Shrinkage of 
rail, 6 to 7 ins.) 

In the open-hearth process, the metal is taken from the mixer to the open- 
hearth furnace, where lime is added and also oxide in the form of ore and mill 
scale. The oxide eliminates the metalloids and the lime absorbs the phosphorus 
and sulphur. The process takes about two hours (instead of a few minutes), 
but the furnace handles a charge of about 50 tons (instead of 15 tons). The 
furnace is then tilted, andat once recharged. The metal from the furnace is 
poured by the casting ladle into ingots which are handled as above described. 
The process is expedited at some plants by a duplex process in which the metal 
is first treated in Bessemer converters for the removal of the carbon and silicon, 
and then delivered to the open-hearth furnaces. 

The quality and wearing property of rails depends upon the chemical com- 
position and the treatment in manufacture, but more especially upon the latter. 
The finer the grain the better the wearing quality, and this is produced by 
mechanical treatment at low temperature. Rails should be rolled slowly for the 
finishing passes and at a comparatively low temperature (about 1600° F.) in 
order to produce a metal of close or fine-grained texture. The work done upon 
very hot rails has little effect in reducing the coarse texture. The higher the 
carbon, the more important is this finishing treatment. With the higher tem- 
peratures (2,000° or 2,200° instead of 1,600°), higher speed of the rolls (900 ft. 
per min. instead of 400 ft.), and fewer number of passes for the bloom (6 to 10 
instead of 13 or 15), rails cannot be expected to be of as good quality as those 
made under the opposite conditions. Speed of output is the main aim, and as 
the men are paid by the ton, they also have an interest in a large and rapid out- 
put. As the mills are full of work there is no liability of any change in process 
that will reduce the capacity of output. In the Kennedy-Morrison system an 
attempt is made to effect a compromise by holding back the rails before sending 
them to the finishing rolls. As they come from the intermediate train they are 
run to a cooling bed and held from 45 to 90 seconds. This involves little actual 
delay, as when once the bed is filled there is the same rate of output from the 
finishing rolls. Each rail is laid with its head against the base of the previous 
one, so that the rails will cool equally, the more rapidly cooling flange of one 
absorbing heat from the hot mass of metal in the head of the next. The rails 
have a temperature of about 1,740° to 1,765° on reaching the bed, and from 
1,575° to 1,600° on leaving the finishing rolls. They are said to have a closer 
grain, and to require less cambering, owing to the smaller difference in tempera- 
ture of the head and base. It appears, however, that in practice the close grain 
is in the top of the head rather than in the entire body of the rail. 



RAILS. 77 

In crder to obtain the desired low finishing temperature the specifications of 
the American Railway Engineering Association provide that the number of 
passes and speed of rolls must be so regulated that on leaving the rolls at the 
final pass the temperature of the rail will not exceed that which requires a shrink- 
age allowance at the hot saws of 6 ins. for 85-lb. and 6£ ins. for 100-lb. rails; no 
artificial means of cooling the rails to be used between the finishing pass and the 
hot saws. An alternative is to specify a temperature at the finishing rolls of 
not over 1,600° F. for rails rolled from reheated blooms, or 1,750° F. for rails 
rolled direct from the bloom. The specifications of the American Society of 
Civil Engineers are similar, but give a shrinkage allowance not exceeding 6^ 
ins. for 33-ft. 100-lb. rails and xe-in. less for each 5-lb. reduction in weight, with 
a decrease in the allowance for delay between the final pass and the saws. The 
New York Central Ry. specifies 5| and 6 ins. for 30-ft. and 33-ft. 80-lb. rails, 
and 5| and 6^ ins. for 100-lb. rails. These important shrinkage requirements 
are largely ignored by the mills. 

The maximum camber allowed at any point in a rail when it reaches the cold- 
straightening press is very generally 5 ins., but many engineers consider it 
desirable to limit this to 3 ins., especially as a 5-in. camber is unusual. The gag 
or ram of this press should not be applied to the head of the rail and must not 
leave marks on the rail. The supports should be 42 ins. apart for heavy rails ; 
the New York Central Ry. requires 36 ins. for weights up to 70 lbs. per yd., 40 
ins. to 80 lbs., and 44 ins. for 100 lbs. Some better system of straightening is 
much to be desired, as many rails are injured in this treatment and prove 
defective in the track. 

One of the most important chemical constituents of rail steel is the carbon, 
the proportion of which ranges from 0.40 to 0.45% for 60-lb. rails, to 0.60 to 
0.70% for 100-lb. rails. The maximum is 0.65 to 0.75% in 80-lb. rails for the 
Boston Elevated Ry.;- this was adopted as the result of experience with some 
special rails having 0.78% carbon. The New York Central Ry. specifies 0.65 
to 0.70% for 100-lb. rails, but any higher percentage is rejected. The object of 
the high carbon proportion is to make the steel hard, but it is liable to render it 
brittle unless special care is taken in proportioning the other chemical com- 
ponents and in the process of manufacture. With proper heat treatment and 
proper rolling, however, a high-carbon rail can be made combining hardness (to 
resist wear) with toughness (to resist fracture); such rails have given excellent 
results in service. The general experience in the United States is that well- 
made high-carbon rails give a longer life and are not more liable to fracture, 
while they are much less subject to flow or deformation under heavy loads. It 
was at one time suggested that low-carbon steel would give the best wearing 
qualities, but a very little experience exploded this fallacy. 

Phosphorus is one of the most troublesome constituents, and Bessemer rails 
have usually too high a proportion of this in relation to the carbon. The usual 
specified limit is 0.085%, but in practice 0.1% is reached (and even exceeded) 
in high-carbon rails. This combination of high phosphorus with high carbon 
and hot rolling is apt to produce a brittle rail, but under the Bessemer process it 
is not easy to reduce it. This is one reason for the rapid modern development of 
the open-hearth process which gives a better control of the phosphorus. Sulphur 
is also objectionable, tending to cause seams. A small proportion of manganese 
gives a smooth surface and good rolling quality, but if high it may lead to frac- 
ture. Silicon tends to make the steel both tough and hard. Mr. Sandberg con- 



78 



TRACK. 



siders that it should be eliminated in the converter (as an impurity) and then 
added as ferro-silicon to produce the required results. 

The chemical proportions for rails cannot be stated arbitrarily or uniformly, 
but the specifications must be prepared with regard to the quality of the ore 
to be used and the weight of the rail. The design and the methods of manu- 
facture are as important as the chemical proportions. Some roads do not 
specify the chemical composition, but the rails are subject to inspection (as to 
manufacture) and tests by the railways. Mr. R. W. Hunt thinks it best to 
specify only the carbon, silicon and. phosphorus, leaving the rest to the judgment 
of the manufacturer, as quality must depend more upon the manufacture than 
upon the chemical composition. A number of specifications are given in Table 
No. 5, and it will be seen that in some of these there is no mention of the sul- 
phur content. 

TABLE NO. 5.— SPECIFICATIONS FOR CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAILS. 





Weight. 


, 






Percentage of— 




< 


Specifications. 


lbs. per yd. 


Carbon. 


Phos- 
phorus. 


* Manganese. 


Sul- 
phur.* 


Silicon.* 






A. Bessemer Steel. 










Am. Soc. C. Engrs. f 

and i 

Am. Ry. Eng. Assoc. [ 


70 to 79 


0.50 to 0.60 


0.085 


0.75 to 1.00 


0.075 


0.20 


80 " 89 


0.53 ' 


' 0.63 


0.085 


0.80 ' ' 


1.05 


0.075 


0.20 


90 " 100 


0.55 ' 


' 0.65 


0.085 


0.80 " 


1.05 


0.075 


0.20 


Mfrs. Association 


70 " 80 


0.40 ' 


' 0.50 


0.10 


0.75 " 


1.05 




0.20 


and | 


80 " 90 


0.43 ' 


' 0.53 


0.10 


0.80 ' ' 


1.10 




0.20 


Am. Soc. Test. Matls. [ 


90 " 100 


0.45 ' 


' 0.55 


0.10 


0.80 ' ' 


1.10 




0.20 


N. Y. Central Ry.f . ■ - 


65 


0.45 ' 


' 0.55t 


0.06 


1.05 " 


1.25 


6.069 


0.15 to 0.20 


N. Y. Central Ry 


70 


0.47 ' 


' 0.57t 


0.06 


1.05 " 


1.25 


0.069 


0.15 " 0.20 


N. Y. Central Ry 


. 80 


0.55 ' 


' 0.60f 


0.06 


1.10 " 


1.30 


0.069 


0.15 " 0.20 


N. Y. Central Ry 


100 


0.65 ' 


' 0.70t 


0.06 


1.20 " 


1.40 


0.069 


0.15 " 0.20 




60 to 70 


0.38 ' 


' 0.48 


0.10 


0.70 " 


1.00 




0.20 




70 " 80 


0.45 ' 


' 0.55 


0.10 


0.75 " 


1.05 




0.20 




80 " 90 


0.48 ' 


' 0.58 


0.10 


0.80 " 


1.10 




0.20 


Mo. Pacific Ry 


90 ' ' 100 


0.50 ' 


' 0.60 


0.10 


0.80 " 


1.10 




0.20 


Wabash Rv 


70 
80 
90 
100 
90 


0.42 ' 
0.47 ' 
0.53 ' 
0.60 ' 
0.53 ' 


' 0.50 
' 0.55 
' 0.61 
' 0.68 
' 0.63 


0.085 
0.085 
0.085 
0.085 
0.07 


0.75 " 
0.80 " 
0.80 ' 
0.80 ' 
0.90 ' 


0.98 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.20 


6.07 
0.07 
0.07 
0.07 
0.07 


0.20 


Wabash. Ry 


0.20 




0.20 




0.20 


Phila. & Read. Ry 




Mich. Cent. Ry 


80 to 100 


0.48 ' 


' 0.60 


0.10 


0.90 ' 


1.20 




6!20 


Boston Elev. Ry 




0.65 ' 


' 0.75 


0.06 


1.00 ' 


1.30 




0.25 


British Standards .... 


60 to i 00 


0.35 ' 


' 0.50 


0.07 


0.70 ' 


1.00 


6.07 


0.10 




B 


. Open 


-hearth Basic Steel. 








Am. Soc. C. E 


70 to 79 


0.53 to 0.63 


0.05 


0.75 to 1.00 


0.06 


0.20 


Am. Soc. C. E 


80 " 89 


0.58 ' 


' 0.68 


0.05 


0.80 ' 


1.05 


0.06 


0.20 


Am. Soc. C. E 


90 ' ' 100 


0.65 ' 


' 0.75 


0.05 


0.80 ' 


1.05 


0.06 


0.20 


Am. Ry. Eng. Assoc . . 


70 " 79 


0.63 ' 


' 0.73 


0.03 


0.90* 


0.06 


0.075 to 0.2 


Am. Ry. Eng. Assoc . . 


80 " 89 


0.68 • 


' 0.78 


0.03 


0.90* 


0.06 


0.075 " 0.2 


Am. Ry. Eng. Assoc . . 


90 " 100 


0.75 ' 


' 0.85 


0.03 


0.90* 


0.06 


0.075 " 0.2 


So. Pac. Ry 


75 


0.51 ' 


' 0.61 


0.06 


0.75 * 


1.00 


0.06 


0.20 


So. Pac. Ry 


90 


0.58 ' 


' 0.72 


0.06 


0.80 " 


1.05 


0.06 


0.20 



Note. — Where no figures are given, the specifications omit reference to these constituents. 

* The percentage in these cases must not be exceeded. 

t The New York Central Ry. specifies minimum and maximum percentages of carbon, 
and steel showing lower or higher percentages will be rejected: 

Weight of rail 65-lb. 70-lb. 75-lb. 80-lb. 100-lb. 

Minimum 43% 45% 48% 53% 60% 

Maximum 57% 59% 62% 65% 70% 

Many of the heavier modern rails give less wear or service than lighter rails 
made when the manufacture was more carefully attended to. At one time 
engineers and rail makers claimed that heavy rails could not be made which 
would give as good service as the smaller and lighter rails. This, of course, was 
erroneous, and with the present scientific knowledge and powerful machinery, 
modern mills can make heavy rails of high quality. But the makers are arbi- 
trary and instead of making rails as required by engineers they prefer to follow 



RAILS. 79 

their own specifications, thus dictating the character of the rails. There is also 
a general tendency to roll the rails too hot and too rapidly, as already noted. 
Under such conditions a high quality of product is not to be expected. Rail 
breakages have become increasingly numerous. It is claimed that the breakages 
and rapid wear are due to increased wheel loads and traffic, but this is refuted by 
the fact that old light rails satisfactorily carry traffic under which new and 
heavier rails begin to crush, fail and break as soon as laid in the track. As an 
instance of many cases, the Grand Trunk Ry. experienced frequent breakages 
of new 80-lb. rails, while none occurred with 10-year-old 65-lb. rails on the same 
track. The defective character of modern 80-lb. to 100-lb. rails has been shown 
by investigation. The coarse grain indicates insufficient work and too high a 
temperature in rolling, while the combination of high phosphorus with high 
carbon results in brittleness. This latter feature is one cause for the increasing 
use of low-phosphorus open-hearth rails. But another serious defect is in the 
numerous cavities and seams in the metal, winch lead to fracture. These result 
from the use of metal in the ingots which has not properly solidified, due to 
handling it too soon after casting, or to the use of the spongy metal near the 
head of the ingot. The cavities in this are rolled out into "pipes" in the rail. 
To prevent this, engineers have demanded that at least 25% of the head of the 
ingot should be cropped (or such amount as will give solid metal). This is 
strongly opposed by the manufacturers, as it would tend to reduce the output, 
while the cropped ends must be largely remelted. Their quantity would be more 
than sufficient for light second-class rails, and their quality unsuitable for 
structural steel. They might be rolled for angle bars (see Joints). The manu- 
facturers, however, have it in their power to make ingots of such quality that such 
a percentage of discard would not be required; until they do this, the high arbi- 
trary discard should be enforced by the railways. 

Methods resulting in improved quality of rails may result in higher prices. 
The necessity of this is doubtful, as the cost of manufacture has been reduced 
very low, while the market price has little to do with the quality, being fixed 
arbitrarily. The ultimate improvement in manufacture may require some 
change in the rail section, but it would be useless to make such a change unless 
there can be an assurance that the improved methods will be employed in its 
manufacture. Nor would heavier rails be of benefit under such conditions. As 
a matter of fact, the present rails could be made of better quality. A practice at 
one time obtained by which the makers guaranteed to replace all worn or broken 
rails that had to be renewed within a certain period (usually five years). No 
such guarantees are now given, and at most the makers agree to replace broken 
rails which show actual flaws. The guarantee system has been very generally 
followed in Europe. It is generally recognized that methods of manufacture 
should be left largely to the discretion of the maker, the rails being carefully 
inspected and tested on behalf of the purchaser. Under present conditions 
there is practically no control of the manufacture; the mills very generally 
decline to make rails to the requirements of the railways, but furnish those made 
to the specifications adopted by the manufacturers. Three important points to 
be enforced in order to obtain good rails are: (1) Sufficient cropping of the top 
of the ingot to insure sound and solid metal; (2) A shrinkage limit to insure low 
finishing temperature and sufficient working of the metal in the rolls; (3) Drop 
tests of sufficient number and severity to detect brittle rails. 

Specifications usually allow a variation of 1/64-in. under and 1/32-in. over the 



80 TRACK. 

specified height; J-in. in length, and sometimes T V m - in width. Also 0.5% in 
weight for an entire order. Usually about 10% of the order is allowed to be in 
lengths varying by even feet down to 24 ft. for 30-ft. rails or 27 ft. for 33-ft. 
rails. A certain proportion, also, are 29| or 32J ft. long for curves. There is 
also an allowance for the acceptance of second-class rails up to about 5% of 
the order. The short rails for curves and the second-class rails are distin- 
guished by having the ends painted. Some roads also require first-class rails 
to be painted (a distinctive color) to indicate that they have been inspected. 

Rails are usually tested by the drop test, with a weight falling upon a piece of 
rail placed with head or base upward on supports 3 or 4 ft. apart. The rail 
must not break under one blow. The Dudley specifications for the New York 
Central Ry. require that 90% of the rails must stand without breaking and must 
show 4% elongation in the inch which is subjected to the greatest tension. 
Spaces of 1 in. marked on the rail under the point of impact enable the elongation 
to be readily determined. It is not necessary to show a great deflection, as the 
test is mainly to discover brittle rails. The practice has been to test one rail 
for each fifth blow or heat of steel, but the specifications approved by railway 
and engineering associations call for a drop-test for every blow. The makers 
object on the ground that as all the metal in the mixer is practically uniform 
and is sufficient for several heats, one test will show the character of the product. 
The reply to this is that each blow is likely to receive different treatment in the 
converter and in rolling, and that very different qualities of rails may thus be 
produced. The specifications further require that the test must be made on a 
rail rolled from the top of the ingot, which is the part of inferior quality, as 
already described. They require a 2,000-lb. weight, with an anvil block of at 
least 20,000 lbs., and rail supports (on this block) 3 ft. apart. The rail must 
be from 4 to 6 ft. long, and sustain a blow from the weight falling 18 ft. for 
65- to 75-lb. rails, 20 ft. for 75- to 85-lb., and 22 ft. for 85- to 100-lb. rails. . If 
the rail breaks, two other rails from the same blow are to be tested, and if 
both of these stand the test the rails will be accepted. Some roads require 
bending tests of two bars poured at the same time as the first and last ingots 
of each heat. The New York Central Ry. specifies test ingots 2\ ins. square 
rolled to bars |-in. square; pieces 18 to 20 ins. long must bend 90° without 
fracture. The Wabash Ry. specifies 3-in. ingots, 4 ins. long, drawn out by 
hammering to |-in. section and bent cold to 90°. 

Stresses in Rails. — Owing to the lack of uniformity in the tie supports, rails 
are subjected to varying and severe strains beyond those due to their acting as 
girders between adjacent ties. Stiff er and heavier rails distribute the loads over 
a greater length of track, but under present loads and track conditions rails are 
required to perform more than their proper duty in acting as girders. A plan 
proposed to secure uniformity in support and to give lower and more uniform 
stresses in the rails by placing longitudinal beams under the ends of the ties has 
been mentioned in Chapter I. For the entire length of an engine and tender the 
track will be depressed slightly below the normal surface of the rail, with an 
extra depression under each wheel. In front of the engine, the rail is actually 
above normal level (due to wave motion). The depression under heavily loaded 
wheels of modern engines may be |-in. to f-in., partly due to compression of the 
ballast and roadbed. 

An important step in regard to determining the efficiency of rail is the intro- 
duction of the stremmatograph, invented by Mr. P. H. Dudley, to determine 



RAILS. 



81 



and record the fiber stresses in rails under load, and the distribution of these 
stresses in the rails. This is a matter beyond mathematical analysis. As the 
load (static or dynamic) is applied, the rails deflect, and there is a compression 
of the ties, ballast and roadbed, the deflection and compression being naturally 
greatest under the wheels, or the points where the load is applied. Fig. 36 shows 
the total depression of track laid with 95-lb. rails and stone ballast, with a loco- 
motive standing upon it. In regard to the rail under a moving load, there is a 
compression in the head, a tension in the base, and a shearing stress across .the 
rail section at or near the ties which at that instant are bearing the load. The 
span of the rail deflection under the wheel is usually longer than the tie spacing. 



■115,700 lbs. 



89 



\700lbs. — ^ ^--75,000 lbs. ^. 

§s §i II 

^ k> rQ- 

-6'8"-->^ — 8'3- ->fc-- 66'- *j<-"~ 811 

i 

i 



tf 



-84,000 lbs. 



,c: 



•>K-4c , '-->K-5'/i?'-- 
j 

i x 



-yk4S-- 

i 




Fig. 36. — Track Deflections under Locomotive and Tender. 



At a point a little distance on either side of the wheel the stresses are reversed, 
the head being in tension and the base in compression.* The tensile fiber 
stresses per sq. in. in rails of different weights (on stone ballast) under the driving 
wheels of a freight locomotive, with 113,800 lbs., and a passenger locomotive with 
87,300 lbs. on these wheels, were as follows: 



Rails. 



60-lb. 70-lb. 85-lb. 100-lb. 

Freight engine 16,050 11 ,510 10,030 9,430 

Passenger engine 19,540 14,390 10,750 9,840 

In a paper presented to the American Institute of Mining Engineers in 1899, 
Mr. Dudley gave complete records of the stresses in rails under and between the 
wheels of trains. A brief summary of a record for a train running at 20 miles 
an hour over 6-in. 100-lb. rails is given in Table No. 6, the stresses being measured 
on a 5-in. length of one rail. 

Wear of Rails. — The life of first-class 60-lb. to 80-lb. steel rails on tangents is 
given in Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway Location" (1887) as 150,- 
000,000 to 200,000,000 tons. There are from 10 to 15 lbs. of metal, or |-in. to 
f-in. depth of head, available for wear, and abrasion takes place at the rate of 
about 1 lb. per 10,000,000 tons, or ^ in. per 14,000,000 to 15,000,000 tons of 
traffic. The rate of wear is increased locally about 75% by the use of sand by 
the locomotives. About half the metal in the rail head is available for wear, 
but this is not obtainable in main track, as the rails would be too rough for ser- 
vice; about |-in. to f-in. is the limit of wear in main track, the rails being then 
removed to branch or side tracks. High-carbon 100-lb. 6-in. rails on the New 
York Central Ry. have carried 250,000,000 tons with a wear of only ^-in. depth 
of head; while others laid in 1895 had in 1905 carried 275,000,000 tons of heavy 
wheel loads with a wear of only 3/32-in. in the center of the head. Mr. Sand- 



* Engineering News, Oct. 6, 1898; Railroad Gazette, May 20 and Oct. 21, 1898; Feb. 
23, 1900. 



82 TRACK. 

berg's 100-lb. rails in England, after seven years' service, had carried about 7,000,- 
0C0 tons with a wear of 3/32-in. in the head, and he estimated the life at 30,- 
000,0CO tons. Mr. Price Williams, the English engineer, estimates 20,000,000 
tons per ^-in. wear for bull-head rails, with a safe limit of wear of f-in., or a 
life of 120,000,000 tons. On curves, the life is regulated by the flange wear on 
the sides of the heads; this varies with the degree of curve, the traffic and the 
quality of the rail. With rigid or secure fastenings this wear is reduced as 
compared with that where common spikes are used. In tunnels there is apt to 
be abnormal wear due to use of sand on damp rails, and also corrosion due to 
the effect of the dampness, the gases from the engine, and the drippings from 
coal, ore and refrigerator cars. In some English tunnels the rails are painted. 

TABLE NO. 6.— STRESSES IN RAILS. 

Tension. Compression, 

lbs. lbs. 

In front of first truck wheel 2,362 

Under first truck wheel 13,227 

Between truck wheels 6,850 

Under second truck wheel 7,086 

Between truck and driving wheels 5,669 

Under first driving wheel 8,267 

Between driving wheels 7,086 

Under second driving wheel 6,141 

Between engine and tender 5,669 

Under first tender wheel 4,960 

Between wheels 2,834 

Under second tender wheel 5,905 

Between wheels 5,432 

Under third tender wheel 4,448 

Between wheels 3,307 

Under fourth tender wheel 6,377 

Between tender and first car 4,015 

Under first wheel of rear car 7,322 

Between wheels 3,071 

Under second wheel of rear car 3,543 

Between wheels 3,071 

Under third wheel of rear car 4,017 

Behind third wheel 1,417 

Between trucks 472 

In front of fourth wheel 945 

Under fourth wheel 9,684 

Between wheels 1,890 

Under fifth wheel 7,795 

Between wheels 2,834 

Under sixth wheel 5,905 

Beh'fnd wheel 709 

Instrument returned to zero. 

Modern rails fail more largely by deformation of section at or near the joints, 
as well as by abrasion proper. The deformation and crushing are largely due to 
the driving-wheel loads, the wear from which is estimated at 50 to 75% of the 
total. Heavy freight engines may have three or four driving-wheel loads of 
18,000 to 30,000 lbs. on a length of 12 to 16 ft. of the rail, while passenger loco- 
motives have wheel loads of 16,000 to 25,000 lbs. The area of contact between 
driving wheels and rails is an oval about |Xl in. (or 1 Xli ins. with worn tires 
or rails), with an area of 1.07 sq. in. This is for rails of moderate weight, and 
is probably somewhat greater when the wheels are in motion. The length of the 
area is less with heavy rails having less deflection, and the area in such cases may 
be 0.8 to 0.9 sq. in. as determined by Mr. P. H. Dudley. Metal confined in the 
center of the rail head (at the point of contact) can sustain loads of 150,000 to 
perhaps 180,000 lbs. without decided flow, being supported by the surrounding 
metal. Under excessive pressures the metal flows and forms a lip along the 
edge of the rail. This will be increased where worn wheels concentrate the 
pressure under the false flange. Serious vertical and lateral bending of the 



RAILS. 83 

rails, or even failure, may be caused by "dead" locomotives hauled rapidly in 
freight trains with the rods taken down; or by running engines with small wheels 
at excessive speeds. In both cases, the unbalanced forces due to the counter- 
balance weights in the driving wheels have a powerful and destructive effect 
upon the rails. The rails may also be injured by the slipping of driving wheels 
in carelessly starting trains at stations, water tanks, etc. 

A peculiar character of rail wear which is experienced in this country and 
abroad, on street railways as well as on ordinary railways, is the formation of 
transverse corrugations on the head. These make a rough and noisy track. 
Various causes have been assigned. Mr. Perroud, Engineer of Maintenance of 
"Way of the Northern Ry. of France, has concluded (after extensive investiga- 
tions) that they are caused by the vibration of the rails as they leave the rolls. 
They may be accentuated or diminished under different conditions of traffic. 
With fast trains, the wheels strike a series of sharp blows on the faces of the 
corrugations, causing very hard spots which cannot be smoothed off, and the 
result is a noisy track, with increased maintenance due to the effect of the 
shock and vibration on the ballast. The corrugations are 1.18 to 1.57 ins. c. 
to c. and 0.0078 to 0.0118 in. deep. The remedy suggested is to face or finish 
the rolling surfaces of such rails, preferably before they are put in the track. In 
England, grinding machines are extensively used on street railways to face rails 
(in the track) which have developed these corrugations. 

Special Steel for Rails. — Experiments with grades of hard steel to obtain high 
wearing quality have not proved successful as a rule. Nickel steel has been 
trie'd, but with varying results. The Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. laid 50 tons of 
90-lb. rail on a 6° curve; no cutting, bending or drilling was done in the track. 
There were no fractures, and the rails lasted twice as long as ordinary high- 
carbon rails, but the cost ($85 per ton) was 2h times that of Bessemer rails. 
This was not considered justifiable by the results, the wear being irregular, as 
the nickel was not uniformly distributed. Thus the signal repairmen in drilling 
for rail bonds found them in some places little harder than ordinary, while in other 
places 17 drills were broken in making one hole. The cost of this work was 
about four times that on ordinary rails. About 50 tons were laid in November, 
1897, in single track on the Cleveland & Pittsburg Ry., on a curve of 4|°, and 
after two years' service showed less wear than the ordinary rails. In July, 1899, 
the Pennsylvania Ry. laid about 220 tons of 100-lb. rails (of the Am. Soc. C. E. 
section) on the Horseshoe curve. In manufacture, the nickel caused red short- 
ness to such an extent that the rolling of 300 tons resulted in only 220 tons of 
No. 1 and 57 tons of No. 2 rails, while 19 tons of the latter had to be rejected on 
account of "piping." The rails showed great rigidity under the straightening 
press, double the ordinary pressure being required for cold straightening, and 
the rails would often spring back, showing no effect from the blow. The steel 
was so hard that five twist drills were sometimes required in drilling one hole, 
and the best results were obtained by the us^ of Mushet steel drills without 
lubrication. The service results are not considered satisfactory. The analyses 
were as follows: 

Carbon. * Phos. Manganese. Nickel. Silicon. Sulphur. 

Pennsylvania Rv 0.504 0.094 1 .00 3.229 

Cleve.'& Pitts. Ry 0.530 0.014 0.80 3.520 0.048 0.021 

Two 70-lb. Harveyized steel rails on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
Ry. were removed after about 6 years' service, as pieces began to break out of the 
head without showing any previous crack. The rails were 4£ ins. high, with 5 



84 TRACK. 

ins. base, and had worn down £-in. when removed. By this process additional 
carbon is absorbed by the head after the rail is made; an analysis showed 0.76% 
for iV m - depth of the head, 0.42% at J-in. and 0.3% at iVin. Manganese-steel 
rails have been tried experimentally, particularly on sharp curves (of 82-ft. 
radius) on the Boston Elevated Ry. Here ordinary rails wore out in about 44 
days, with a vertical wear of 0.05 to 0.065 ft.; rails of specially hard steel, 0.015 
ft. in 204 days; nickel steel, 0.044 ft. in 204 days. Manganese rails showed only 
0.016 ft. wear in 1,000 days and 0.034 ft. in 1,892 days, and were still in service. 
There was, however, more side wear than top wear, the steel not resisting the 
cutting action of the wheel flanges so well as the ordinary steel. These rails are 
cast (not rolled) and are in 20-ft. lengths. They have from 12 to 15% manganese 
and less than 1% carbon. They are hard and tough, and cannot be cut or drilled 
in the track, on account of the time and special appliances required. They can 
be bent, but require more power than Bessemer rails. The castings have to be 
finished by grinding (nearly all over), to make them uniform in section and to 
give the proper fishing angle. The holes for joint bolts, guard-rail bolts, electric 
bonds, etc., all add to the cost, and the cost is from 10 to 15 times that of rolled 
Bessemer steel rails of the same section. 

Rerolled Rails. — In worn rails no longer fit for service, the proportion of metal 
lost by wear is comparatively small, and the bulk of the metal represents scrap. 
The McKenna process for rerolling such rails to produce new rails of somewhat 
lighter weight has been extensively used. The burr or fin on the outside of the 
rail head is first ground off and the rail is then heated in a reverberatory furnace 
to about 1,500° or 1,700° F., care being taken that the heat is not sufficient to 
affect the chemical composition of the rail. The rail is then passed through two 
sets of rolls, which reduce it to a symmetrical section, while the quality of the 
steel may be improved by the extra working. The rails are, of course, elongated 
by rolling, so that 30-ft. rails of the lighter section may be made. They are then 
sawed, straightened and drilled in the usual way. Old 75-lb. rails, reduced to 
73 lbs. by wear, have been rolled to form new 69-lb. rails, and the new Hunt 
100-lb. section is designed with a view to this treatment, as already noted. 

Trimmed Rails. — Many rails are taken out of main track on account of the 
bending and wear at the ends. These may be made available for use by cutting 
off the ends and redrilling. After the rails are cut they are calipered as to 
height and sorted in groups varying by ^2 -in., so as to form an even track. For 
handling rails in this way, several roads use special cars which are hauled to the 
various division points, thus avoiding transportation of rails. The car is 60 ft. 
long, with a steel frame. The equipment includes a 42-in. circular saw, straighten- 
ing press, and two double or triple rail drills, 34 ft. apart. The rails are taken 
from cars or piles at one side of the machine, and are handled by pneumatic 
goose-neck cranes. Eight holes (two rails) can be drilled at one time, making 
the drilling capacity equal to the sawing capacity. From 400 90-lb. rails to 600 
75-lb. rails can be treated in a 10-hour day. 

Rails for Curves. — It has been explained that the Am. Soc. C. E. section was 
specially designed for the tangents and easy curves which make up by far the 
greatest proportion of the railway system. They are successfully used also on 
sharp curves, but a modified section was designed by W. T. Manning to give a 
longer life on curves. As in the Vietor rail (tried in Germany) the head was 
unsymmetrical, about |-in. in width being added to the gage side. The top 
corner radius was ^-in. ; but the gage side was vertical for only |-in. below this, 



RAILS. 



85 



being then curved inward with a radius of 1 in. This was to prevent a full flange 
bearing when worn, which would invite derailment with sharp flanges. An 
88-lb. Manning rail was tried on 3° to 10° curves of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 
It was similar to the Am. Soc. C. E. 85-lb. section, but with 0.24 sq. in. of extra 
metal available for wear. An increased life and decreased cost of maintenance 
were noted (with no allowance for extra cost of rail or for royalty), but the 
results were not such as to warrant the further use of the rail. Ordinarily, 
worn rails on curves are transferred to the opposite side of the track. In orders 
for rails a certain proportion are required to be 6 ins. short, to be placed on the 
inside of curves. These have the ends painted to distinguish them. 

Double-Head Rails. — In Europe, the double-headed reversible rail, carried in 
cast-iron chairs, was early designed, but the indentation of the lower head by the 
chairs made the reversed rails very rough and liable to break. In 1858, the 
bull-head rail was introduced, having the lower head only large enough to give a 
seat in the chair and a hold for the wooden "key" or wedge which secures the 
rail in the chair. This (Fig. 37) is now the standard in England on main lines 




Fig. 37. — Bull-head Rail and Cast- 
iron Chair; London & North- 
western Ry. (England). 




Fig. 38. — Check Plate or Creeper Plate. 



and is used to some extent in other countries. One of the great objections is 
that it has to be held by two heavy cast-iron chairs (26 to 56 lbs. each) on every 
tie. The wear at the chairs often limits the life of the rails, being even more 
than at the joints. They have one advantage, however, in giving a good support 
against lateral thrust on curves. Some of the rails have rounded heads, while 
others have vertical sides and sharper top corners. In the British standard sec- 
tions adopted in 1905, the heads have vertical sides and a top and bottom radius 
of 12 ins., with fishing angles of 20°. The top corner radius is f-in. for 60- to 
80-lb. rails, and 4-in. for 85- to 100-lb. rails. The distribution of metal varies 
with the different weights: it is 46.4, 21.8 and 31.8% for the head, web and 
base of the 60-lb. section; 50.12, 20.0.5 and 29.83% for the 100-lb. section. 
Flat splice bars are generally used with these, but in some cases they have curved 
lower flanges extending under the lower head. In England the erroneous idea 
still prevails that a T-rail track is necessarily unsafe. This in earlier days even 
led to the use of double-head rails for colonial railways, involving much unneces- 



86 TRACK. 

sary expense which might have been applied to the construction of a greater 
mileage of the more suitable type of T-rail track now almost universally adopted. 

Compound Rails. — Various forms of compound rails have been designed to 
enable the wearing part of the rail to be renewed. They have failed owing to 
faulty connections or too great complication and consequent cost. In some 
cases the head was divided vertically, but in most designs the head was complete 
in itself, and detachable from the web or base. A flangeless T was a favorite 
form for the head, with the stem fitting into the grooved web of the base, or 
between two longitudinal angles. The cost of manufacture would be prac- 
tically prohibitive. As the small contact surfaces would not suffice to resist 
the strains imposed by modern loads, wear would soon result, with consequent 
rattling of the track. 

Expansion of Rails. — At the joints a space is left between the ends of the rails 
to provide for the expansion and contraction of the metal. If this is not done, 
or if the bolts are screwed up so tightly that the rails cannot slip in the splice 
bars, then in very hot weather the track may buckle to such an extent as to delay 
traffic or cause an accident. On a curve the line may be thrown out, so as not to 
be very noticeable, but on tangents the whole line, rails and ties together, may 
be thrown out in a bow, or arched up from the ballast. The spacing is provided 
for in tracklaying by means of strips of iron of proper thickness placed between 
the rails as they are laid. (See Tracklaying and Laying Rails.) The coefficient 
of linear expansion of steel for 1° F. is given by Prof. Merriman in his "Mechanics 
of Materials" as 0.0000065. The expansion (in inches) of a 30-ft. rail for one 
degree increase in temperature would therefore be 0.0000065X30X12=0.00234. 
In Table No. 7, compiled by Mr. W. C. Downing, of the Vandalia Line, is given 
the variation in length of a 30-ft. rail for each 10° increase in temperature 
from —30° F. to +130° F., the rails being assumed to be in contact at the 
latter temperature: 

TABLE NO. 7.— EXPANSION OF STEEL RAILS. 

Temper- Variation . Thickness 

ature. ' variation. ' of exp. shim. 

60° 0.1638 in. i% 4 in. %„ in. 

70° . 1404 in. % 4 in. V ie in. 

80° .1170 in. %4in. %e in. 

90° .0936 in. % 4 in. % e in. 

100° .0702 in. % 4 in. Vie in. 

110° .0468 in. % 4 in. Vie in. 

120° .0234 in. %4 in. Me in. 

130° .0000 in 



There has been much discussion as to the expansion of 60-ft. rails and heavy 
rails. "Where heavy rails reach the same temperature as lighter rails the expan- 
sion will be the same, but as the heavier rail takes a longer time to absorb the 
heat, and as the time of exposure to great heat is short, the practical result is 
that a smaller amount of expansion spacing is required. On several roads, 
therefore, less expansion (about half the theoretical) is allowed for heavy rails. 
These rails are also sometimes laid in contact in warm weather, as it is found by 
experience that they expand less than lighter rails even in hot summer weather. 
Most roads vary the spacing by iV m - The Southern Pacific Ry. uses 1/64 and 
the Illinois Central Ry. uses 1/32-in.; the latter uses 33-ft. rails, and requires that 
the spacing shim must be left out of every 11th joint with 30-ft. rails, every 7th 



Temper- 
ature. 


—Variation. — 


— > 


Thickne 
of exp. sh 


-30° 


0.3744 in. 


2 %*i 


n. 


%6 in. 


-20° 


.3510 in. 


2 %4 


n. 


6 /ie in. 


-10° 


.3276 in. 


2 Vo4 


in. 


/l6 in. 


0° 


.3042 in. 


19 /64 


in. 


%e in. 


10° 


. 2808 in. 


18 /64 


n. 


5/la in. 


20° 


. 2574 in. 


16 /64 


in. 


Vie in. 


30° 


.2340 in. 


15 /64 


n. 


Vie in. 


40° 


.2106 in. 


*%4 


n. 


Vie in. 


50° 


.1872 in. 


12 /64 


in. 


3 /ie in. 



RAILS. 87 

with 28-ft., and every 5th joint with 26-ft. rails. The Pennsylvania Lines 
require that in tunnels at above 70° the rails are to be laid close, without bumping; 
below 70° F., a spacing of -^-in. for each 24° of temperature. The Missouri 
Pacific Ry. has a similar rule, except that it is i^-in. for each 15° for 60-ft. rails, 
and for each 25° for 33- and 30-ft. rails. The spacings specified by different 
railways are given in Table No. 8. Above the maximum temperature the rails 
are laid close, without bumping. 

TABLE NO. 8.— EXPANSION SPACING FOR 30-FT. AND 33-FT. RAILS. 

. Temperature: degrees Fahr. > Southern Pacific Ry. * 

Spacing. C. M. & Penna. Mich. Boston West. Degrees q • M. M. 

ins. St. P. Ry. Lines. Cen. Ry. & Me. Ry. Pac. Ry.* Fahr. Bpacing ' dec. gage. 

5/16 Below -10 to 14 7 to 30 to -2 to 32 1/4 in. 0.250 

1/4 Oto 25 14" 38 30" 53 30 to 45 24 32" 50 7/32 in. 0.220 

3/16 25" 50 38" 62 53" 76 45" 60 50 50" 70 3/16 in. 0.200 

1/8 50" 75 62" 86 76" 97 60 " 75 76 70" 90 9/64 in. 0.150 

1/16 75 " 105 86 " 110 97 " 120 75 " 90 102 90 " 110 3/32 in. 0.095 

110 " 130 3/64 in. 0.045 
130 "150 0.000 

* f-in. for below - 28° F. 

Creeping of Rails. — In many places the rails develop a tendency to creep or 
travel along the track, both up and down grade, either with or against the traffic. 
This is due to a combination of the effect of wave motion in the rail and track, 
unbalanced traffic in one direction, the action of braked wheels, the contraction 
and expansion incident to changes in temperature, etc. (See "The Creeping of 
Rails," by S. T. Wagner, Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., 1904.) It is a phenome- 
non of frequent occurrence, especially with light rails on a lightly ballasted track 
carrying heavy traffic. It is apt to cause trouble at track crossings, frogs and 
switches, and bridges (especially drawbridges). The creeping of track (rails 
and ties together) occurs sometimes on swampy roadbed, owing to the wave 
motion under traffic. To resist this on a track used by consolidation engines 
with a weight of 120,000 lbs. on the driving wheels, the Minneapolis, St. Paul & 
Sault Ste. Marie Ry. used ties 10 and 12 ft. long, with angle bars spiked to two 
ties at the center of the rail to keep the rails from creeping on the ties. Many 
curious instances of creeping are familiar to trackmen and engineers. In gen- 
eral, rails are allowed to creep on bridges, and the joints are not slot-spiked, 
so as to avoid throwing undesirable strains upon the structures. If the creeping 
is to be checked, blocking should be placed -between the ties. The abnormal 
creeping on the Eads bridge over the Mississippi River at St. Louis has been care- 
fully observed for some years. The flexibility of the steel arch ribs under traffic 
accentuates the elasticity of the track. Means are therefore provided to allow 
the rails to creep, and as there are two double crossovers which must be main- 
tained in place, eight creeping places are established. Two switch points are 
placed in the track, and the main rails pass outside the switch rails, which are 
firmly anchored to steel plates on the ties and have guard rails on the inside with 
a flangeway of 2 ins. When a rail has nearly pulled past the switch points, 
another is coupled on, while a rail that has pushed through is uncoupled and 
taken back to the other end of the section. From November, 1899, to July, 
1900, the creeping per month on the bridge proper was as follows, the maximum 
being in the summer, as a rule : 

North rail. . South rail. . 



Inbound track 9 ft. 2 ins. to 23 ft. 4 ins. 9 ft. 3 ins. to 26 ft. 3 ins. 

Outbound track 9 ft. 3 ins. to 28 ft. 8 ins. 3 ft. ins. to 42 ft. 3 ins. 

To provide against ordinary creeping, the flanges of angle bars have slots in 
which the spikes are fitted. Narrow bars do not give much hold for the spikes, 



♦ 



88 TRACK. 

which are likely to be crowded out of the slots, leaving the rails and bars free to 
creep. Wide-flanged bars are the best, with slots about f-in. deep, but bars 
having holes instead of slots are still better, as they cannot get away from the 
spikes. It is bad practice to slot the rail base for spikes. Heavy rails, good 
fastenings and substantial track usually give much less trouble than light track, 
and any ordinary creeping can usually be avoided by the use of heavy rails and 
carefully spiked angle bars. Where special trouble is encountered, each rail may 
be anchored at the middle by means of a creeper plate or check plate, as in this 
way the motion of each rail is independent and not cumulative. A combined 
tie-plate and check-plate used at the middle of each rail is shown in Fig. 38. It 
has a bolt through the rail, and is spiked to the tie. The Boston Elevated 
Ry. uses anchor plates bolted to the rails and spiked to the ties, being made 
to fit the rail and tie-plate. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. uses 
two pieces of angle bar 5 ins. long, bolted to the middle of the rail and spiked 
to the tie. Similar plates, used singly or in pairs, are used to prevent creeping 
at grade crossings. The various devices for the purpose of holding the rails 
include different arrangements of clamps attached to the rail base and bearing 
against the side of a tie. They avoid the necessity of drilling or punching 
holes in the rail. One of these has a pair of clamps, the jaw gripping the edge of 
the rail base being serrated so as to get a good grip and prevent the rail from 
slipping through. The clamps are drawn tight upon the rail by a bolt passing 
under it. Other devices fitting under the rail have one end hooked over the 
rail base, while the inner end has a bolted clamp or the plate is extended up 
to fit against the splice bar, being secured by one of the splice bolts. In some 
of these, the clamp is set slightly diagonal to the rail so that any tendency of 
the rail to slip through it only gives a tighter grip. A device for use with 
three- tie joints is a plate so shaped that the part lying on the tie has the end 
bent up to fit against the angle bar (at one of the bolt holes), while the side 
is bent down to bear against the side of the tie. At a double-track crossing, 
the north and southbound tracks moved north and south respectively about 
2\ ins. per month. Each time of straightening the crossing cost about $95; 
but with an expenditure of $6 for creepers the track was held permanently. 
(See also Expansion Joints, in the next chapter.) 



CHAPTER 6.— RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 

One of the weak points of the track is in the fastening of the rails to the ties, 
for in spite of the increase in weight of rail and the enormous increase in wheel 
loads, train loads, traffic and speed, the almost universal fastening is still the 
ordinary spike developed from the Stevens hook-headed spike of 1830. This 
was an excellent device in its day, and is still suitable for light rails carrying light 
rolling stock and traffic, but it is unsatisfactory and uneconomical for first-class 
modern track, with SO- to 100-lb. rails, carrying heavy traffic and the great weights 
of modern locomotives and trains. Comparatively little attention has been paid 
to the question of improved fastenings, although many forms have been designed 
and some have been tried experimentally, while the defects of the spike have 
frequently been pointed out. It is most desirable for safety and for economy in 
maintenance, that some more efficient fastening than the spike should be generally 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



89 



adopted, but at the present time the maintenance-of-way department has, as a 
rule, only the spike to consider, and must make the best of it. For heavy track, 
a fastening should be adopted which will give a positive hold on the tie, and not 
merely the frictional hold of a spike. Experience with steel ties on the Bessemer 
& Lake Erie Ry. and Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. indicates less wear 
of rails on curves due to rigid and secure fastenings. 

The spike is simply a large nail, and depends solely upon the friction of the 
fibers of the wood for its hold in the tie. Newly driven spikes in good ties have 
a tolerably good hold, but this is rapidly reduced by the constant vibration and 
working of the rail under traffic, and by the "spike killing" of the tie by the con- 
tinual working up and driving down of the spikes. The spike being held by 
friction only, the vertical wave motion of the rail under traffic gradually draws 
it out, while the lateral thrust on the rail by the wheel flanges (especially on 
curves) tends to tilt the rail outwards, drawing the inner spike up and pressing 
the outer spike back into the wood. This crushes the fibers and enlarges the 
spike holes, besides wearing and abrading the neck of the spike. The great 
advantages of tie-plates in preventing the "necking" of the spikes have already 
been pointed out. Boring holes for the spikes would prevent much cracking 
and checking of the wood, and holes of diameter xs-in. to |-in. less than the side 
of the spike would increase the holding power. 

The common spike shown at A, Fig. 39, is 5J ins. long under the back of the 
head, 6 ins. long over all, ^-in. square, with the end wedge-shaped for about If 



"08<5 




£3. e3 



vLU 



Fig. 39. — Rail Fastenings, Spikes 




ins. and terminating in a blunt chisel edge. Spikes of greater length are rarely 
used, except with shims. Spikes weigh about |-lb. and are put up in kegs of 
200 lbs. A keg contains about 450 to 475 spikes JX5 ins., or 360 to 375 spikes 
^X5| ins., the length being measured under the head. They have usually 
rou°-h surfaces and blunt points, which crush and tear the fibers of the wood to 
a degree depending in part on care in driving. A great improvement may be 
effected by the use of spikes having clean and even (not smooth) surfaces, sharp 
edges and sharp points, so that the fibers will not be torn, but will be cut by the 
sharp point, and pressed back and downward by the body of the spike. The 
fibers thus tightly compressed, with their ends slightly bent down against the 
faces of the spike, offer a strong resistance to pulling and tend to prevent the 
entrance of water. Various forms of spikes have been devised, some with 



90 TRACK. 

twisted, grooved or jagged faces, but extensive experiments have proved that it is 
not easy to increase the holding power of a well-made common spike. The head 
may be improved by making it larger and heavier, and in one form the head is 
much deeper than usual, but flush with the back of the spike, the top surface 
curving down to the rail and the head projecting farther than usual over the rail 
base. Spikes used on foreign railways, where they are sometimes used alter- 
nately with screws or bolts, have usually larger and heavier heads than American 
spikes. Thus, some f-in. spikes have heads 1 in. wide (lengthwise of the rail) 
and extending f-in. over the rail base. 

In the Goldie spike (G, Fig. 39) the end is ground to a sharp point, instead of 
to a chisel edge, while both edges and faces of the point are inclined so as to 
increase the cutting and wedging effect. The body is the same size all the way 
down to the point, and is made with clean surfaces and sharp edges. Some 
spikes have a bayonet groove in the back of the lower portion, the face being 
convex; the point is sometimes ground to a sharp edge, and may be convex for 
cedar ties and concave for oak or hard ties. The Greer spike (B, Fig. 39) is of 
varying section, h\ ins. long, |-in. wide and -j%- to ^-in. thick. The swelling 
shape is claimed to increase the grip of the fibers, while the unusual width gives 
greater resistance to lateral thrust. Longer spikes are used for headblock chairs, 
and for crossing planks. The crossing spike (D, Fig. 39) is \-\n. square and 8 ins. 
long under the head, which is f-in. square. Boat spikes are better and cheaper 
than track spikes for fastening the planks of highway crossings. These boat 
spikes are usually f-in. square and 7 or 8 ins. long. Where spikes are driven into 
longitudinal timbers, as in some cases on bridge floors, they are made with the 
chisel edge reversed, being at right angles to the rail so as to cat across the fibers 
of the wood, as in cross ties. Good spikes are made of soft steel with an ultimate 
tensile strength of 55,000 to 65,000 lbs. per sq. in., and an elongation of 25% in 
8 ins. The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. requires spikes of this kind and specifies the 
following tests: (1) Spike bent 180° flat on itself without fracture; (2) Spike 
twisted two full turns; (3) Head flattened in one blow of a steam hammer without 
fracture; (4) Spike driven home in a white-oak tie, with head on rail, and then 
struck a blow with a spiking hammer sufficient to drive it further into the tie 
and bend the head slightly upward without sign of fracture. 

Tests of Resistance of Spikes. — Numerous experiments made on the holding 
power of spikes show that there is a great variation, due to the kind and condition 
of the wood and the quality of the spike. As an average, a well-made ^-in. 
spike, newly driven in a good oak or pine tie, may be assumed to have a resist- 
ance to pulling of 3,000 to 3,500 lbs., which is reduced when the spike has once 
started. Resistances up to 7,000 lbs. have been recorded, but cannot be con- 
sidered as obtaining in ordinary conditions of track and spiking. The testing 
machine exerts a steady pull upon the spike, but the rail exerts an irregular and 
jerking pull, which, with the leverage due to wave motion and lateral thrust of 
the rail, all tend to loosen the spike. In inferior woods, the initial resistance may 
be only 1,800 to 2,000 lbs. The upward pull exerted by the rail under the 
influence of traffic very soon begins to lessen the resistance, and spikes redriven 
in their own or other old holes have the holding power reduced by 20 to 50%. 
Lag screws, or screw spikes, under ordinary conditions, may be assumed to give 
a resistance of from 5,000 to 9,000 lbs. in oak, or from 4,000 to 7,000 lbs. in 
pine. This is maintained for a much longer time than with ordinary spikes, 
being due to the mechanical bond of the thread in the wood instead of the 



Water 
oak. 


Black 
oak. 


Elm. 


Beech. 


Chest- 
nut. 


Pine, 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


0.19 


0.21 


0.22 


0.25 


0.32 


0.22 


0.09 


0.11 


0.17 


0.14 


0.16 


0.21 


0.76 


0.71 


0.69 


0.84 


1.23 


0.69 


0.41 


0.43 


0.70 


0.51 


0.56 


0.79 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 91 

mere surface friction. In knotty ties, the resistance is less than in new ties for 
spikes but greater for screws. 

The tendency of wheel pressures to force the rail outwards, especially on 
curves, has already been noted, and its effect is to crowd back the spike, enlarging 
the hole and so reducing the grip in the wood. To determine the effect, impact 
tests have been made with a 100-lb. hammer on a pendulum rod, falling H ft. 
and striking a bar fitted against the neck of the spike. Five blows were delivered 
in each case, and all the spikes were bent to a curve whose central point was about 
1| ins. below the top of the tie. The ordinary spikes were slightly pulled out, 
but in screw spikes the hold of the thread prevented this. The use of tie-plates 
(properly punched) increases the lateral resistance by distributing it over the 
inside and outside spikes, but these were not included in the tests. The results 
were as follows: 

White 
oak. 
ins. 
1st blow: common spike. 0.21 
1st blow: screw spike ... 0.09 
Total common spike .... 0.70 
Total screw spike . 39 

Screw Spikes. — These have long been common in foreign practice, sometimes 
holding the rail direct by the spike head, and sometimes by means of a clamp, as 
in Figs. 23 and 24. They usually have a small projection or a number in relief 
formed on top, so that it will at once be evident if the spike has been driven home 
with a maul, this being strictly forbidden. On railway bridges, T-rails and 
bridge rails are often secured to longitudinal timbers by screw spikes placed 
against the rail base, or through holes in the base, the spikes being at such an 
angle that the heads have full bearing on the rail base. The holes are often 
drilled by crank augers, without the use of guides, and the spikes are screwed in 
by socket wrenches. In cross ties, the holes are often bored by machinery, but 
this is not always practicable, owing to the varying widths of rail base. The 
screw spikes of the Netherlands State Railways (Fig. 24) are 7.5 ins. long over 
all, 5.56 ins. under the head, 0.57-in. diameter in the shank and 0.89-in. over the 
threads, which have a pitch of 0.84-in. The mushroom head is 2 ins. diameter, 
with a tapering projection, 0.84 to 0.92-in. square, for the socket wrench. Fig. 
39 (F) shows the screw spike of the Eastern Ry. of France, and the form of 
thread. A V-thread with ?-in. pitch is found to be the best. Threaded spikes 
were first used in Germany about 1860, but these had a thread of long pitch and 
were driven in the same way as common spikes. A threaded drive spike has been 
tried to a small extent in this country ( E , Fig. 39) . Screw spikes proper were tried 
on the Kansas Pacific Ry. in 1870, and on the Pennsylvania Ry. and New York 
Central Ry. about 1890. In the screw-spike fastening devised by Mr. Katte when 
Chief Engineer of this last road, the spikes were slightly inclined under the rail 
(being perpendicular to the upper face of the rail base) and held the rails by clamps. 
Such fastenings have been very little used in this country, although they are 
now being tried experimentally on several railways. Their most extensive use 
is on the South Side Elevated Ry., of Chicago, where they are the standard 
fastening. They are 6| ins. long over all, and 5£ ins. under the head, with 
4J ins. threaded. The diameter is |-in. in the shank, and the V-thread is |-in. 
deep, leaving f-in. at the root. The mushroom head is 2 ins. diameter, with 
a square projection for the wrench. Tests made with these spikes screwed 



92 TRACK. 

into holes f-in. diameter (the diameter at the root of the thread) gave average 
resistances as follows: 

L phi°e lly Chestnut *"$£** Oak. White oak", 

lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 

Screw 8,504 9,418 • 10,558 11,240 13,026 

Spike 3,474 2,980 2,296 4,342 6,950 

The spikes may be screwed in by a long cross-handled socket wrench; 
electrically operated machines (like electric drills) have been employed, and 
also a machine in which the socket wrench is carried in a tripod resting on 
the rail and tie and driven by gearing operated by crank handles. (Engineering 
News, Aug. 25, 1904.) A few weeks after the spikes have been applied, it 
will be necessary to tighten them up, as the wood compresses and the rails and 
tie-plates settle into place. After this they require very little attention. It is 
a little more trouble, of course, to bore a hole in a tie, dip a screw spike in paint 
or tar, and screw it into the hole, than to drive in an ordinary spike. But the 
first process leaves the tie practically uninjured, while the second process so 
bruises and crushes the fiber and so imperfectly fills the hole that water will 
sooner or later find access. With proper tools to set the screw spikes, the addi- 
tional labor in placing them should count for little in view of the results obtained. 
It has been claimed that a screw spike has such a firm hold in the tie that with 
lightly tamped track it will not pull or "give" as a common spike does, but will 
raise a low tie from its bed and cause pumping of the ballast. This might be an 
objection on light and poorly maintained track, but does not apply to railways 
of heavy traffic where good track is required. The secure fastenings also have 
a tendency to reduce the rail wear. 

The increase in efficiency of the screw spike is aimed at by the Thiollier fas- 
tening. After the hole has been bored, it is tapped with a spiral groove to a 
certain depth, and a steel helix or spiral is screwed into this hole, the normal 
pitch of the spiral being greater than that of the thread. The screw spike is 
then inserted and screwed home, its sharp thread cutting into the wood com- 
pressed between the coils of the spiral. This is a French device and is being 
tried on the Pennsylvania Lines, in conjunction with flat tie-plates. The spike 
is 6| ins. long over all, ^-in. diameter in the shank, 13/16-in. under the head 
and over the thread. The V-thread is £-in. wide, with a pitch of i-in. The 
Lakhovsky device is for the same purpose, and has also been tried in France. 
On the spike is fitted a split sleeve with a thread on the outside, and a conical 
nut fits into the bottom of this sleeve. The spike hole is enlarged for 75% of 
its depth, and when the device is dropped in the nut rests at the bottom of the 
hole. The spike is then screwed down into the lower part of the hole, causing 
the nut to rise and (by wings on the sides) spread the sleeve so that its thread 
is forced into the wood. A number of European railways have experimented 
with dowels or plugs of hard wood (creosoted beech, 1^ ins. diameter) inserted 
into round or threaded holes in soft wood ties. The plugs are hollow and screw 
spikes are screwed into them. They can be renewed when worn, but fit so 
tightly as to prevent water from entering in around them. They increase the 
resistance of the spike about 30% in new pine ties; and in old ties from 33% for 
beech, 60% for oak and 80% for pine. 

Bolts. — Bolts are not used in this country for fastening rails to wooden ties, 
but are used with steel ties and also on bridges where the rails are laid directly 
upon an unballasted steel floor. Those for steel ties are usually f-in. or J-in. 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



93 



diameter, with the head inside or under the flange of the tie; the nut screws 
down upon a clamp which holds the rail base (or splice bar). The clamp may 
have the rear end made to fit into the hole in the tie, thus giving a better bearing 
for the bolt; it usually allows for making slight changes in the gage on curves or 
for adjusting worn rails. The fastening for the Carnegie tie is shown in Fig. 25. 
The Campbell concrete tie has a f-in. U-bolt for each rail, the bottom being 
diagonally across the tie, while the ends pass through holes in the tie and through 
diagonally opposite corners of the tie-plate. On bridge floors, there are usually 
two ordinary bolts, but the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. uses U-bolts, 
with a saddle on the horizontal member, and a nut and clamp on each end. 
Such fastenings may be insulated by laying the rail on a strip of insulating 
material and placing washers of similar material between the rail and the clamps. 

In foreign practice, fang-bolts are largely used, the head bearing upon a 
clamp or directly upon the rail base, while the threaded end passes through a 
large nut under the tie. This nut has fangs or projections to bite into the wood 
and prevent the nut from turning as the bolt is screwed down. In the author's 
paper on "The Improvement of Railway Track" (Transactions of the American 
Society of Civil Engineers, March, 1890) it was suggested that a better plan 
would be to have the head of the bolt underneath, using a fang washer with ribs 
to prevent the turning of the bolt as the nut is screwed on, as shown at (A), Fig. 
24. It would be practicable to form the fangs on the corners of the bolt head. 
Renewals of any through bolts are somewhat difficult, ballast having to be cleared 
away more or less, but such renewals are much less frequent than with spikes. 

Wedges.— Steel wedge or key fastenings are shown in Figs. 24 and 28, and a 
wooden wedge fastening in Fig. 37. 

Rail Braces. — The lateral thrust on the rails at curves, turnouts, etc., is very 
severe, and the outer spikes are very generally reinforced by braces which are 
spiked to the tie and bear against the side of the rail, thus taking the outward 
thrust. Guard rails and the lead rails of turnouts are also reinforced by braces. 
Unless the braces are well designed and well looked after, their value will be 
very considerably reduced by the outer edge of the rail base cutting into the 
tie, the load being thus thrown on top of the brace and tending to raise its heel. 
To prevent this, a combination of tie-plate and rail-brace has been designed. 
The box brace in Fig. 40 is of pressed steel, |-in. to^-in. thick, and supports the 




Fig. 40. — Rail Braces. 

rail head from below as well as at the side. The box fits over the rail spike. 
Another rail brace, of different design, is also shown. Almost any form of metal 
tie-plate will give increased safety and economy by preventing the cutting of the 
tie and the tilting of the rail, and such plates are often used instead of braces. 

The number of braces to each rail depends upon the sharpness of the curve. 
The Louisville & Nashville Ry. requires two braces on every fourth tie on curves 



94 TRACK. 

of 4 C and 5°, and on every third tie of curves of 6° and over. On the Southern 
Pacific Ry. they are used for both rails on every fourth tie for curves of 4° to 7°, 
every third tie to 8|°, and on alternate ties up to 10°. This is only where tie- 
plates are not used on all ties. Some roads specify three braces (at center and 
quarters) per rail on 5° curves with oak ties, and on 3° curves with cedar or 
other soft ties. The braces must be on the inside and outside rails, and placed 
on the same tie for both rails. Sometimes only the outer rail is braced, but 
generally the inner rail also, so as to resist the thrust due to slow heavy trains, 
and also to relieve the outside spikes of the inner rail from the lateral pull of the 
tie due to wheel pressure against the outer rail. Guard rails at frogs should have 
two to four rail braces, according to length, unless these rails are clamped or 
bolted to the track rails. 

Tie Bars. — Tie bars or bridle rods are used to hold the rails to gage at switches. 
They might be more extensively used for the same purpose on curves and where 
track is raised by shimming. One arrangement used in the latter case consists 
of two flat bars having one end bent to engage the outside of the rail base, while 
the inner end is forged into a round rod and threaded; the two parts are con- 
nected by a turnbuckle. For sharp curves in terminal yards, the Chicago & 
Northwestern Ry. uses flat bars bent up at each end to fit over the rails. In 
European practice the ends of the rods on bars are sometimes passed through 
the webs of the rails and secured by nuts, as in street-railway track. 

Check Plates. — These are used to prevent creeping of the rails upon the ties, 
and have been described in the chapter on ''Rails." 

Rail Joints. 

The rail joint has received very much more attention than the rail fastening, 
for weak joints cause a roughly riding track and a more apparent wear of the 
rails, the economical necessity of providing against which is more in evidence 
than that of the effects of inefficient fastenings. Good results cannot be 
expected from any style of joint unless it is properly maintained. In fact a 
better track may be maintained where the section foreman is a little anxious 
about his joints, than where he has new joints which he considers can be left 
to take care of themselves. A well spliced joint will require a minimum of 
expense and labor for maintenance. On many roads a considerable proportion 
of the maintenance work is expended in tightening bolts, raising low joints and 
other work at this part of the track. 

The difficulty of making and maintaining an efficient joint will be understood 
if the work which it has to do is considered. It has to hold together, vertically 
and horizontally, the free ends of two independent rails which are subjected to 
very varying strains. At one extreme are the strains due to the hammer-like 
blows delivered by fast trains drawn by engines with driving-wheel (static) loads 
of from 20,000 to 25,000 and even 30,000 lbs. per wheel, followed by a series of 
rapid blows from car wheels carrying from 4,000 to 8,000 lbs. each. At the 
other extreme are the strains due to the pounding of slow heavy freight trains, 
drawn by engines having three or four driving-wheel loads of from 20,000 to 
30,000 lbs., and followed by 120 to 200 car wheels with loads varying from 
3,500 to 18,000 lbs. per wheel, aggravated perhaps by flat or worn wheels. 
For a perfect joint and a smoothly riding track, the splicing must be such as 
to make the joint as strong and as stiff as the solid rail; and also as flexible, 
so that it will return to position after the depression or deflection caused by 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



95 



the loads, and thus carry the wave motion of the rail uniformly along the track. 
It should not, therefore, be more stiff or rigid than the rails to which it is 
applied. Very few joints have yet met these requirements, and the effect of 
the loading is to cause parts to become loose, and the rail ends to take a perma- 
nent set. Tamping the shoulder ties to a firm bearing will not compensate 
for weak deflecting rail ends or a weak splice. 

At each rail joint, when under load, there are two beams fixed at one end and 
loaded at the other, each carrying half the load. The deflection of these two 
beams is nearly ten times as great as that of the rail carrying the same total load 
at the middle and considered as a beam. The strength of the rail itself counts 
for little at the joints, and does not suffice to distribute the load over several 
adjacent ties, as it does at the middle of the rail. The joint ties therefore have 
to take practically the whole impact of the load, besides being subjected to a 
rocking or pumping motion. It is for this reason that these ties go down more 
than the others. The great wear of the rails at the joint is caused by the jump- 
ing of the wheels over the deflected rail ends, and not over the expansion spacing 
between the rails. This wear is greater just beyond the joint, in the direction of 
traffic, and on single track a greater depression of the rail surface may be found 
on each side of the joint than at the joint itself. Fig. 41 shows a rail joint plotted 



IZ" 


6" 


3" 


2' 


r 


/* 


2" 


3" 


6" 


/Z" 


16 





8 


4- 






4-8 

57 


24- 








~zo 


H 




76~~~ — 


40"""* 


3T" 


2$ 


r 


< ' 

8 



Fig. 41. — Diagram of Rail- Joint Deflections. 



to an exaggerated scale for 2 ft. of each rail end. The upper line is for 80-lb. 
rails on gravel ballast, after 6 months' service; the lower line is for older and 
lighter track. The end of the receiving rail tends to be permanently depressed, 
having a flatter up-grade to the normal level than the leaving rail. Investigation 
and experiment have shown that the wheel, in spite of the spring and the vertical 
play, has not time to follow the deflection of the rail ends, but jumps the 
depression (especially as the curves are convex) and strikes the receiving rail a 
few inches from the end, causing the rail to wear or cut out at that point. With 
heavy rails and stiff joints the deflection (with consequent pounding, noise and 
wear) is minimized. 

The drop at the gap left between the rail ends for expansion spacing will be 
almost imperceptible, for the versed sine of half the angle which has for its 
radius the radius of the wheel, and for its chord the width of the gap, is 
exceedingly small. With a 33-in. wheel and a ^-in. gap, the drop of the wheel and 
axle would be only 0.002-in.; and only 0.008-in. with a gap of 1 in. The drop 
at a gap of f-in. would be as follows: 30-in. wheel, 1/170-in.; 36 ins., 1/210-in.; 
60 ins., 1/300-in.; 72 ins., 1/360-in. Experiments on the effect of the gap were 
made in Germany in 1892. On a sidetrack in good condition, notches 0.12 
in. deep and 0.6 to 1.2 ins. wide were cut in the rail heads at points directly 
over the ties, where the rails could not deflect. Trial runs were made with a 
locomotive and inspection car, and the observers on the engine experienced 
noticeable shocks only in passing over the widest notches. Observers along the 



96 TRACK. 

track could scarcely distinguish the special noise produced by passing wheels, 
and increase of speed seemed rather to diminish the noise and magnitude of the 
shocks. On the other hand, experiments of the same kind made on the Michigan 
Central Ry. showed considerable wear at the notches. 

The investigation of the merits of trial joints is a difficult matter, as in many 
cases they are put on with new rails or when the track is surfaced, and are 
assembled with special care. Any good results are then attributed to the effi- 
ciency of the joint, when they may be due to the improved track and the greater 
care in putting up the joints. A good angle-bar joint, put up with equal care 
and under the same conditions, would perhaps show even better results than the 
experimental devices. In many special forms of joint insufficient or no provision 
is made against upward deflection of the rail ends caused by the application of 
the wheel loads between the first and second ties (as shown by the Dudley dyna- 
graph records, Chapters 5 and 21). This is followed by the better known down- 
ward deflection while the wheel is passing over the joint, and a second upward 
deflection after the wheel has passed the first tie beyond the joint. The 
standard angle bar in common use provides an extra thickness of metal on 
the upper edge as the practical outcome of experience, but the necessity for 
this appears to be overlooked in many special designs. The series of deflec- 
tions above noted may be provided for to some extent by thorough tamping 
of the ties next to the joint ties. 

Miter Joints. — The idea that the gap for the expansion spacing caused the 
shock led to experiments with miter or bevel joints as early as 1816 and 1824. 
In 1867, R. H. Sayre, Chief Engineer of the Lehigh Valley Ry., began experi- 
ments with rails cut at angles of 45° or 60°. This practice was followed from 
about 1869 to 1895, when it was finally abandoned, as many of the rails broke 
near the ends. The miter joint is now obsolete, except for use at drawbridge 
connections. It is hardly possible that the miter cutting of the rails caused any 
appreciable benefit, as it does not in any way affect the yielding of the rail ends, 
which causes the shock. 

Scarf Joint. — This old plan has been revived abroad, the rail ends being 
halved or scarfed, placed side by side and bolted together. As used on the 
Prussian State Rys., the rails are scarfed for 8| ins., and have 26-m. splice bars 
with four bolts spaced 5, 4 and 5 ins., c. to c. The two middle bolts pass through 
both rails and both bars. In the ordinary form, the strength of the joint is 
diminished by the thin web, but Mr. Vietor, of Germany, has designed a rail 
with the head not set central over the web, so that only the head need be planed 
away at the scarf, leaving both webs of full section. If this joint was put up like 
a riveted connection, or with tightly fitted bolts, it would be very stiff, but as the 
bolt holes must be large enough to admit of expansion, it is helped only by the 
friction of the webs, which depends upon the tightness of the bolts. 

Continuous Rails. — The connecting up of long stretches of rails without the 
usual allowance for expansion and contraction movement at each joint has been 
referred to in the chapter on " Rails," while particulars of eliminating joints 
by welding the rails together are given in the chapter on " Electric Railways." 

Splice Joint. — The flat splice bar or fish plate was invented in this country in 
1830 by R. L. Stevens, for the Camden & Amboy Ry., and it was reinvented in 
England in 1847 by Mr. W. Bridges Adams. With the early pear-shaped T-rail 
the deflection of the rail ends under load tended to force the plates apart and 
loosen the joint. With the modification of the rail section to practically its 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



97 



present form, with a high web and flat fishing angles, the joint became more 
practicable, and began to come into general use about 1855. This type of joint 
is now practically the standard throughout the world. It consists of two plates 
or bars, bearing against the under side of the rail head and the top of the rail 
base, and held together by bolts passing through the bars and the webs of the two 
rails. In order to increase the strength, the angle bar was devised (first rolled 
about 1868 or 1870), having a vertical web like the fish plate and an inclined 
flange extending over the rail base. This flange adds to the lateral stiffness of 
the joint and keeps the track in better alinement. In this country the an°le- 
bar joint will probably continue to be the standard for the lighter track, but for 
first-class heavy track it is often supplemented by a base support to the rails, as 
noted below. 

In some of the older joints, the outside bars extended along the side of the rail 
head, but this practice has been abandoned. The bars should be so designed 
and proportioned as to make the joint as strong and stiff as the body of the rail, 
but many joints are defective in stiffness to resist slight deflections. The bars 
are usually of uniform section throughout, but sometimes have the thickness of 
the web increased at the middle by tapering from the ends or by offsets. 
The flange sometimes extends only about |-in. beyond the rail base, or barely 
enough to give a hold for the slot spikes, as in B, Fig. 42; in such case, these 




4"(Jnder 
Head-* 




B C 

Fig. 42. — Sections of Splice Bars. 

spikes may be crowded out of position by a creeping track. It is better to have 
wide flanges with deep slots for the spikes, and some roads have them wide 
enough for spike holes instead of slots, the spikes then resisting motion in every 
direction and the gage being more permanently maintained. The base of the 
flange is usually brought down level with the bottom of the rail, so as to take a 
bearing on the tie, as in Figs. 30, 35 and 42. Many roads, however, keep the 
flange clear of the tie, as in Fig. 42, C. The sections of splice bars vary very 
greatly, as shown in the illustrations, but one of the best is the Sayre section, 
shown in Fig. 30. The heavy top chord makes an exceptionally stiff bar, with 
wide bearing surface for the rail head. Fig. 42, A, shows the Dudley design of 
bar of high-carbon steel for the 80-lb. rails of the New York Central Ry. The 
thick, narrow-flanged bar of the Pennsylvania Ry. is shown at B, while C is 
the bar of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry.; the latter is grooved to hold 
the square bolt heads. At D is the heavily flanged bar of the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry., having spike holes. 

Splice bars are commonly made of steel which is far too soft for the purpose, 
having only about 0.10 to 0.15% carbon, or rarely 0.25%. Much better results 



98 TRACK. 

would be obtained with steel having from 0.30 to 0.40% carbon. The New 
York Central Ry. specifies from 0.25 to 0.30% carbon for bars not exceeding 
&-in. in thickness, and from 0.1 to 0.12% for bars over ^-in.; the phosphorus 
not to exceed 0.06 and 0.05% respectively, while the manganese is from 1 to 
1.3% in both cases. The Canadian Pacific Ry. requires bars of the same steel 
as the rails, 0.5 to 0.65% carbon. This practice is very general on foreign 
railways, but if the bars have slightly less carbon than the rails they will not 
cut the latter. In many cases a desire for increased strength is met by simply 
increasing the thickness of the web, coupled sometimes with an increase in the 
vertical thickness of the flange at its junction with the web. In the Dudley 
angle-bar section, already mentioned, the metal is distributed with a special 
view to stiffness, the web being even thinner than usual, but the steel has 0.40% 
carbon, and is hard and tough to resist wear. The section is stiff, but has 
sufficient elasticity to make it give long service before taking a permanent set 
and the web is thin enough to stand clean punching, without distortion or 
warping. The steel is required to have an ultimate tensile strength of from 
52,000 to 62,000 lbs. per sq. in.; elastic limit not less than half the ultimate 
strength; elongation, 25% in 8 ins.; and it must bend 180° flat on itself 
without fractures on the outside of the bent portion. The Illinois Central 
Ry. specifies the same requirements (but with 54,000 to 64,000 lbs.) for steel 
having a maximum of 0.15% carbon, 0.10% phosphorus, and 0.4 to 0.6% man- 
ganese. The Michigan Central Ry. has used splice bars of open-hearth steel 
having 0.65 to 0.70% carbon and 0.05% phosphorus. Under shop test they 
would stand a deflection of |-in. without permanent set. They have been very 
satisfactory in service on new rails, but will not hold up well on joints that have 
already deflected, which in fact few joint devices will do. 

One of the bars usually has oval (or square or kite-shaped) holes to fit a neck 
of corresponding shape on the bolt, thus preventing it from turning as the nut 
is screwed up. The other bar has round holes, which should be of such size as 
to require a smart tap on the bolt to send it home. The present tendency is to 
punch both bars with alternate oval and round holes, alternate bolts being 
reversed. If the bolts have L-heads bearing on the flange of the bar, or square or 
T heads used with grooved bars (as at C, Fig. 42), both bars may be punched or 
drilled alike. The holes in the rails are large enough to allow of contraction and 
expansion. On the Memphis bridge and its approaches, for a total distance of 
about three miles, the joints originally had f-in. machine bolts with a driving fit 
in the holes of the splice bars, the holes in the rails being |-in. larger. In this 
way the two bars become practically one member, and good results were given 
until the splice bars began to wear, when it was almost impossible to tighten 
up the bolts. The arrangement has now been replaced with ordinary necked 
bolts and splice bars with oval holes. 

The holes are usually punched, but drilling would be better, and holes made 
in rails already laid are drilled. The New York Central Ry. has a machine 
driven by steam and mounted on a car which will drill four holes at once. It is 
almost impossible to prevent thick bars from getting out of true if punched, and 
they should be straightened, as otherwise they will materially impair the effi- 
ciency of the joint. When splice bars are once notched* or bent, the joint 
deteriorates rapidly, as it is almost impossible to restore the bars to proper line, 
though a straightening press has been used. To take up the wear at the top of 
the bar, under the rail ends (which wear at once reduces the efficiency of the 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



99 



joint), a thin renewable bearing piece or liner may be set between the rail head 
and the bar, while some English railways use an iron washer at this point. It is 
obviously not economy to keep in service bent, worn, or crooked bars, as they 
lead to wear on the rails and general injury to the track: 

In foreign practice it is very common to use bars of Z-section, having two 
vertical webs; the lower webs project below the rail and sometimes have 
bolts through them so as to cause the flanges to grip the rail base. This form of 
bar has been introduced in this country, as in the Bonzano, Thomson (or " 100%") 
Duquesne and Churchill joints. The Bonzano joint, Fig. 43, has a pair of ano-le 
bars with flanges about 3 ins. wider than usual. The middle portion of the broad 
flange is pressed (while hot) to project about 2| ins. below the base of the rail, 
thus giving additional stiffness. The bars are not cut or notched for bending. 
The others mentioned are of the same type, but the flanges are narrow at the 
ends, without the triangular web connection formed in the Bonzano bars. In 
the "100%" and Duquesne joints, the flanges are inclined inward beneath the 




* si' ^ ==* 

-Bonzano Rail Joint; Pennsylvania Ry. 

rail. Only in the Churchill joint are bolts used beneath the rail, as noted 
under " Bridge Joints." The 24-in. bars of the "100%" joint for 85-lb. and 
100-lb. rails of the Am. Sac. C. E. sections weigh 38.94 and 37.62 lbs. each; 
they extend about 2 J ins. below the bottom of the rail. 

Breakage of Angle Bars. — The irregular manner in which splice bars fracture 
is due to the very varying conditions of load and support. The joint ties may 
be loose from the rails or loose from the ballast, and the transfer of the load from 
one rail to the other effects a reversion of strains in the angle bar at each wheel 
passage. Breaking of the angle bars from the bottom is often due to careless- 
ness in raising track, the joints being raised too high before the centers or quar- 
ters are raised, instead of maintaining a proper surface in raising. With a wheel 
on each side of a supported joint, the tendency to is throw the joint up, the top 
of the bars being then in tension. With a suspended joint, the bars gradually 
get a deflection at the middle, and when the joint is raised, the tension strain is 
transferred from the bottom to the top of the bar. It has already been shown 
that the entering rail receives from each wheel a severe blow near the end, which 
tends to loosen and drive down the shoulder tie of a suspended joint, unless it is 
kept well tamped. If this tie is allowed to become low in the ballast, the angle 
bars get a tension strain along the top as each wheel passes. If the tie is tamped 



100 



TRACK. 



up, and then allowed to get low again, the bars will eventually crack from the 
top. This may be prevented to some extent by lengthening the bars, though the 
ends of very long bars do but little effective work. Under normal conditions 
bars which fail should crack from the bottom rather than from the top. (See 
" Other Joint Devices.") Broken angle bars should be replaced at once, and 
the track examined to ascertain the cause of the breakage. 

Supported, Suspended, Bridge and Base Joints. — There are four general 
arrangements of joints: (1) Supported joints, with the rail ends resting on a joint 
tie; (2) Suspended joints, with the rail ends projecting beyond the shoulder ties 
and held only by the splice bars; (3) Bridge joints, in which the rail ends project 
beyond the shoulder ties but are carried by a bridge plate resting upon the ties; 
(4) Base joints, in which the bridge plate is replaced by a support under the rails 
which is bolted or clamped to thjem, but does not rest upon the ties. The sup- 
ported joint proper is now used to a comparatively small extent. With heavy 
wheel loads the joint tie does not give sufficient support, and if tamped hard to 
prevent it from settling, it forms an anvil upon which the rail ends are battered. 
The wave motion is not carried along uniformly and the track is likely to be 
rough. A modification of this arrangement, however, is the three-tie joint, in 
which two shoulder ties are placed close to the joint tie, and the angle bars are 
made long enough to extend over the three ties. This has been adopted by some 
important roads, and is considered to give good results under fast and heavy 
traffic. On the New York Central Ry. the ties are 5 ins. apart in the clear, while 
on the Illinois Central Ry. they are 10 ins. apart, both with 38-in. bars. It has 
been claimed that if the three ties are close together they cannot be properly 
tamped and that consequently one of three conditions will obtain: (1) The 
middle tie will be the more lightly tamped, making a suspended joint with a 
long span between the shoulder ties; (2) The shoulder ties will be the more 
lightly tamped, making a long and weak supported joint; (3) The third tie, or 



K— cf'-H 




Fig. 44. — Rail Joint; Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 



the shoulder tie of the entering rail, will be loosened by the jump of the wheels 
at the joint, and will thus cause the splice bars to be bent down, which with the 
reaction of the rail ends as the load is removed will cause them to crack from 
the top. Practical experience appears to show that these defects need not exist 
on well kept track. The suspended joint is the most generally used. It dis- 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



101 



tributes the load over the two shoulder ties, and if the fastenings are properly- 
designed it makes good provision for the deflection and wave motion. The 
general practice is to use suspended joints or bridge joints, with ties spaced 14 
to 24 ins. c. to c. (or 6 to 10 ins. clear). Fig. 43 shows a suspended joint, and 
Fig. 44 shows the bridge joint of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 

Bridge Joint. — This type is very extensively adopted, especially for main 
tracks with heavy traffic. The rail ends should be so attached to the bridge 
plate as to be incapable of independent movement. Several forms of bridge 
joints are shown in Fig. 45. The Fisher joint, now obsolete, had a slightly cam- 
bered bridge plate to which the rails were held by a transverse U-bolt with 
clamps resting on the rail base and fitting against ribs on the sides of the plate, 




End View. 



5ide View. 
Fisher. 



Rail End Prepcdzd 




Continuous Joint. 



Weber Joint. 



Wolhaupter Joint, 




UNDER SIDE OF TIE PLATE. . 
DOTTED LIMES SHOW PLATE BEFORE BEING SENT. 



Churchill. 



Wedge **>% Wedge 

{large Ena 'A ^ (Small End) 




Wedge Joint. 



Fig. 45. — Rail Joints. 

and also serving as splice bars. The Churchill joint, used on the Norfolk & 
Western Ry., has a bridge plate 23X8 ins., 3% -in. thick, with the sides bent down 
for 8 ins. at the middle to bear upon the ribs of the splice bars. These bars are 
23 ins. long, with lower webs 8 ins. long, fitting the slots in the bridge plate. 
There are four ordinary splice bolts, but a special feature of the joint is the 
use of two f-in. bolts through the lower webs; these provide a means of 
forcing the bridge plate to a bearing against the base of the rails. The cost 
of maintenance was found to be very much less than where ordinary angle 
bars were used, while the joints were in better condition. The standard joint 
of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., Fig. 44, has a grooved bridge plate 24 ins. 



102 TRACK. 

long, but the rails are not bolted to it. That of the Chicago, Rock Island & 
Pacific Ry. is similar, but the base plate is a channel SXl| ins., J-in. thick (1-in. 
flange); there are two flat grooves lengthwise of the rail. In the bridge joint 
introduced by Mr. Delano on the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry., in 1890, 
12-in. angle bars were secured by two bolts to the rail and two bolts to the bridge 
plate, though four bolts through the rail would have been better. 

The Continuous joint has two angle bars with flanges fitting under the rail 
base. The Weber joint has an L-shaped bridge plate, the web of which is on the 
outer side of the rail, with a channel splice bar and wooden filler between it and 
the web of the rail. A fish plate or angle bar is used on the inner side of the rail. 
The Wolhaupter joint has a bridge plate with longitudinal corrugations, while 
the outer edge is clear of the ties and has on the upper side a rib or shoulder to 
fit the edge of the rail base. On the inside is a splice bar having the middle part 
of its flange widened and extended down to engage with a long slot in the edge 
of the bridge plate. On the outer side is a splice bar with a bottom flange filling 
under the edge of the bridge plate. These three patterns are very extensively 
used. The Atlas joint has malleable iron splice bars which extend under the 
rails and are grooved so as to receive and wedge upon the rail base, as in the 
Continuous joint. The bars are stiffened by ribs and may have projecting 
flanges to give an increased bearing on the ties; two bolts pass through lugs 
under the rails. In the Abbot joint, the bridge plate has stiffening flanges 
formed at the middle of each side, as in the deep splice bars of the Bonzano 
joint. 

Base Joint. — A joint of this type was designed by Mr. Torrey, while Chief 
Engineer of the Michigan Central Ry. Under the rails was an inverted piece of 
rail (or crop end) 10 or 11 ins. long, slightly cambered so that its ends were r^-in. 
clear below the base of the track rails. This was secured by three deep trans- 
verse U-bolts, whose legs passed through the wide flanges of four-bolt angle bars. 
The flanges did not touch the ties. Joints of this type, with pieces of I-beams 
or inverted rails riveted or bolted to the rails, are largely used in street-railway 
track. 

Other Joint Devices. — An early form of joint which has been revived in Ger- 
many has bolted outside of the rails a special piece of rail resting on the shoulder 
ties and having its head level with and in contact with that of the track rails, so 
as to take the load off the latter. In the Barschall joint of this type, which has 
been tried on the Pennsylvania Lines, this auxiliary rail is about 20 ins. long, 
with its top level with the top of the track rail for 7 to 10 ins., and then inclined 
to the ends. The middle of the head must not be more than §-in. wide, so as to 
clear the false flanges of worn wheels. A splice bar is used on the opposite side, 
and a filler between the webs supports the heads of the main and carrier rails. 
Rail joints with wedge fastenings instead of bolts have been designed, but used 
only experimentally. The advantages claimed are the elimination of bolts and 
nuts, and the maintenance of a permanently tight joint. The general principle 
is that the rail ends lie within a heavy base plate of channel section (sometimes 
with sides sloping inwards) and are secured by long taper wedges. In a French 
joint of this type (Fig. 45) the base plate is a heavily ribbed steel casting, having 
on each side a vertical flange with an inside rib at the top. The wedges are of 
such shape as to bear upon the web and the top and edge of the rail base; also 
against the side and rib of the base plate. A wedge fastening used with steel 
ties is shown in Fig. 28. As the rail ends should rise and fall together, a hinge 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 103 

joint would be ideal in some respects. In a five-bolt hinge joint used on the 
Indian Midland Ry., the middle bolt passes through notches in the ends of the 
rail webs, but the lack of fit between the bolt and the rail, and the small bearing 
upon the bolt, prevent this arrangement from having its full theoretical value. 
Hinged and dovetailed joints with interlocking rail ends have been devised, but 
the expense of shaping the ends makes their use impracticable. The number of 
patented joints is legion, but of those which have been tried experimentally 
many have been found to be inferior to a good angle-bar joint. 

Step Joints. — Where rails of different section meet, either on the main track 
or where sidings have lighter rails than the main line turnouts, the smaller one 
is often blocked up to the proper height and the splice bars are bent to fit both 
webs. Step joints are more satisfactory. The Atlas step joint has two heavy 
malleable-iron side bars, projecting below the rail and having grooves made to 
fit the rail bases, which they grip tightly. Bolts are put through and under the 
rails. The Continuous, Weber and other joints are also made in special forms 
for this purpose. Mr. Sandberg has introduced cast-steel "step" splice bars, 
while on the Chinese Imperial Rys. Mr. Kinder has used cast-steel rails 27 ins. 
long, having half the length conforming to a 60-lb. and the other half to an 
85-lb. section. These are secured to the rails by the ordinary splice bars. A 
somewhat similar joint was devised by Mr. W. G. Curtis of the Southern Pacific 
Ry., but made from a piece of the heavier rail, 1\ to 30 ft. long. The outer side 
of the head was planed away gradually to fit the smaller rail, and the bottom 
forged to conform to this rail for about 12 ins., beyond which the change to the 
heavier section was made in 15 ins. A reinforcing plate riveted to each side of 
the rail butted against the splice bars of the lighter rail. 

Insulated and Bonded Joints. — W 7 here rails are utilized to carry electric cir- 
cuits for automatic block signals, etc., they must be electrically bonded at the 
joints to give free passage for the current. This is usually done by wires attached 
to copper studs or plugs set in holes in the web or base of the rail. The wires 
are laid inside or outside the splice bars. At the ends of the block sections insu- 
lated joints must be used to prevent' the passage of the current. A ^-in. strip 
of treated wood or vulcanized fiber is placed between the rail ends, and the rails 
are insulated from the splice bars and bolts. Many of the joints already 
described are adapted to this purpose. In the Bonzano joint, a fiber plate is laid 
under the rail ends, and on each side is a similar plate laid against the web and 
extending between the top and bottom contact surfaces of the rails and splice 
bars; fiber bushings and washers insulate the bolts. To prevent wear of the 
fiber base plate, a steel plate is laid under it and bolted to the splice-bar flanges. 
In the Weber joint, an L-shaped sheet of fiber is laid on the bridge plate and 
heavy wooden splice bars are used, one of which fills the space between the rail 
web and leg of bridge plate. The " 100%" joint has a triangular wooden block 
placed under the rail and between the inwardly inclined flanges of the deep splice 
bars, being secured by two bolts through these flanges. The Mock joint has an 
outside carrier rail, with a strip of insulating material between it and the heads 
of the track rails. The Neafie joint, used on the Delaware, Lackawanna & West- 
ern Ry., has a long channel-shaped plate, and a i-in. layer of wood under the end 
of the leaving rail (thus giving the receiving rail a support on the plate); wooden 
splice bars 3X4 ins., 3 ft. long, fit tightly between the rails and the sides of the 
channel. Besides the joint bolts, two vertical bolts on each side pass down 
through the bars and plate, the nuts under the plate being kept from slacking 



104 



TRACK. 



loose by split keys driven through slots in the bolts. The Pittsburg joint has 
angle splice bars with the flange on top, and outside of these are drop-forged 
splice bars, a channel-shaped strip of fiber lying against the inner bar and base of 
rail. The outer bars are of channel section, thicker at the middle than at the 
ends, and made solid at the bolt holes so as to require long bolts. Each bolt has 
a flanged bushing on each end, with a metal washer between the flange and the 
head or nut. 

Expansion Joints. — With continuous rails and where creeping cannot be 
checked, expansion joints must be provided at intervals, and these are usually 
made with switch points. On long-span steel bridges some special joint must be 
used to allow for the movement at the expansion joint in the structure. These 
usually have the rails lapped or scarfed, so as to maintain a continuous rail while 
allowing for sufficient longitudinal motion in the adjacent rails. Fig. 46 shows 



IWUVYvj 




~*W — V 

Elevation.. Section C-D. 

Fig. 46. — Expansion Rail Joint; Poughkeepsie Bridge. 

the form used on the Poughkeepsie bridge, which provides for several inches of 
movement. A heavy base plate and upper packing plates form a trough in 
which the rail ends slide, the rails being " halved " for a length of 12 ins. Neither 
rail has its web cut. On the gage side of the rail the line is made perfect by plan- 
ing off from the inside of the head an amount equal to the thickness of the web, 
the rail being slightly bent beyond the joint so as to permit this. The other rail 
is left of its original thickness. At the ends of the four anchor arms of the Thebes 
cantilever bridge, the rails do not lap, but have their ends 7 ins. apart. Wheels 
are carried across the gap by carrier or bridge rails laid against the outside of the 
track rails and bolted to one of them. The outside face of the rail head is planed 
away to a width of 2 5/32 -in. for a length of 18 ins. on the fixed end, and 30 ins. 
on the expansion end. The carrier rail is a rectangular bar of tool steel, laid 
against the web and head; it is bolted to one and slides against the other, being 
controlled by cast-steel guides. A guard rail on the gage side gives a flange- 
way of 1| ins. and holds the wheels over so that they will take a full bearing 
on the carrier rail. (Engineering News, Aug. 22, 1907.) The expansion joint 
used on the Memphis bridge consists of two short switch rails which slide 
against each other. These rest on a steel plate which has a flange on the 
outside so that the two tapered rails cannot separate. This joint when closed 
is 3.4 ft. long, and provides for an expansion of about 1J ft. There are three 
of these joints on the bridge. There is a total expansion and contraction 
movement of about 3 ft. across the entire bridge, but part of this is due to 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 105 

the creeping of the rails. There is a considerable grade on the north approach, 
which tends to cause the creeping. The rails are" not anchored on the bridge 
proper, but are anchored at intervals of 50 ft. on the approach by pieces spiked 
in such a manner as to brace against the angle bars. (See " Creeping of Rails.") 

Drawbridge Joints. — At the ends of swing bridges, special joints must be pro- 
vided in order to allow of the rails bridging the gap between the abutment and 
the end of the bridge. In some cases the end rails on the bridge are 10 or 15 ft. 
long, pivoted at the heel, and projecting about 1 ft. or 2 ft. so as to take a bearing 
on the abutment tie or sill. A trough or channel-shaped rest plate having flaring 
sides guides the rail into its proper position in alinement with the fixed rail. The 
joint of the pivoted and fixed rails may be mitered in a length of 6 to 8 ins. The 
joint may also be locked by wedges sliding longitudinally between the rail webs 
and the sides of the channel, thus making a substantial connection for high- 
speed traffic. When the bridge is to be opened, the ends of the pivoted rails are 
raised clear of the trough by mechanism operated from the bridge locking gear, 
and when the bridge is closed it should be necessary for this mechanism to pull 
the rails down into position before the signals can be released. Relying upon 
gravity to return the rails to position has caused serious accidents. As these 
rails cannot be spiked to the bridge ties they should move between guides which 
hold them laterally. With lift or bascule bridges, the rails need not be pivoted, 
but the meeting ends of the fixed and bridge rails may be cut vertically at an 
angle. Drawbridges should be so equipped with interlocking apparatus that the 
bridge locks cannot be released or rail-lifts raised until the signals on the 
approaches have been set at "stop," and so that these signals cannot be cleared 
until the rails and locks are restored to their normal position. 

Broken and Even Joints. — The rails may be laid with joints opposite one 
another, or with the joints on one side opposite the middle of the rails on the 
other side. The latter is by far the most general practice for main track, both 
on tangents and curves, but even or square joints are sometimes used on tan- 
gents. Even joints are also used sometimes on new lines not fully ballasted, on 
account of the banks settling. Under such conditions and on light track where 
the joints settle, it is claimed that the track rides easier, has less lateral motion 
and can be maintained better. With broken joints, according to their opponents, 
the number of low places would be increased, and the weight of the train would 
be thrown against low joints, tending to throw the track out of line. On the 
other hand, even joints tend to form kinks in the track and generally result in 
greater wear of the rail ends. On many western roads, with comparatively light 
track, it is considered that broken joints make easier riding track, less liable to 
get out of line and less expensive to maintain. With broken joints, the ham- 
mering effect which tends to cause low joints is better distributed over the track 
(particularly when it is well ballasted), and there is less difficulty in keeping up 
the joints. The cars also ride more smoothly. Tracklaying takes more time 
with square joints than with broken joints, while with the latter the joints can 
run some distance ahead of the middle of the opposite rail (on curves) before it 
becomes necessary to cut a rail or insert a short rail. In fact, some roads using 
square joints on tangents use broken joints on curves. The prevailing opinions 
are strongly in favor of broken joints for all kinds of track, as they make a better 
running track, hold the surface and line better, and require less maintenance 
work. This latter point is important on a road with light track and a limited 
track force. 



103 TRACK. 

Length of Bars and Spacing of Bolts. — There is very little uniformity in these 
details, but there is a decided tendency towards the use of short bars and closely 
spaced bolts, as may be seen by comparing the old and modern joints given in 
Table No. 9. The length of bars is from 20 ins. with four bolts, to 48 ins. with 
six bolts. Both extremes are now obsolete. The logic of the very long bars is 
hard to see, especially where the bolt holes are several inches from the ends, as 
the metal beyond these holes does little service. The bolt-hole spacing formerly 
ranged as high as 12 ins., but 9 ins. is now about the maximum, and even that 
is exceptional, the more common practice being to space the bolts from 4 to 
6 ins. c. to c. Very wide spacing is objectionable, and it is advisable to get 
the center bolts as near as possible to the ends of the rails while still leaving 
metal enough to insure against cracking or fracture of the rails. Bars 24 and 
26 ins. long, with four bolts spaced from 4 to 6 ins. c. to c, represent the general 
practice; where six bolts are used, the bars are generally from 28 to 38 ins. 
long. Table No. 9 shows the arrangement of a number of joints, and further 
details will be found in the appendix. 

TABLE NO. 9.— RAIL JOINTS. 

< Bolt spacing, c. to c. > 

Railways. of **&* Middle. ^JT ^ ^nt"' ^ 

Bolts. Bar. mecL Jomt ' Rail. 



ins. ins. 

Wabash 4 24 5 

Boston & Maine 4 24 6 

Cincinnati Southern 4 24 4 



ins. ins. lbs. 

5 Suspended 80 



6 Bridge 

7 Bridge 85 

6 Bridge 90 

7 Suspended 80 
5J Suspended 90 

Nash., Chatt.& St. Louis. . . 6 26 4 4 5 Suspended 80 



Chicago & Northwestern ... 4 26 6 

Buffalo, Roch. & Pitts 4 26 7 

Southern Pacific 4 27 5J 



Cleve., Cin., Chi & St. Louis. 6 30 4 5 6 Suspended 80 

Pennsylvania Lines 6 33 5 5 6 Suspended 

New York Central 6 36 5.6 5.6 5.6 3-tie 100 

Cleve., Cin., Chi. & St. Louis 6 38 6 6 7 3-tie 90 

Michigan Central 6 44 6 6 9 3-tie 80 

Sav., Fla. & West, (old) ... 6 48 6 12 6 3-tie 75 

Lake Shore & Mich. So. (old) 6 48 6 6 11 Supported 70 

Erie (old) 6 40 8 6 7 Suspended 80 

Concord & Montreal (old) 4 36 6 6 Suspended 72 

Boston & Albany (old) 4 20 4f 4f Supported 95 

Bolts and Nuts. — Track bolts are usually xnade of mild steel, and are f- or 
| -in. diameter, a very few roads having them as large as 1-in. for heavy rails, 
while |-in. and 1-in. bolts are used for frogs. They are 34- to 4| ins. long under 
the head, according to the style of joint, but should not project more than |-in. 
beyond the nut. They are put up in kegs of about 200 lbs. A keg contains 
about 240 bolts I X3£ ins., with nuts; 208 bolts | X3| ins., with 1^-in. nuts; or 
195 bolts | X.4| ins., with li-in. nuts. The bolts should be straight and smooth, 
with well-cut threads, and the threaded portion should be as short as possible, 
so as to give the body of the bolt a full bearing in the splice bar. The threads 
should be of U. S. standard, so made on both bolt and nut that the nut can be 
screwed on by hand only for the first three or four threads, after which it must be 
turned by the wrench, the fit not being so tight as to burst the nut or distort the 
threads in screwing up with an ordinary track wrench. The Harvey grip-thread 
bolt, Fig. 47, has the thread spun up on the body by a cold-rolling process, the 
threads rising Tij-in. above the body of the bolt, while in the ordinary bolt the 
thread is cut out of the body and so reduces the thickness at the root. The 
Wrenshall oval bolts, used at one time on the Northern Pacific Ry., were 
tXH-in. 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 



107 




Pennsylvania Ry. 




Northern Pacific Ry. 
4*' 



The bolt has usually an oval or square neck under the head, fitting into a hole 
of corresponding shape in the splice bar, in order to prevent the bolt from turning 
while the nut is being screwed on or off. The 
length of the neck should be equal to the thick- 
ness of the splice bar. The bolts usually have 
cup heads, but the heads are often too small 
and too thin at the edge, so that the wear in 
the edge is likely to reduce the bearing surface, 
especially as the contact surfaces are often too 
rough for a good bearing. A few roads use a 
square head and a grooved splice bar, both bars 
being punched alike (Fig. 42). The New York 
Central Ry. specifies that the bolts must be of 
soft steel, f-in. test pieces showing 58,000 to 
65,000 lbs. ultimate tensile strength, an elastic 
limit at least 50% of the tensile strength, and 
an elongation of at least 25% in 8 ins. The bolt 
must have a tensile strength of at least 50,000 
lbs., and an elongation of 30% or 2 ins.; it 
must be bent and hammered down upon itself 
without any sign of fracture in the body and 
with only slight cracks at the root of the 
thread. 

The nuts should be well formed, with true 
and clean-cut threads, and should be thick 
enough to give a good bearing, as thin nuts 
result in loose nuts and damaged threads. 
Both square and hexagonal nuts are used, the 
former being the more general. The corners 
are sometimes chamfered toward the inner face, 
in order to give a better hold for the wrench. The nut may be on the inside or 
outside of the rail, but many roads put them alternately on the inside and out- 
side, so as not to have all the bolt necks on one side, and to prevent derailed 
wheels from breaking all the bolts of the joints. 

Nut Locks and Lock Nuts. — A nut lock is usually placed between the nut and 
the bar, to prevent the nut from working loose. Lock nuts, however, render 
these unnecessary, and thus reduce the number of parts. Several devices of 
both kinds are shown in Fig. 48. The Harvey grip-thread bolt has a ratchet 
thread, undercut on the bearing side, or about 5° less than a right angle to 
the axis of the bolt. The nut has a similar thread, the bearing side of which 
is about 5° greater than a right angle to the axis of the nut. The thickness 
of face of thread and the depth between threads are increased towards the 
outer end of the nut by flattening the angle of the thread. When the nut is 
screwed hard against the splice bar, the thin sharp threads of the bolt are 
upset so as to fill the space of 10° between the threads of the bolt and the nut. 
The hole in the nut is enlarged at the bearing face, forming a chamber -j^-in. 
deep, thus insuring good threads on which to screw the nut in taking up any 
slack. The Oliver nut has the three outer threads of the ratchet form and 
cut at a slightly different angle from the others, thus setting up a tight grip 
on the bolt. The National elastic nut is made from a flat strip so shaped as to 




Section 
A-B. 



Section 
E-F. 



New York Central Ry. 
Fig. 47.— Track Bolts. 



108 



TRACK. 



form a scarf joint when bent into a ring and pressed into hexagon form. It 
is tapped slightly smaller than the bolt, so that when put on it is sprung slightly- 
open and exerts a grip on the bolt. There is also a nut made from a spirally- 
coiled bar; the end coils are slightly open but are forced together as the nut is 
screwed against the splice bar. The Spring nut is drawn flat against thesplice 
bar by the bolt, the spring action of the wings then preventing it from slacking. 
Most nut locks are in the form of spring washers (Fig. 48). Probably the 
most extensively used is the Verona, which is a steel split washer twisted 




National 



Positive. 
Fig. 48.— Nut Locks. 



American. 



spirally to give about J-in. opening. Many modifications of this design have 
the metal twisted, jagged or pointed so as to cut into the splice bar, but the 
advantages of such practice are dubious. Some nut locks are made to fit a 
pair of bolts, like the Excelsior double nut lock. The spring action is not 
the only principle adopted. The Jones nut lock is a thin flexible plate, the 
edge of which comes against the rail head or splice bar, while one end is bent 
up against the nut when the latter is screwed home. The Stark nut lock has a 
keyway on the bolt and eight keyways in the nut, so that at each one-eighth 
turn of the nut a slot is formed to receive a split pin. 

Examples of Rail Joints. — The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. has a four-bolt 
bridge joint (Fig. 44) with shoulder ties 9^ ins. apart in the clear. The bridge 



RAIL FASTENINGS AND RAIL JOINTS. 109 

plate is channel-shaped, 26 ins. long, 8f ins. wide, f-in. thick for 5£ ins. (to fit a 
5|-in. rail base), and f-in. for a width of l^ s ins. at the sides. The splice bars 
are 26 ins. long, with bolts 6 ins. c. to c. They are thin, and the flanges are clear 
of the bridge plate, projecting over it far enough for the spike slots to register 
with square holes in the plate. One bar has oval holes, jf Xl^ ins., while the 
other has holes 1^ ins. diameter. The Harvey bolts are if-in. diameter, 3^1 ins. 
long under the head, with a neck xfXlf ins., ^-in. long. The nut is lj^ ins. 
square and 1 in. deep, with chamfered corners. The New York Central Ry. 
uses three-tie joints, with ties 5 ins. apart, and tie-plates on all ties. The splice 
bars are 3 ft. long, with six bolts 5.6 ins. c. to c. , and each bar has alternate square 
holes (with rounded corners) and circular holes. For 100-lb. rails (with ltV _m - 
round holes), the bars have holes 1-,^ ins. square and 1 in. diameter; f-in. Harvey 
bolts with li^-m. square neck and f-in. corners. For 80-lb. rails (with 1-in. 
round holes) the bars have holes jf-in. square and f-in. diameter; f-in. bolts 
with | -in. square neck. In both cases square nuts f-in. thick are used, 1\ or 
If ins. square. 

The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses 30-in. angle bars with six 
bolts; the two middle bolts are spaced 4f ins. and the others 4| ins. c. to c. The 
holes are lXlfV ins. in both bars, and If ms - diameter in the rails. The bars 
are of the general section B in Fig. 42, but the narrow flanges are f-in. clear of 
the tie. Those for the 100-lb. rails, however, are of the Sayre type (Fig. 30) 
with flanges T&-in. above the tie. The spike slots are f-in. wide, f-in. deep in 
the narrow and 1^ ins. in the wide-flanged bars. The Harvey grip-thread bolts 
are used, f-in. at the body and rl -m - over the threads (9 threads to the inch). 
They have oval necks f Xl£ i ns -> an d button heads 1£ ins. diameter and if -in. 
thick. The nuts are 1^ ins. square (or over the faces for hexagon nuts) and 
f-in. deep. The nut locks are of the Verona tail pattern. The Baltimore & 
Ohio Ry. has four-bolt suspended joints for 100-lb. rails, with bolt holes 1^ ins. 
and lfe ins. diameter for 33-ft. and 60-ft. rails. The 26-in. angle bars have holes 
alternately 1 in. diameter and 1 X lfV ins. oval. They are f-in. thick, and have 
narrow flanges f-in. clear of the ties. The spike slots are f-in. wide, deep enough 
to bring the spike against the edge of the rail. The bolts are spaced 5, 6 and 
5 ins. c. to c. They are f-in. Harvey bolts, 4f ins. long under the head, with the 
neck f-in. thick and tapering from if XlfV ins. to f Xl£ ins. The nuts are 1^ 
ins. square, f-in. thick; ^-in. nut locks are used. Where six-bolt joints are used, 
the bars are 28 ins. long, with holes alternately If ins. and If XH ins. The end 
bolts are spaced 5 f ins. and the others 4 ins. c. to c. ; they are 1-in. bolts with hex- 
agonal nuts lXlf ins. The Missouri Pacific Ry. uses suspended broken joints 
with 26-in. bars and four bolts spaced 5 ins. c. to c. The holes in the bars are 
alternately Its ms - diameter and l^Xlys ins.; the holes in the rails are If ins. 
diameter. The bolts are 1 in. diameter, with lf-in. square nuts 1 in. deep. 
The Verona nut lock with tail is used, the metal being £XfV- m - The shoulder 
ties are laid with their rear sides in line with the ends of the angle bars. 

Track Material. 

The quantity of track material for one mile of single track with 30-ft. rails 
(giving 352 joints) is given in Table No. 10. With rails 33 ft., 45 ft. and 60 ft. 
long, the number of rails per mile will be reduced to 320, 234.6 and 176 respect- 
ively. The weight of rail per yard divided by 7 and multiplied by 11 gives the 
weight in gross tons per mile of single track. 



110 



TRACK. 



TABLE NO. 10.— QUANTITIES OF TRACK MATERIAL. 



No. 

Rails, 30 ft. long 352 

Ties, 16 per rail 2,816 

Tie-plates (2 on each tie) 5,632 

Splice bars 704 

Joint bridge-plates 352 

Track bolts (4-bolt joints) 1,408 

Track bolts (6-bolt joints) 2,112 



No. 



Nuts (4-bolt joints) 1,408 

Nuts (6-bolt joints) 2,112 

Nut locks (single) (4-bolt joints) 1,408 

Nut locks (single) (6-bolt joints). . . . 2,112 

Spikes or screws, 4 per tie 11,264 

Clips for screw spikes, 4 per tie 11,264 



CHAPTER 7.— SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



The switch is the device by which a train is diverted from one track to another. 
The turnout includes the switch, frog, lead rails, etc., forming the complete con- 
nection between the two tracks. The curves of main-line turnouts are usually 
of 6° to 8°; sharper for low speeds and easier for high speeds (see Table No. 11). 
The split switch (now almost universally used) was introduced in England as 
early as 1825. In this country the stub switch was at one time generally 
employed, but is now rarely used. The switch angle is that contained between 
the two positions of the rail in a stub switch, or between the switch and stock 
rails of a split switch. A switch is right handed or left handed, according as the 
turnout is to the right or left of a man standing on the main track and facing 
the turnout. Switch work is discussed in another chapter. 

Stub Switch. — This consists of two movable rails, having the heels (or ends 
furthest from the turnout) spliced to the track rails, while the free ends slide so 
as to coincide with the stub or fixed rails of one or other track, as shown in Fig. 
49. The rails are connected by tie-rods, so as to act together, and the throw 




55' II"- }*—- 22'3" 

Fig. 49.— Stub Switch. 



or movement of the free ends is about 4 or 5 ins. They are usually 30 ft. long, 
and in order that they may be sprung to a curve they are spiked to the ties for 
a certain distance beyond the heel (about 5 ft. for a 1\° turnout curve or 12 ft. 
for a 15° curve). If hinged only by the splice joints at the heel, the rails will 
remain straight when set for the turnout, thus forming an angle or kink at the 
heel and toe. The toe of each rail rests on a head plate or head chair (Fig. 50) 
about 10X16 ins. This has lugs to limit the throw and is also formed to hold 
the ends of the stub or fixed rails and keep them from creeping. These rails 
should also be bolted together with a filler block between the webs. The head 
chairs are spiked to a long tie or head block about 8X12 ins., 12 to 16 ft. long, 
the end of which carries the switchstand. This form of switch is neither safe, 
efficient, nor economical, even when fitted with castings which move with the 
rails and are designed to carry wheels trailing on the wrong track, which would 
otherwise drop off the ends of the stub rails onto the ties. The space between 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. Ill 

the ends of the switch and stub rail is often as great as 2 ins., causing severe 
wear to wheels and switch. On the other hand, the switch rails may expand in hot 
weather so as to be jammed in the head chair, though this may be avoided to 
some extent by beveling and lapping the rail ends for about 12 ins., as at draw- 
bridge connections. In this case, the head chair has no end stops. Under 
heavy traffic it is.difficult to keep stub switches in proper condition. In yards 
having such switches, a large proportion of the track work is in maintaining 
and repairing the switches, and replacing switch rods and connections dam- 
aged by derailments. 

Split Switch. — This consists of two point or switch rails (straight or curved to 
fit the curve of the turnout), planed tapering to a vertical edge, so that the ends 
will fit close against the main or stock rails. The heels of the switch rails are 
towards the diverging tracks, which is the reverse position from that of the stub 
switch rails. The two outer rails of these tracks are continuous, the outer rail 
of the main track continuing unbroken, while the inner rail follows the curve of 
the turnout. The switch rails are between these stock rails, with a space of 
about 5 to 6 1 ins. between the gage lines at the heel, or a clearance of from 

^^glllg^Z^^^-- 5/ots for 

Stop-. ^m?: ' l^^^^^--^ '■ Lead Rails 



Fig. 50.— Head Chair for Stub Switch. 

2\ to 3| ins. (preferably 3 ins.) between the rail heads. The throw of the 
point ends is from Z\ to 5$ ins., so that when one switch rail is home against 
its stock rail the other is from Z\ to 5£ ins. from the other stock rail. About 
12 or 16 ins. ahead of the point, the stock rail on the turnout side is given a 
decided kink or bend by means of a rail bender, so that when set for the main 
line, the gage sides of the stock and switch rails will be in exact alinement. 
This is shown at A in Fig. 67. 

The switch rails are connected by three to six tie rods, though many roads use 
only one, placed close to the point. The larger number may be used with long 
switch rails at high-speed switches. The rods are either round or flat, with jaws 
on the ends to receive the angle clamps bolted to the webs of the rails, and the 
end switch rod or head rod is generally adjustable, so that wear or slack can be 
taken up to keep the gage true. The adjustment is made by having the rod in 
two parts, connected by turnbuckles or clevises or by special forms of attach- 
ment. With turnbuckles, each end of the rod has a right-hand thread. The 
gage is not affected by turning the turnbuckle (as by persons tampering with 
the switch), but the rod must first be disconnected and the bolts removed from 
the end fastenings. Some roads, however, prefer to use rigid or non-adjustable 
rods. The rods should lie between ties spaced about 4 ins. apart, to protect 
them from injury in case of derailment. The insulated head rod used at inter- 
locking plants by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. is in two parts, 



112 



TRACK. 



each being a bar f X2| ins., twisted at the inner end so as to be on edge. The 
ends (not in contact) are spliced by flat plates and six bolts, fiber sleeves being 
fitted to the bolts, and fiber plates £X2^ ins. between the bars and splice plates. 
To the head rod is attached the connecting rod from the switchstand, and the 
ends of the head rod pass under the rails to prevent the ends of the switch rails 
from rising. The stock (or main) and switch rails rest on flat steel plates on 
each tie; these prevent the rails from cutting the ties (with consequent tilting 
of rails and widening of gage), and form slide plates for the switch rails. Each 
plate may have a lug to hold the heel of a rail brace on the outside. On the tie 
at the point of the switch should be a plate extending along the tie under all 
four rails, so as to assist in maintaining the gage; it should have shoulders to 
fit the outside edges of the stock rails, and lugs to fit the heels of the rail braces. 
The standard split switch for 85-lb. rails on the Norfolk & Western Ry. is 
shown in Fig. 51. The switch rails are 15 ft. long, connected by two rigid tie 




*4->i<-4-jg , -lH < - -iff- H<- -&- H* "id'' 



#'-->k-Efl'--->k--2fl'- 



■20'- 



■\-Rail Brace here D^ 1 <* Stop. 
when necessary 
on Account of turvafvre. 




Cross Section. Cro&s Sec+ion ^ g^ ^ g. 

Details of Connection . 

Fig. 51. — Standard Split Switch; Norfolk & Western Ry. 

bars, |X3 ins., set on edge, having riveted jaws bolted to the rails. Formerly, 
18-ft. switch rails were used, with five rods. The throw of the switch is 3£ ins., 
and the width over gage lines at the heel is 6£ ins. Rail braces are put at the 
heel and on six ties at the point. About 5 ft. from the heel is a stop lug, riveted 
to the switch rail, so that when the rail is home this will bear against the web of 
the stock rail, and prevent the pressure of the wheel flanges from bending the 
rail. There are 18 slide plates; Nos. 1 to 6 are 18^X5 ins., §-in. thick for 9}| 
ins., and then'-Jf-in. thick; the other three are 14^X4 ins., with the raised part 
7 J ins. long, and thicknesses as follows: No. 7, f-in. and T6" m -; No. 8, f- and 
19/32-in.; No. 9, f- and J-in. All have |-in. spike holes. The thicker part is 
to raise the switch rail slightly above the stock rail as noted below. The 
switch rails are planed to fit closely against the stock rails for 5 ft. 7£ ins. from 
the point, and the inner edge is planed off for 7 ft. from the point. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



113 



The length of switch rails in main track is usually 15 ft. for ordinary turnouts, 
and should not be less than this. The Philadelphia & Reading Ry. uses 15 ft. 
for frogs of Nos. 6 to 8, 20 ft. for Nos. 9 to 12, and 30 ft, for Nos. 12 to 20. 
On the Pennsylvania Lines, 18 ft. is standard, and 30 ft. for a Xo. 20 frog. Other 
roads use 30-ft. switch rails at connections of double-track to single-track or 
four-track, where trains run at high speed and the frogs are of Nos. 20 to 24. 
Such long switch rails may have two or three stops to support them against the 
webs of the stock rails. If a 30-ft. rail is cut in two pieces 15 ft. 1 in. and 14 ft. 
11 ins. long, and these are placed in the curved and straight track respectively, 
the heels will be exactly opposite, so that the joint ties at the heel will be square 
across the track. For switches leading from the outside of curves on main line, 
the switch rail on the inner side of the main track should have its point about 
24 ins. in advance of the other, with a guard rail opposite, as noted below. Switch 
rails 10 and 12 ft. long are used in yards and unimportant tracks. 

To secure the long feather-edge lying against the stock rail, it is necessary to 
plane off a portion of the head and base of the switch rail. This long thin end 
is a weak point, having little strength to resist blows or bending. For this 
reason the top at the extreme point is often planed off so that when home against 
the stock rail it will be below the wheel flanges. The end of the switch rail is 
left about £-in. thick, and the top is planed down on a slope for 6 to 15 ins., 
giving a drop of f - or f -in. below the top of the stock rail, the corner of the switch 
rail being rounded off vertically. This is to prevent wheel flanges from striking 
the point. These rails are now very generally reinforced by flat bars on both 
sides of the web, or by a T-bar on the gage side. Manganese steel switch rails 
(which are cast to shape) have been tried; but there is liability of these thin 
hard rails cutting the wheels, especially where the trucks do not swing easily. 
The metal is better adapted to the heavy switch rails of special section used in 
the Wharton and MacPherson switches. The German railways use (instead 
of the long thin rail) a switch rail of rectangular section, but with a bottom 
flange. It is 17 J ft. long, planed for about 11 ft., and having on top a tapered 
rib to fit against the head of the stock rail. Three forms of these heavy switch 
rails are shown in Fig. 52; these are used by the State railways of Prussia, 



V-2.3' ! l 




Fig. 52. — Switch Rails of German Railways. 
Baden and Bavaria, respectively. On the Netherlands State Railways each switch 
rail has a vertical pivot fitting in a casting bolted to the tie at the heel (no splice 
being used), and the switch and stock rails rest on a steel plate 19 ft. long and 
13 ins. wide. Switches with pivoted rails moving vertically have been tried, but 
the diversity of distance back to back of wheels is likely to cause derailments. 

The switch rail is usually slightly higher than the stock rail, so as to carry the 
false flanges of worn wheels over the latter and prevent them from wedging 
between the rails. In the Norfolk & Western Ry. switch, the head of the rail 



114 TRACK. 

rises o-in. in 5 ft. 4 ins. from the heel, and is then level for 4 ft., beyond which 
it is planed down to the point, 5 ft. 1\ ins. In other designs, the heads of the 
switch and stock rails are level at 12 or 15 ins. from the point, but then the 
former rises to J-in. or ^-in. above the latter in a length of about 3 ft. 6 ins. Beyond 
this, the head is sloped so that the rails are again level at the heel. This usually 
involves vertical bending of the switch rails, which is objectionable and hard 
to regulate exactly. Wear of rails, tie-plates and ties also soon eliminates minute 
adjustments. In one form of switch, the switch rail is at the required elevation 
for its full length (except that it is planed off at an incline for about 6 ft. at the 
point), the elevation being run out in the lead rail. Some roads, however, put 
the two rails at the same level; and this is entirely satisfactory when excessively 
worn wheels are not allowed to remain in service. 

Switch Locks. — Devices to lock the switch rails in position are not much used, 
except for switches equipped with interlocking apparatus. In this case, the 
switch is very generally locked in either position by a bolt engaging with slots in 
the head rod. (See Signaling and Interlocking.) The Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western Ry. uses for facing switches a lock rod which is parallel with the head 
rod and has two lugs which rise above the level of the rail base; these lugs engage 
the switch and stock rail on one side when the switch is set for the main track. 
A treadle on the switchstand revolves the rod by a crank and link connection, 
thus freeing the rails and allowing the switch to be opened. It is locked auto- 
matically when closed. The Emery switch lock is a small device placed on the 
tie, and automatically locks the rails together when the switch is closed. It is 
released by an ordinary switch key. Half a turn of the key allows the switch 
to be thrown without locking, to save the inconvenience of unlocking for every 
movement when switching cars. The key cannot be withdrawn, however, until 
the switch is again closed and locked. , 

Switch Guard Rails. — These are sometimes placed close in front of the switch 
points to guide the wheels into position to take the switch properly. They are 
principally used at turnouts from main-track curves to guide the wheels in the 
reversal of the centrifugal motion of the train and to prevent undue wear on the 
switch rails. On curves of 4° the Norfolk & Western Ry. uses the Barret-Burton 
switch, with one rail longer than the other and a guard rail on the inside of the 
main-line curve, as wheels tend to run to the high side of the track. This rail 
is 8 ft. long, with its head close to the switch point. It is straight for 3 ft., with 
a flangeway of 1| ins.; at the head it flares in 10 ins. to a clearance of 3| ins.; 
at the heel it flares in 4 ft. 2 ins. to a 4-in. clearance. The Philadelphia & Read- 
ing Ry. uses a 15-ft. rail, straight for 9 ft., with If- ins. flangeway; the front end 
is curved for 12 ins. to a 4-in. clearance; the rear end flares for 5 ft. to a 5-in. 
clearance. Another plan is to place a single 10-ft. guard rail on the side opposite 
the turnout, this rail having its end 6 ins. from the switch point and giving a 
flangeway of 3 ins. at the heel and If ins. at the toe, the throw of the switch 
being 4^ ins. The Pennsylvania Lines and the Southern Pacific Ry. use two 
6-ft. straight guard rails. The latter gives a 2-in. flangeway, and on curves with 
widened gage these rails are 2 ins. and 4 ft. 6 ins. from gage side of outer rail. 
In switches on the sharp right-angled curves of the Chicago elevated loop, a 
guard rail is placed close to the stock rail on the side of the curve, and is extended 
back of the point of the switch rail. When the switch is set for the <iurve, the 
switch rail lies against the guard rail and is thus firmly supported to resist the 
blows from the wheel flanges in taking the curve. The Channel switch, Fig. 53, 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



115 



has a guard rail about 9 ft. long, bolted to the inside of each switch rail, with the 
proper flangeway provided by spacing blocks. The flaring ends of the guard 
rails extend beyond the switch rails, and have the head rod attached to them. 

If very heavy switch rails were bolted up tight at the heel splices, they would 
not move freely. In the 100-lb. switches of the Southern terminal at Boston, 
two of the bolt holes in each rail are reamed out to If ins., and a heavy gas-pipe 
thimble is put over the bolt through the rail. The thimble is long enough to 




Section E _ F. 
Fig. 53.— Channel Switch. 

take the pressure on the angle bar and prevent pinching the rail. This allows 
the switch to move freely and yet leaves no loose nuts. The spread of the rails 
at the heel is often a little too wide, but the Bryant device used in split and slip 
switches and movable-point frogs at the above-mentioned terminal insures the 
proper spread and also prevents creeping of the switch rails. It consists of a 
splice trough or channel, 10 ins. long and 3 ins. wide, made of varying width to 
fit the angle between the rails. This is bolted between the angle bars of adjacent 
rails, or between the web of the stock rail and the splice bar of the heel joint. 
Stop lugs are sometimes bolted to the web of the switch rails, about 7 ft. to 
10-2 ^. from the point, so as to bear against the web of the stock rail when the 




Fig. 54. — Lorenz Switch, with Ground Lever. 

switch is thrown. Rail braces are generally placed outside the stock rail on at 
least two ties at the point, and sometimes back as far as the switch rail bears 
against the stock rail. It is a good plan to put a tie-rod or bridle rod just in 
front of the switch, to prevent any widening of the gage, and also to use a long 
slide plate on the first tie, extending across the track, as already noted. 

Automatic Switches. — In the Lorenz "automatic" switch, Fig. 54, the con- 
necting rod from the switchstand is fastened to a strap surrounding a stiff spiral 
spring carried by the head rod. The rod passes through the spring, which is 



116 



TRACK. 



stiff enough to make a rigid connection when the switch is operated from the 
switchstand in the usual way. If set for one track, and a train trails upon it 
from the other track., the wheel flanges will force the switch rails over by com- 
pressing the spring, so that the train is not derailed and the switch connections 
are not broken. This type of switch is now very little used, and the question 
of allowing trains to trail through closed switches is discussed farther on, under 
the head of "Switchstands." 

Slip Switches. — These are used at the intersections of diagonal tracks, where 
there is no room for an ordinary switch and turnout. The curves are neces- 
sarily very sharp, but the switches work very effectively in practice, and are 
largely used in yard work. A double slip switch is shown in Fig. 55. Such 



OOWN MAIN TRACK 




... C'W% 



Fig. 55. — Slip Switches. 

switches are not often used for main-track connections, but at the Germantown 
Junction (Philadelphia) of the Philadelphia & Reading Ry., where the four-track 
line diverges to form two double- track lines, there are slips 112 ft. long, having 
No. 15 frogs and 28-ft. switch rails, so as to give easy and safe passage for high- 
speed trains. 

Three-Throw Switches. — Tn some cases, two turnouts diverge at the same 
point, requiring a crotch frog in the middle of the track, where the lead rails 
intersect. When permissible, it is better to set one switch a little in advance of 
the other, thus keeping the switch rails distinct, though this arrangement throws 
the crotch frog off the center line of the main track. 

Switches with Continuous Main Rails. — With the ordinary split switch the 
main rail on the turnout side is broken or interrupted. The continuous rail 
follows the turnout, and the switch rail makes the connection with the main-line 
rail. There are, however, some special switches which avoid any break in the 
main-line rail. One of these is the Wharton switch, Fig. 56. When set for the 
siding, the grooved switch rail (A), 8 or 9 ft. long and slightly inclined, raises 
the outer wheels 1 \ ins. above the main rail, its heel bringing them upon the raised 
lead rail of the turnout. At the same time, the elevating rail (B), on the outside 
of the main track, engages the outside of the treads of the inner wheels and 
raises them in the same way. If trailed through from the siding when set for 
the main track, the wheels run upon grooved castings (C) and (D), the latter of 
which guides the inner wheels over the main rail, when the flanges drop into 
place. If trailed through on the main track when set for the siding, the wheels 
open the switch by forcing back the pivoted guard rail (E), which rests against 
the main rail and is connected with the operating shaft (F) of the switch. The 
inside guard rail (G) should be not more than 2 ins. from the main rail, so as to 
force the wheels to mount the elevating rail (B) and keep them in position until 
the flanges have cleared the main rail. The elevating rail should also be set 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



117 



close to the main rail. In a modified form, ordinary rails replace the grooved 
rails. Owing to the sharp elevation of the switch rails this device is best adapted 
for lay-over sidings, etc., which are used only a few times daily and at speeds of 
not over 20 miles an hour. In the MacPherson switch, when set for the siding, 
the switch rails (which are slightly higher than the main rails) engage with the 
wheel treads, the inner switch rail lapping over the main rail. The wheels are 
thus raised sufficiently for their flanges to clear the main rails. This switch is 
the standard pattern on the Canadian Pacific Ry., and is used in connection 
with the MacPherson frog or frog substitute which is described farther on. 




Fig. 56. — Wharton Switch. 

Facing and Trailing Switches. — Any switch is a facing switch to trains running 
towards the point, and a trailing switch to those running towards the heel. In 
order to reduce the danger of derailment incident to facing switches, especially 
with high-speed traffic, some double-track roads make their main-line turnouts 
with trailing switches as far as possible. In such cases, a train taking the side- 
track must trail through the switch, and then back through it as a facing switch. 
This is a very important arrangement, and is being adopted in many cases as the 
result of accidents due to misplaced facing switches. It is not practicable or 
advisable in all cases; for instance, on a down grade where a heavy train would 
have to be started and backed up grade through the switch. 

Derails. — To prevent a car or train on the sidetrack from fouling or running 
onto the main track, a derailing switch with stub or split rail is placed on the 
outer rail of the sidetrack, being open (as a derail) when the switch is set for the 
main track. This should be interlocked with the switch. The Delaware, 
Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses a 15-ft. switch rail. The sidetrack may be 
continued as a stub track beyond the derailing switch. This is somewhat more 
expensive, but prevents actual derailment. A derailing block or simple stop 
block is sometimes used in similar cases, generally on sidetracks where cars are 
left standing. These prevent the cars from being accidentally or maliciously 
moved so as to foul the main tracks. They are usually interlocked with the 
switch, and lie on the siding rail when the switch is set for main track. Derailing 
switches at grade crossings stand open on one track when the signals are set for 
the other track. At interlocking plants where a derailing switch is not desirable, 
a device resting on the rail head may be used to derail a train passing a "stop" 
signal. (See Signaling and Interlocking.) 



118 



TRACK. 



Frogs. 

At the intersection of the main and sidetrack rails, the rails must be cut to 
allow the passage of the wheel flanges. At this point is inserted a frog, which 
provides the necessary gap, with means for carrying the wheel treads and guiding 
the wheels. This is shown by Fig. 49. Frogs are now almost universally made 
of steel rails planed to shape, as shown in Fig. 57, the dotted lines indicating the 
rail connections. The shorter rail of the tongue should not be planed to a point, 
but its end should be about f-in. wide and dovetailed into the side of the longer 
rail. Usually the short point rail is placed on the turnout side, but in some 
makes it is placed on the main track, it being claimed that this is the stronger 
arrangement, and the one which will best withstand the destructive effect of 
hollow tires. 

The back of the frog, behind the point or tongue, is called the heel. The space 
between the tongue and the wing rail on each side is the flangeway or flange 
space, in which is usually placed a filler between the webs of the rails. Beyond 



HI 



FhnqewayFilH 




Diagram Of Frba,. 




Sectioned). Damped Frog. SettionA-B. 




Plate Froq,,Mo.&. 



* — Kg- - ;_ i 

jilted Fro3.N0.74. 



Fig. 57. — Styles of Frogs. 



the point, the space between the wing rails contracts to form the throat. Its 
width is usually equal to that of the flangeway, but sometimes If ins. with the 
almost universal l|-in. flangeway. It then widens out again to the toe (or 
mouth) of the frog. As a sharp point would soon be broken off, the point of the 
frog is made |-in. to i-in. wide, being a few inches short of the true or theoretical 
point. It is sometimes strengthened by a piece fitted between the head and 
base of the rail and welded against the web before the rail is planed. The base 
of the tongue rail should be left the full width at the point, the base of each wing 
rail being cut away to allow of the rails being brought close together. A raising 
block should be inserted in the angle of the heel, to raise the outer flange of a 
hollow tire and prevent it from exerting a bursting effect by wedging in this 
angle. This block may also serve as an anchor block, being spiked to the tie to 
prevent creeping. The frogs should be carefully laid and bedded level on the 
ties, with plenty of good ballast underneath, as they are subjected to very severe 
blows. They should not be spiked to a gage £-in. or §-in. slack, or wide, as is 
sometimes done, unless they are on curves where the gage is correspondingly 
widened. In other words, the gage at the frog should be the same as that of the 
track in which it is laid. 

At the heel of the frog are spliced the rails running from the tongue rails to 
the sidetrack, while at the toe of the frog the lead rails running to the switch 
are spliced to the wing rails. In the diagram in Fig. 57, the head of the right-hand 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 119 

wheel (running to the left on the main track) will engage with the upper wing 
rail and the main-track lead rail. The left-hand wheel (running to the right on 
the turnout) will have its flange caught by the frog point and will be carried to 
the turnout rail at the heel of the frog. The frog should be of ample length, to 
allow of proper splice connections at the ends, especially as it is now often neces- 
sary to put an insulated joint at the frog. For this reason one rail at each end 
is sometimes made about 2 ft. longer than the other, so that the joints will not 
foul each other. In some frogs also a filler block is placed at each end, fitted 
between the rails and extending beyond their ends, so that the lead rails rest 
against and are bolted to the block. 

Uniform bearing of the wheels on both frog point and wing rail can only be 
obtained by careful work. When both point and wheel are new, the bevel on the 
outer edge of the tread throws all the bearing on the frog point. A wing rail has 
the same effect when it is badly worn by false-flanged wheels, is bent vertically, 
or yields under the load of the wheel. In such cases the width of flangeway is not 
of much importance. On the other hand, many frog points, with insufficient 
support, "duck" as the wheel approaches, leaving the wing rail to carry all the 
weight, and this is aided where the rail forming the frog point has a very narrow 
flange and no base support. In such cases, the width of tread bearing is impor- 
tant, to carry the wheel firmly until the depressed portion of the frog point has 
been passed. Hollow tires also prevent simultaneous bearing. It is desirable 
to ignore the end of the frog point as a bearing, and to use a narrow flangeway 
and a small limit in wheel gage. This is referred to later in regard to the relations 
of w r heels to frogs and guard rails. The destruction of a frog is due mainly to 
the shocks it receives, making it loose, and then increasing the wear on such a 
loose frog. The severest strain is generally assumed to be the blow upon the 
point, but it is probable that the lateral blow on the inside of the wing rail by 
the false flange of a trailing wheel, and the wedging action of a similar wheel at 
the heel (unless a raising block is used) are even more destructive. 

One of the most important improvements in modern frog construction is the 
use of hard steel blocks or inserts to take the wear at the points of greatest wear. 
These are usually manganese-steel castings to form a facing for the wing rails at 
the throat. In some cases the frog point also is of the same material, though it 
has been objected that this will tend to cut the wheels. The character of the 
steel is similar to that of the track and switch rails already mentioned. The 
blocks must be very accurately made, as the metal is so hard that it can be fin- 
ished only by grinding. They are secured in place by dovetailing and by keys or 
bolts; sometimes also by having molten babbitt metal poured between the rails 
and castings. These frogs will outlast five to ten ordinary frogs, but are much 
more expensive, and are only economical under certain conditions. A No. 8 
frog of this kind with 85-lb. rails, on the Pennsylvania Ry., remained in the 
track over 4 years at a point where the life of an ordinary Bessemer steel frog 
was 3 months. The wear at the point was then A-in., and after grinding to 
surface and other slight repairs it was put back into the track. Frogs of 100-lb. 
high-carbon steel rails on the New York Central Ry. last from 2\ to 3 years 
where those of softer steel wear out in 6 to 8 months. 

The number of a frog indicates the spread of the angle included by the tongue 
rails, the spread in a No. 8 frog being 1 in. in 8 ins. The number may be deter- 
mined in various ways: (1) Measure the distance between points where the width 
over gage lines is 2 ins. and 3 ins.; this distance (in inches) will give the frog 



120 TRACK. 

number; (2) Divide the length on gage line, from heel to true point, by the width 
over gage lines at the heel; (3) Take the sum of the width over rail heads at the 
heel and between rail heads at the toe, and divide this into the length on gage 
lines from toe to heel. The frog number is equal to the reciprocal of twice the 
sine of half the frog angle. The frog angle is that included by the tongue rails. 
Table No. 11 gives the angle of the frog numbers generally used, together with 
the degree of turnout curve from a tangent. A right-hand frog is for a turnout 
to the right, as seen by a man standing in front of the switch. A crotch frog is 
placed at the intersection of the lead rails of a double turnout (with a three- 
throw switch), and its number is equal to that of the main frog multiplied by 
0.707. 

TABLE NO. 11.— FROG NUMBERS AND ANGLES. 

Frog No. Frog angle. "^J^* Fr °S No - 

degs. mins. degs. mins. 



5 11 25 24 03 11. 

6 9 32 16 40 12. 

7 8 10 12 17 14. 

8 7 10 9 23 15. 

9 6 22 7 25 18. 

10 5 44 6 01 20. 



Frog angle. 


Turnout 
curve. 


degs. mins. 


degs. mins, 


5 12 


4 58 


4 46 


4 10 


4 05 


3 04 


3 49 


2 40 


3 11 


1 52 


2 52 


1 28 



It is desirable to have as few sizes of frogs as possible in regular service, and 
the general practice is to have but two or three standard numbers, using special 
frogs where necessary. When standards are adopted, they should be introduced 
as rapidly as possible to replace odd sizes and numbers. If three numbers are 
made standard, they should be such that the lesser numbers will fit as crotch 
frogs of double turnouts, but such turnouts should not be used unless for special 
reasons. Nos. 7 to 10 are those in most common use. No. 4 is sometimes used 
for very sharp turnouts to warehouses, etc., but can be used only by switch 
engines with short wheelbase; its lead or turnout curve is of 150 ft. radius. A 
No. 5 frog is about the sharpest used in ordinary practice, and is for sharp turn- 
outs in yards. No. 6 (or better No. 7) is used for ladder track connections, so 
as to occupy as little length of track as possible. Nos. 7, 8 and 9 are generally 
used in yards ; Nos. 9 and 10 are used in ordinary main track, and should be the 
minimum for main-line turnouts, crossovers, etc., which are frequently used by 
road engines. Nos. 12 to 20 are used for high-speed turnouts, and Nos. 14, 18 
and 24 at connections of single to double track. 

The rigid frogs for 85-lb. rails on the Norfolk & Western Ry. are 15 ft. long, 
with a length of 8 ft. from point to heel and 7 ft. from point to toe. These 
dimensions are for Nos. 6 and 7 (special), and 8, 9, 10 and 12 (standard). In 
No. 15, the lengths are 9 ft. 6 ins. and 5 ft. 6 ins. respectively. The plates are 
f-in. thick; 22X42 ins. for Nos. 6, 7, 8; 20X42 ins. for No. 9; and 20X60 ins. 
for Nos. 10, 12 and 15. They have f-in. rivets, with the lower heads counter- 
sunk, and f-in. spike holes. The frog point is ^-in. wide and the flangeways are 2 
ins. wide. The ties are spaced 18 ins. c. to c. On the Pennsylvania Lines the 
frogs ordinarily used are as follows: Nos. 15 and 20 spring-rail frogs for high- 
speed turnouts and crossovers; No. 10 spring-rail frogs for other main-track 
work; No. 7 rigid frogs for yard work. Where turnouts or crossovers require 
frogs below No. 7, preference is given to Nos. 4 and 6. The rigid frogs are of the 
bolted and clamped types. A 2-in. flangeway is specified, measured f-in. below 
top of rail, and the fillers extend 4 ins. ahead of the point. Table No. 12 gives 
the dimensions of some frogs. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 121 

TABLE NO. 12.— DIMENSIONS OF RIGID FROGS. 









(Bolted frogs.) 








Heel 
to point. 


Ler 

Total. 


1 o-tVi 






< Spread . * 

Toe. Heel. 




Frog 
No. 


i gin- 
Wing 


rail. 


Filler. 


No. of 
bolts. 




ft. 


ft. 


ft. 


ins. 


ins. 


ins. ins. 




4 


5 


8 


7 


2 


36+ 


84 154 


7 


6 


5 


8 


7 


2 


36* 


54 104 


7 


7 


5 


8 


7 


2 


364 


4f 9^ 


7 


8 


8 


15 


11 


2 


364 


10 124 


7 


9 


8 


15 


11 


8 


42 


8A 11A 


8 


10 


8 


15 


11 


8 


42 


71 10| 


8 


12 


10 


17 


11 


8 


42 


64 10* 


8 


13 


10 


17 


12 


2 


474 


5H 9f 


9 


14 


12 


19 


12 


2 


47* 


54 10 if 


9 


15 


12 


19 


12 


2 


474 


5| 10£ 


9 








(Plate frogs.) 








ft. ins. 








(A) 




(B) 


5 


4 6 


7 


5 


6 


24 


6 10ff 


3 


7 


5 3 


8 


5 


6 


34 


4H 9 


3 


9 


6 4 


10 


6 


114 


44 


4« 84 


4 


10 


9 10 


17** 


9 


4* 


5 


94 llfi 


4 


12 


9 


14 


9 


6 


6 


5 9 


5 


14 


10 7 


154 


9 


6 


7 


44 9^ 


6 



* The No. 10 frog has one rail at each end 2 ft. longer than the other; the wing rails are 
9 ft. 4 ins. and 11 ft. 4 ins. long. 

Column A gives the distance from actual point to theoretical point. Column B gives 
the number of horizontal rivets through the frog point. 

Frogs are built up in various ways, as shown in Fig. 57. Bolted frogs have 
the parts held together by horizontal through bolts, |-in. or 1-in. diameter, iron 
or steel fillers being placed between the webs of the point and wing rails. Clamped 
or keyed frogs have yokes or clamps which pass under the rail and have their 
ends bent upward. Fillers are placed between the tongue and wing rails, and 
steel keys or wedges are driven between the wing rails and the ends of the yokes. 
One of the clamps should be placed at the frog point. The clamps may be flat 
or T-shaped forged .bars, or bars 1-1X3 ins., set on edge, with the ends formed to 
fit the head, web and base of rail. The last are held in place by two rods hooked 
over the ends of the wing rails and passing through both clamps, being secured 
by spring keys or cotters. Plate frogs, with the rails riveted to a base plate, but 
with no fillers or horizontal connections, are not now much used in main track. 
They are, however, standard on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. 
The plate is f-in. thick, 18 ins. wide, 5h ft. long for frogs of Nos. 7 to 9, and 
7 ft. for Nos. 10 to 14. For lines of heavy traffic, bolted and clamped frogs are 
now very generally reinforced by a riveted base-plate or by two or more smaller 
plates which will fit between the ties. The New York Central Ry. uses plates 
attached by bolts with rail clamps. Where long base-plates are not used, iron 
plates should be laid on the ties to prevent the wear and cutting of the wood. 
The point should come upon a tie and have a plate under it to prevent "duck- 
ing" under the wheels. In filled frogs, the fillers should extend beyond the 
point and back to the heel of the wing rails. 

Long frogs make a much better riding track than short frogs, and are more 
easily connected up, as already noted. A good length is 15 ft. for ordinary main 
track. Yard frogs may be from 6 to 10 ft. long. The curved lead (B-C. 
Fig. 58) is longer than the straight lead (A-C). If the straight lead of a No. 10 
frog is 60 ft, (two lead rails, 30 ft. and 22 ft.; toe to point of frog, 8 ft.), then 
the curved lead will be nearly 2 ins. longer. This will bring the switch con- 
necting rods 2 ins. out of square, which can be avoided by making the curved 
lead wing rail 2 ins. longer. If the wing rails are curved to fit the curve of 
the lead, they will make an easier riding track, but this is rarely practised, 



122 



TRACK. 



though it should be done at main-track turnouts used at any but very slow- 
speed. 

Spring- Rail Frogs. — In all rigid frogs, above described, there is necessarily a 
jolt as each wheel crosses the flangeway, this jolt being very severe when wheels 
or frog are worn. In turnouts from first-class main track where the traffic on 
the turnout is light, the spring-rail frog is now almost universally used, and 
makes a smooth riding track, as it gives an unbroken main rail. It is therefore 
specially adapted for turnouts where the main line carries heavy and fast traffic, 
as it makes a safer and better riding track and diminishes the wear and main- 
tenance work, the frog keeping in better surface than the rigid frog. The prin- 
ciple is explained by Fig. 58. The lead rails are A and B. The turnout wing 
rail, C, is hinged, and is normally held against the frog point by a spring, so that 
wheels, X, on the main track have no flangeway to cross, but have a continuous 
bearing. The main-track wing rail, D, is fixed. The wheels on the turnout, Y 
and Z, force back the spring wing rail C by the wheel flanges entering between 
the wing rail and frog point. The spring-rail frog is not generally required at 
junctions or in heavy yards, though it may be used for thoroughfare or open 
tracks in yards. At some junctions, however, where there is heavy traffic on 
both tracks, or where a double-track junction turnout runs into a single-track 




Fig. 58. — Diagram of Spring- Rail Frog. 

branch, a double spring-rail frog is used. This has both wing rails movable and 
both normally resting against the frog point. 

The spring is often placed near the throat, but it is generally considered better 
to have it nearer the free end of the rail, or opposite the frog point, while in some 
cases an additional spring is placed at the throat. The outward movement is 
about 2 ins., limited by stops. To prevent the end of the spring rail from rising 
when the wheels pass the throat, it is held down by hinged arms pivoted to the 
base plate and to an eye in a strap riveted to the web of the rail, or by bars pro- 
jecting from the rail web and sliding in sockets on the plate. The frog point and 
the end of the spring rail should rest upon a base plate at least 3 ft. long, and the 
rail should fit against the point for a sufficient length to give a full bearing to the 
wheels. The standard No. 10 left-hand spring-rail frog of the Illinois Central 
Ry., with 85-lb. rails, is shown in Fig. 59. It is 14 ft. long, with the frog point 
at the middle, and has the spring opposite the point. The spring rail is 12 ft. 
3 ins. long, with a movement of 2 ins., which is equal to the width at flangeways 
and throat. The top is planed down to allow the free passage of the false flange 
of a worn wheel, thus preventing such wheels (trailing) from forcing the rail 
outward. The rail is reinforced by a f-in. flat bar bolted to the web and bent 
to form four projecting plungers which ride in the guides or sockets and the 
spring box, as shown at F-F. The guides are bolted to the -|-in. base plates on 
the ties. In the open flangeway is a filler 16 ins. long, extending back from 
the frog point. A raising block is placed at the back of the point, and at each 
end is a filler block which extends beyond the frog rails, so that the lead rails 
are bolted against it, requiring only outside splice bars. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



123 








124 



TRACK. 



A short guard rail or reinforcing rail outside the spring rail is sometimes pro- 
vided as a means of extra security in case of fracture of the spring rail. In 
hinge-rail spring frogs, such as the Eureka frog (Fig. 60), the spring rail proper 
extends only from the heel to just beyond the throat of the frog, the part of the 
wing rail towards the switch being riveted to the base plate. An outer or 
" hinge" rail is bolted to the spring rail and hinged to the fixed part of this wing 
rail; these parts normally form a continuous running rail with a miter joint at 
the throat of the frog. In some frogs, the spring rail is arranged as in Fig. 60, 
but has an outside lug with vertical pivot at the throat end, the outside hinge 
rail being dispensed with. In the Vaughan frog, the arrangement is the same, 
but with the pivot at the heel and the spring opposite the frog point. In the 
ordinary frog the greater part of the spring rail is used as a part of the main 
track, but in the Vaughan frog only the end of the rail is thus used. The filling 
block is so shaped as to guide the wheel flanges in case of any failure of the spring, 




Fig. 60. — Eureka Spring-Rail Frog. 



a rib on the block fitting under the head of the spring rail. Spring-rail frogs are 
as safe as rigid frogs in case of breakage, and accidents or breakages are very 
rare. With a worn frog or a hollow tire there might be possibility of the spring 
rail being forced out by a trailing main-track wheel to such an extent as to break 
the stops, so that the wheel will drop into the throat of the frog. In some frogs 
this cannot occur, and it may be prevented by beveling or grooving the top of 
the spring rail where the wheel treads engage it, or making that rail f-in. to f-in. 
lower than the top of the frog, so as to clear worn wheels. The former practice 
is the better. The spring rail is also generally so made as to leave a slight flaring 
opening between it and the extreme end of the point, so that the wheel flange 
will be started in before pressure is put on the spring rail, thus relieving the frog 
guard rail. Devices have been introduced to lock the spring rail against the 
tongue when the switch is set for the main track, but these are rarely used. The 
objections as to the clogging of the spring rail are found in practice to be of little 
moment. Spring-rail frogs are largely used on roads which have much snow 
and ice to deal with, and in fact they are now almost the universal standard for 
main-t^ack turnouts with relatively light traffic for the siding or branch. 

Movable Wing Frogs. — In the Wood frog (Fig. 61), which has been used in 
yards, the two wing rails are bolted together at the throat, and connected by a 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



125 



clamp behind the point, so that they move as one piece, sliding on a base plate. 
There is no spring, but the wing rails remain in either position, as set by the 
wheels. The Pennsylvania Ry. has used a somewhat similar yard frog, but 
having a spring on each side, 9£ ins. ahead of the point, with a filling block 
between the rails. 

Frog Substitutes. — In view of the increasing number and speed of trains and 
the number of turnouts, several devices have been introduced to avoid the use 
of the ordinary frog, and to give an actually unbroken main-line rail. Some of 
these are in regular use. The principle is the same in most cases. The turnout 
lead rail is inclined sufficiently to raise wheels so that their flanges will clear the 
main rail, the lead rail having a gap through which the main rail passes. In this 
gap works a pivoted rail or a crossing piece of special shape, operated in connec- 
tion with the switch, and resting upon the main rail when the switch is set for 
the turnout. An automatic connection is provided, so that a main-line train 
trailing through a switch set for the siding will throw the frog piece open and so 
set the switch in advance of the train. A careless man might sometimes throw 
a switch before a train taking the siding had cleared the frog, thus opening the 



ftMM 




■>lndine 5te °- imer 

Fig. 61. — Wood's Movable-Point Frog. 

frog and causing a derailment. A detector bar may therefore be applied, as in 
interlocking work, to prevent the switch from being thrown until every wheel of 
the train has passed the fouling point. It has been objected that the connections 
between switch and frog are liable to derangement by creeping or expanding 
track, or by a car coming off the sidetrack when the switch is set for the main 
track. These objections, however, have little force in view of the great extent 
to which interlocking apparatus and connections are in successful use. On some 
roads, also, all passing places are fitted with derails connected up to the switch, 
requiring longer connections than from switch to frog. The frog substitute has 
its limitations, the same as the spring-rail frog. It is not desirable for general 
use in yards, where quick switch throwing is necessary. Fur sidings in limited 
use, where the heavy wear of frogs (even spring-rail frogs) is disproportionate 
to the actual duty performed in carrying wheels in and out of the siding, it would 
be very desirable to have an unbroken main rail. 

One of the first of these devices to be put into actual service was that patented 
in 1S84 by Mr. C. B. Price, of the Pennsylvania Ry. The movable piece to fill 
the gap in the lead rail is a large casting, but the wing rail also moves, so that it 
lies against the main rail when the switch is set for the siding. Just beyond the 
heel of the switch is a spring guard rail fitted against the gage side of the turnout 
rail so as to be operated by the wheel flanges. When this is pressed back by the 
flanges its hooked lugs engage with sockets on the operating rod, which is then 
locked so that the switch cannot be thrown until the last pair of wheels has 
cleared the frog. The MacPherson device is very similar, and is largely used on 
the Canadian Pacific Ry. in connection with the MacPherson switch, already 



126 



TRACK. 



described. It has shown but little wear, and the cost of maintenance has been 
small. Should a main-line train trail through the device when set for the 
turnout, the wheel flanges would mount the incline of the heel of the crossing 
piece; the wheels running along this casting and down another incline upon 
the main rail again. The guard rail opposite the crossing piece would hold the 
wheels over so that they cannot get on the wrong side of the main rail. When 
the head of such a train reaches the switch, each set of wheels would open it, 
but this would not throw the frog, owing to a spring connection in the switch 
rod similar to that of the Lorenz switch (Fig. 54). The frog cannot move until 
the switch lever is unlocked and thrown. The Coughlin swing-rail frog is also 
on the same principle, but the lead wing rail does not move. The only movable 
part is the frog piece or swing rail, which is made from an ordinary track rail 
instead of being a heavy casting. The end of this rail has the web and base 
cut away to let the head swing across the main rail, while the ends of the lead 
rail are riveted to a base plate which also supports the main rail, thus holding 
the parts in proper line and surface. The general design of these three devices 
is shown in Fig. 62, and a similar arrangement is used in. connection with the 
Wharton switch, already mentioned. 





Fig. 64. — Movable- 
Point Crossing. 



Fig. 62. — Frog Substitutes. 



Crossing Frogs. — Where two tracks intersect (as at grade crossings), crossing 
frogs must be used to give a flangeway in both directions, and as there is no 
uniformity in the angles, the crossings have generally to be specially made for 
each case. They are built up of rails bolted together, with filling pieces between 
and heavy connections in the angles. They should be riveted to base plates at 
the corners or extending continuously under the rails. The rail ends may be 
beveled off to a miter joint at the frog point, or have one rail butted against the 
other. The inner wing rail, or guard rail, is usually continuous in crossings of 
45° to 90°, but is sometimes stopped and flared out at each corner. Both 
methods are shown in Fig. 63. (See also Grade Crossings.) Where one track 
is the more important its rails may be continuous, having the heads grooved 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



127 



to form flangeways for wheels crossing them. At crossings on busy tracks, a 
third rail is sometimes placed against the outside of the track rail to carry the 
false flanges of badly worn wheels and prevent them from battering the rails at 
the flangeways. The ends of these easer rails are inclined, so that wheels will 
take a bearing upon them without shock. Crossings may be built up without 
a joint between the frogs, but this makes a very heavy section for transpor- 
tation, and does not admit of repairs without taking up the crossing. As a 
rule it is better to have a joint in two sides. The sharper the angle of crossing, 
the greater will be the wear on the frogs, due to the battering effect of the 
wheels in jumping over the flangeways. With an angle of less than 8°, or where 



Incline- 



Track Raik Flwa j 
Easer Ra/!\.'\ "a lln rrl 



Forg/no 



Splice for 
Track Rail 




org/ng 
Easer Rail 
Track Rail 
'langeway Filler ' 
Guard Rail 
langeway Filler 
Track Rail 
Easer Rail 



Fig. 63. — Crossing Frogs. 

one or both tracks are on a curve, movable-point frogs may be used, instead 
of crossing frogs. In this case there will be two pair of short switch rails set 
toe to toe, as shown in Fig. 64, and operated simultaneously by a lever. A 
similar arrangement may be applied at the crossing of slip switches. In the 
Norfolk & Western Ry. practice, as exemplified by a crossing of 98°, the entire 
crossing is in two pieces. Under each corner, or frog, is a f-in. plate, 24X36 
ins., to which the rails are secured by f-in. rivets, 4 ins. pitch, having the 
lower heads countersunk. There are strips outside the rails and fillers between 
the main and guard rails, all held together by three bolts in each leg of the 
crossing. 

Where less important street railways cross steam railways, the flange filling 
js sometimes inclined so as to carry the wheels of the street cars over the crossing 



12S TRACK. 

on their flanges, thus giving an unbroken rail to the steam track. Where electric 
railways intersect steam railways, regular built-up crossings are generally used, 
made with ordinary rails, and having a reinforcing rail placed outside of and 
touching the main rail. In some cases the rails of the electric track and the 
reinforcing rails of the steam track are planed down f-in. or |-in. so as to clear 
all false-flanged wheels. This may be objectionable if four-wheel electric cars 
are run, but with double-truck cars very little shock is felt. The flangeway may 
be If ins. for the steam track and 1| ins. for the electric track, but interurban 
railways now use wheels approximating to the Master Car Builders' standard. 
In order to reduce the wear of crossings of this kind in city streets, the rails of 
the steam track are sometimes of manganese steel, made in a special section 
combining the running rail, reinforcing rail and guard rail. 

Railway grade crossings are objectionable on account of the difficulty of 
keeping them in proper condition, due to the severe blows and shocks at the 
gaps for the wheel flanges. Devices have been invented to give a continuous 
rail to whichever track is to be used, but have generally failed through com- 
plexity or inability to stand the severe service. In the Leighton-Hansel crossing 
used on the Chicago, Indiana & Southern Ry., four grooved rail blocks of cast- 
steel move diagonally in the corners of the crossing. These are connected to a 
system of rods and bell-crank levers, interlocked with the signal plant, so that 
a continuous rail is given for the route which has a clear signal. Two extra 
levers are used, one operating the blocks and the other the lock. This has 
given satisfactory service, and in snow storms requires only the same attention 
as is given to the switches. 

Frog Guard Rails. 

Opposite the frog, and on the gage side of each of the running rails, is placed 
a guard rail to hold the wheels in line and prevent them from striking the point 
or getting on the wrong side of the frog point. They are sometimes omitted in 
yards on account of the liability of the men to stumble over them or to get their 
feet caught. They are usually 15 ft. long (sometimes only 7 ft. G ins. or 12 ft.), 
straight for 8 to 12 ft. at the middle, having 8 or 9 ft. of the length opposite the 
frog point. The ends are flared or curved out so as to bring the wheels steadily 
into the flangeway, the ends being about 4 ins. clear of the track rail. Rarely 
the rail is bent to a uniform curve and placed so that the narrowest part of the 
flangeway is opposite the frog point. This is based on the idea that the wheels 
should only be held over while passing the frog point and then immediately 
released, as to hold them any longer than this would result in extra wear of the 
frog and guard rail. The straight rails, however, are much to be preferred. 
The edge of the base is planed away to allow of the rail being placed close 
enough to the main rail. The rails are spiked to the ties and supported by rail 
braces, but should always be fastened to the track rails, so that the proper width 
of flangeway is permanently maintained. This may be effected by means of 
bolts or clamps, or a combination of these, with spacing blocks or fillers 
between the webs of the rails. Light rails may be used, being mounted on 
combination chairs and braces to give them the proper elevation, as is done on 
the Southern Pacific Ry. 

The guard rails should be set and secured permanently in correct position in 
order to insure a safe and easy riding track, and to prevent excessive wear of 
frogs and guard rails. As already noted, the gage of track should be the same at 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



129 



the frog as at the adjacent track, and it should be accurately maintained. The 
standard guard-rail gage is 4 ft. 5 ins. over the gage sides of the heads of wing 
and guard rails, or 4 ft. 6| ins. from gage side of frog point to gage side of guard 
rail, irrespective of the gage of track. The flangeway on tangents is usually 
If ins., sometimes 2 ins. for the turnout. On curves it will be increased by the 
amount of widening of gage of track. The Norfolk & Western Ry. specifies 
If ins. up to 8° curves, 2 ins. to 12°, 2\ ins. for 12° and over. The importance 
of accuracy and uniformity of width is not sufficiently well understood by track- 
men, and where the guard rail is independent of the main rail they will often 
merely guess at the width or vary it to suit their own ideas. The standard 
width should be insisted upon, and should be measured at the widest point of 
the rail heads. 

The Norfolk & Western Ry. uses a 15-ft. guard rail (Fig. 65), straight for 7 
ft., with a flangeway of If ins., flaring out to 2\ ins. at 2 ft. from the end of the 



rv-JS 



A. 




Fig. 65. — Standard Frog Guard Rail; Norfolk & Western Ry. 

rail. The rail is spiked to the ties and bolted to the track rails with four bolts. 
The Pennsylvania Ry. uses a 15-ft. guard rail, straight for only 3 ft. at the 
middle, and then curved for 6 ft. to a radius of 9 ft. to give a clearance of 4 ins. 
at the end. The rail has 8 ft. of its length ahead of the frog point. The 15-ft. 
rail of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. is straight for 12 ft. 8 ins., 
being curved for 14 ins. at each end to a radius of 3 ft., giving 3^ ins. clearance 
at the ends. It covers eight ties, and on each of the four middle ties is a f-in. 
plate, 5X18 ins., carrying both rails and the rail braces. At the middle and 
2 ft. 7 ins. on each side are three spacing blocks fitting under the rail heads and 
grooved for a flangeway 1^ ins. deep. The rails are bolted together by a |-in. 
bolt at each block. For frogs of 100-lb. rails, the Duluth & Iron Range Ry. 
uses guard rails of angle iron, |X6X6 ins., 20 ft. long, with If ins. flangeway 
for 8 ft. and then flaring out to a clearance of \\ ins. at the ends. They are 
secured to the track rail by seven £-in. bolts with cast-iron spacing sleeves. 

With the ordinary guard rail, the wheel passing the frog is pulled into line by 
the other wheel on the axle, so that in case of a sprung axle or badly gaged 
wheels the wheel may not be put in proper line for the frog. Some frogs have 
been designed in which these rails are dispensed with, the frog itself having 
guards which guide the wheel by contact with the face of the rim instead of with 
the back of the flange. To effect this, it is necessary to raise the guards about 
1 in. above the level of the running rails. The Conley frog of this type has been 
tried on the Illinois Central Ry., and the Graham frog on the Norfolk & Western 
Ry., both being in slow-speed or yard tracks. 

Footguards. 

Accidents frequently happen to railway employees from their feet getting 
caught under the rail heads in the angles at the heels of frogs and switches, and 



130 TRACK. 

at the flaring ends of guard rails. Being unable to free themselves, the men are 
often run over and either killed or maimed. These accidents are specially com- 
mon in yards. It is a wise precaution to fill in such places, and in some States 
the use of footguards is required by law. Wooden blocking is the most common 
form, but has the disadvantage of soon becoming broken and decayed, and is 
apt to be left neglected in such condition. The Hart footguard, however, con- 
sists of a strip of wood of triangular section bolted to the inner side of the web 
of each rail. The outer (sloping) face extends from the bottom of the side of 
the rail head to beyond the edge of the rail base. Gravel or cinder filling is also 
sometimes employed, but soon settles down or shakes oat so as to lose its effi- 
ciency. Metal footguards are preferable, and several forms are in use. The 
Norfolk & Western Ry. uses an iron bar |X2f ins. (the height of the rail web) 
bent into a loop and driven between the rails. This is for rigid and spring-rail 
frogs, heels of switches, etc. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses cast 
blocks forming combined footguards and spacing blocks. The raising block of 
a frog forms a footguard at the heel. 

Relations of Wheels to Track. 

The Master Car Builders' Association has adopted as standard a distance of 
4 ft. 5f ins. back to back of flanges of car wheels. The Master Mechanics' Asso- 
ciation allows from 4 ft. 5£ ins. maximum to 4 ft. 5£ ins. minimum for engine 
wheels. The minimum distance out to out of wheels (over the treads) is 5 ft. 
4 ins. The standards are almost universally adopted, but in practice many 
wheels of improper gage are kept in service. These are very destructive to 
frogs, switches and guard rails, and are the probable cause of many "unex- 
plained" derailments at such parts. Similar trouble is caused by the use of 
cheap wheels having thick and irregular flanges, which do not conform to the 
standards of the Master Car Builders' Association. In 1906, this association 
adopted a wheel section with stronger and thicker flanges. The increase at the 
point measured for gage of track does not exceed ^j-in. (ife-in. f° r a P a i r of 
wheels), and this is negligible in view of the variations due to wear of rails and 
wheels. Such wheels can run through present clearances without difficulty. 
The flange is 1| ins. deep and 1|- ins. thick, with a fillet or throat of y|-in. radius; 
the tread is 3| ins. wide, with an inclination of 1 in 20 for 2| ins. from the throat. 

It is an expensive practice to keep in service locomotives having worn or hollow 
driving-wheel tires, as the false flanges of such wheels are seriously destructive 
to frogs and switches, lead to much expense in track maintenance and repairs, 
and are liable to cause derailment. Worn blind tires, owing to their width, 
exert a powerful bursting force on frogs, switches and guard rails, which parts 
are not designed to stand such strains. Badly-worn tires on new rails with 
wider or flatter heads than the old rails, will slip and cause the engine to roll, 
to the detriment of the track and the reduction of the efficiency of the engine. 
Switch engines are often allowetl to run with tires very badly worn, causing 
excessive wear of the track, and making it almost impossible to maintain the 
yard tracks in proper condition. If complaint is made, the motive-power depart- 
ment is apt to claim that the engines cannot be spared to go into the shops, but 
on many roads the departments work in harmony and the wear is kept within 
reasonable limits. Tire-dressing brakeshoes, which wear on the whole width 
of the tread and also on the flange, are a great factor in increasing the mileage 
of the wheels before turning is necessary. 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 131 

The permissible limit for depth of wear of tires in regular service should be 
|-in. for road engines, and f-iri. for switch engines. It is not of much use to 
distinguish between passenger and freight engines, as they are frequently used 
in similar service, but the -J-in. limit might well be set for high-speed engines. 
The limit for depth of flange should be li ins. for road engines and If ins. for 
switch engines. The present limit of wear allowed by different railways range s 
from fa- to | -in., though wheels worn f-in. hollow are sometimes met with in 
practice. On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. the limit of wear for driv- 
ing-wheel tires in any service is \-m., but it rarely exceeds t^-in., except occa- 
sionally on yard engines, and then only for a short time. The roadmaster 
should have a tire gage, somewhat similar to the M. C. B. flange thickness gage, 
and promptly report any engines whose tires are worn beyond a proper limit 
and are damaging the track. By putting a straight edge across the tread, the 
depth of groove can be measured with a rule. A gage used on the Chicago, 
Burlington & Quincy Ry. consists of a steel plate with one edge formed to the 
standard outline of a new tire. This plate has a slide moving across it, with 
graduations on the slide and plate, as on a curve elevation gage. The gage is 
set on edge against the tire, fitting the flange and tread, and the slide pushed 
out until it touches the bottom of the worn groove, the scale showing the depth. 
The Keen gage has a number of small square pins in a row between two plates. 
The frame is set across the tire, the pins being allowed to drop freely and then 
clamped, so that when the gage is removed the pins show the contour of the worn 
tire. The measurements may be reported by the roundhouse foremen monthly, 
and the results tabulated, varying by ^-in. or iV m - 

Switch Ties and Timbers. 

Switch timbers or^switch ties of varying length are generally used, carrying 
the main and turnout rails of both tracks, as shown in Figs. 66 and 67. On 
some roads ordinary ties are used, alternating for the two tracks, as in Fig. 68. 
The former plan looks better and makes a more solid connection between the 
tracks. The long ties are somewhat difficult to renew, and have generally to be 
renewed in sets. The alternated ties give a closer support to the lead rails, but 
it is more difficult to tamp the separate ties to an even and uniform bearing for 
all rails. Switch timbers should be of the same thickness as the ties, and not 
less than 7 or 8 ins. wide on the face. Some roads have them 9 and 10 ins. wide, 
to give a good bearing to the curve lead rails, as the sharp curve makes them 
liable to cut into the ties along the outer edge of the rail base. It is better to 
prevent this cutting by the use of metal tie-plates, which are also frequently 
used to replace rail braces on turnout curves. The timbers should be spaced 
about 20 to 24 ins. apart, c. to c, not less than 8 ins. apart in the clear, but the 
spacing must be varied to fit the rail joints and to get a tie under the frog point, 
or as nearly under as a yoked frog will permit. 

The required length of the timbers is ascertained by taking the distance (in 
inches) between the tie at the heel of the switch and the tie under the frog point, 
dividing this by the number of ties to be placed between them, and adding the 
amount thus obtained to the length of each tie, starting from the heel of the 
switch. This arrangement, with every timber cut to length, is shown in the Erie 
Ry. turnout (Fig. 66). Very frequently, however, instead of using a different 
length for each timber, the timbers are made in groups of the same length to the 
nearest 6 or 12 ins. This is done by the Southern Pacific Ry., as shown by the 



132 



TRACK. 










" V "f~ a&^Q ttiflaxi o3 



o 



; o 



3 



-||.|- :///j6r ^ | 



E iVrtv/rrfsr** 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



133 



dotted lines in Fig. 67, but on that road after the ties are laid their ends are cut 
off parallel with the sidetrack rail, as indicated, which seems to be entirely 
unnecessary, involving useless labor and time. This turnout is for a No. 9 
spring-rail frog, and tracks 15 ft. c. to c. 

The last long timber should not exceed 16 ft. in length, though for crossovers 
on double track the middle timbers are often made long enough to take both 
tracks. A practice sometimes followed is to have a plank about 1X10 ins., 
16 to 18 ft. long, with the lengths of the several timbers scribed and marked 
upon it. This is used as a gage in sawing the timbers to length before laying, 
but it is better to have them sawed to specified lengths at the mill, if this can 
be done. To ascertain the length of timbers for a three-throw switch, subtract 
half the length of the standard tie from the length of the switch timber for a 
single switch, and then multiply the remainder by two. Most roads have fixed 
tables or bills of material for switch timbers, which are issued to the foremen. 
The ties or timbers should be carefully laid on good, well drained ballast, and 




Fig. 68. — Turnout Laid on Ordinary Ties. 

firmly tamped, especially under the frog, except that where plate frogs are used 
the ties may be set a little low, or allowed to settle, to allow for the thickness of 
the plate. This is better than cutting the ties to receive the plate. In Table 
No. 13 are given examples of bills of material for switch timbers; sometimes 
these bills give the number and length of each timber in consecutive order. 
The arrangement of ties at track crossings is noted in Chapter 9. 



Switchstands. 

The switchstand contains the mechanism for operating the switch, and con- 
sists essentially of a frame carrying a vertical shaft (sometimes horizontal for 
yards) with a target at the top and a crank at the bottom. The switch- 
connecting rod is attached to this crank and to the head-rod of the switch. 
The shaft is turned by means of a lever hinged to it, the lever normally hanging 
down, and held by a lug or socket on the stand. When the switch is to be 
thrown, the lever is raised to a horizontal position and swung round, turning 
the shaft and crank and operating the switch. The lever is then in position 
to engage with another lug. This is the operation of two of the switchstands 
shown in Fig. 69. In some cases the crank is replaced by a bevel-gear rack 
and segment, while in others the lever operates a segmental spur gear at the 
top or base of the switchstand. In the latter case, the crank shaft and target 
shaft are separate rods, connected by the horizontal gears keyed to them, the 
lever being attached to the target shaft. In some yard switchstands, a spiral 
slot on a drum or barrel engages with a stud on the switch rod; or a drop 
lever working parallel with the rail operates a bevel gear. With the steady 
increase in the use of the block system and interlocking plants, there is a more 
general use of the interlocking system at main-line turnouts and yard entrances 



134 



TRACK. 



and in passenger yards. In such cases the switches are operated from levers 
concentrated in a tower, but the subject of interlocking is too broad to be 
dealt with here, and only the ordinary switchstands operated by hand are 
referred to in this chapter. (See Chapter 14.) 



TABLE NO. 13.— BILLS OF TIMBER FOR SWITCHES. 
Southern Pacific Ry. 



No. 9 spring-rail frog; tracks, 15 ft. c. to 
headblocks, 7X10 ins. The lengths given are 
in each case The table shows lengths where 
26 ft. 

-Commercial length, 22 ft. 

Remarks. 
Headblock, 7 X 10 ins. 



c; timbers, 7X8 ins. or 7X9 ins., as ordered; 
for 8-ft. main-track ties; for 9-ft. ties add 1 ft. 
the longest commercial lengths are 22 ft. and 



No. of 


Length 


pieces. 


ft. ins. 


1 


16 


3 


16 


6 


8 6 


3 


15 6 


2 


15 


2 


14 6 


3 


14 


2 


13 6 


2 


8 6 


3 


13 


3 


9 


3 


12 6 


3 


9 6 


2 


12 


2 


10 


3 


11 6 


3 


10 6 


3 


11 


3 


9 


1 


10 6 


1 


9 6 


2 


10 


2 


9 


1 


9 6 


1 


8 6 


1 


10 



Cut from 13 pieces 22 
ft. long. 



Cut from 5 pieces 20 
ft. long. 



Cut from 2 pieces 18 
ft. long. 



61 



No. of 
pieces. 

1 

3 

1 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

4 

2 

4 

61 



-Commercial 
Length, 
ft. ins. 

16 

16 

8 6 

15 6 

8 6 
15 

9 
14 6 

9 6 

14 

10 

13 6 

10 6 
13 

11 

12 6 

11 6 

12 
10 
10 6 

9 6 

9 6 

8 6 

9 
9 
8 6 



length, 26 ft. . 

Remarks. 
Headblock, 7X10 ins. 



Cut from 19 pieces 24 
ft. long. 



Cut from 3 pieces 20 
ft. long. 

Cut from 3 pieces 18 
ft. long. 

Cut from 2 pieces 26 
ft. long. 



Philadelphia & Reading Ry. 



No. 10 spring-rail frog; tracks, 12 ft. 
marked (*), which are 8X9 ins. 



1£ ins. c. to c; all timbers 7X9 ins., except those 



No. of 


Len 


gth. 


JL UJ 

Feet. 


UUUl 

No. of 


Length. 


Feet. 


No. of 


■(jrussuver 
Length. 


Feet. 


pieces. 


ft. 


ins. 


B.M. 


pieces. 


ft. 


ins. 


B.M. 


pieces. 


ft. 


ins. 


B.M. 


5 


8 


9 


230 


2 


13 


3* 


159 


10 


8 


9 


460 


5 


9 





237 


1 


13 


6* 


81 


10 


9 





474 


4 


9 


3 


194 


2 


13 


9* 


165 


8 


9 


3 


389 


4 


9 


6 


200 


1 


14 





74 


8 


9 


6 


400 


3 


9 


9 


154 


2 


14 


3 


150 


6 


9 


9 


308 


3 


10 





157 


1 


14 


6 


76 


6 


10 





315 


3 


10 


3 


162 


2 


14 


9 


154 


6 


10 


3 


323 


2 


10 


6 


111 


1 


15 





79 


4 


10 


6 


221 


2 


10 


9 


113 


1 


15 


3 


80 


4 


10 


9 


226 


2 


11 





116 


2 


15 


6 


162 


4 


11 





231 


2 


11 


3 


119 


1 


15 


9 


83 


4 


11 


3 


238 


2 


11 


6 


121 


3 


16 





252 


4 


11 


6 


242 


1 


11 


9 


62 


1 


16 


3 


85 


2 


11 


9 


123 


2 


12 





126 


1 


16 


6 


86 


4 


12 





252 


1 


12 


3 


64 


1 


16 


9 


88 


2 


12 


3 


129 


2 


12 


6 


131 


2 


17 





178 


2 


16 





168 


1 


12 


9* 


77 


2 


17 


3 


181 


13 


20 


9 


1,417 


1 


13 
Total 


0* 


78 


71 








16 


20 


9* 


1,992 




4,385 


113 


7,908 



The distance from rail to switchstand varies considerably, but should give 
sufficient clearance from cars. A distance of 7 ft. on the engineman's or 8 ft. 
on the fireman's side is very general, but would be less in yards. Main-line 
switchstands have target rods 6 to 10 ft. high, so that the targets and lamps will 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 



135 



be prominent. Ordinary yard switchstands should be 3 to 5 ft. high, while low 
ground or dwarf stands may be 2 ft. high. Yard switchstands are sometimes 
horizontal, as in Fig. 69. Some roads use a high stand at main-track switches, 
18 to 20 ft., which can be seen over the cars. They should not be high enough 
for the lamp to be confused with semaphore lamps. Where two or three switches 
near together open out from a main-track connection, the switchstands should 
be set at varying distances from the rail, so that the targets will not be in line; 
or should have the targets at different heights, increasing from that at the 
first switch. A simple device for unimportant yard switches is a drop-lever 
switchstand (Fig. 54) operated by a lever lying on the headblock. If little 
used, targets may not be required, and the lever may be secured by a padlock. 
Such switchstands should not be used for main-track switches. 




Half Thrown by Wheels 
Irai ling "Through Swrtd^ 

Automatic Switchstand. 



■f. 



£4 * 





Rigid 

Switchstand; 

Illinois Central Ry. 

Horizontal Switchstand; Norfolk & Western Ry. 
Fig. 69. — Switchstands. 

The Illinois Central Ry. has three standard sizes of rigid switchstands: 3 
ft. 10 ins., 5 ft. 5 ins., and 7 ft. 1| ins. high to the top of the rod. Where three 
switchstands come in line at one end of a station, the low stand is used at the 
first (or outer) switch, then the medium, and then the high stand. Where two 
come in line, the medium and high stands are used. Each has a green disk 
and red target, as in Fig. 69. On the high stand the disk is 17£ ins. diameter, 
of No. 16 steel; the target is 12X30 ins., of No. 12 steel. Targets and lamps 
are described below. 

The switchstand is carried on one or two long ties, called the headblocks, 
so as to be kept in fixed relation to the switch, but for high switchstands the 
shaft carrying the lamp and target is frequently supported by collar bearings on 
a vertical braced post or a set of three or four inclined rods, the post or rods 
being fitted to a framed foundation independent of the headblock. In this 



136 TRACK. 

way the lamp is relieved from some of the shock and jar incident to the oper- 
ation of the switch. The switchstand should be firmly bolted to well tamped 
headblocks, and no lost motion should be allowed, while the working parts 
should be kept true, clean and well oiled. 

Automatic Switchstands. — To allow for trains trailing through a closed switch 
without injury to the switch, an automatic switchstand is frequently used. 
The mechanism may comprise heavy springs on the connections in the switch- 
stand, or a clutch normally held closed by a spring, but forced open when the 
wheels exert a pressure on the switch rails (Fig. 69). In either case, the lower 
part of the vertical rod can revolve when subjected to heavy pressure at the 
switch connections, while the upper part remains locked in the switchstand. 
If a train in making switching movements should trail partly through a closed 
switch and then back up, the train would be split, the cars behind the switch 
keeping to the sidetrack, while those in front would take the main track. This 
would probably result in derailment, with damage to cars and switch, and such 
an accident would indicate neglect and carelessness on the part of the train 
crew and switchmen. To provide against this, switches have been arranged 
to remain in the position to which they are thrown by the wheels, but this is 
a dangerous plan and rarely followed. The automatic switchstand may be 
made so that the switch can be trailed through from either track when set for 
the other track, or so that it will be locked when set for the main track. In 
the latter case, a train trailing through from the sidetrack would break the 
connections, and show that the switch had been misused, as it is a dangerous 
practice for trains to thus run through a switch set for the main track. The 
automatic switchstand is safer than the automatic switch, already described, 
Fig. 54, as the latter can have the lever thrown even when the switch rails are 
not fully thrown, owing to obstructions between the switch and stock rails. In 
automatic switchstands this cannot be done. While there are certain places 
where the use of automatic switchstands is permissible (especially in yards, to 
prevent frequent damage), the better and more general practice is to adopt a 
rigid stand and to forbid the running of trains through closed switches. 

Switch Targets. — The targets are usually of No. 10 to No. 16 sheet iron; of 
square, diamond, circular or other shape. The targets for the two tracks gov- 
erned by the switch should be of distinct shapes. They should be kept clean 
and well painted, as in gloomy weather, or with smoke and steam blowing across 
the track, an engineman may easily mistake what he can see of a dirty red 
square to be a dirty white disk. They are usally painted two or three times 
a year. The targets may be shaped to show to which side the switch leads, 
and the stands for three-throw switches should have targets indicating for 
which track the switch is set. They should not be too large, or they will be a 
danger to brakemen hanging on the sides of the cars. On low stands, or pot 
signals, the targets may be attached to the sides of the lamp case, or to a rod 
rising above the lamp. The high stands for some main-track switches have a 
circular target for the main track, and a fixed red and white arm like a semaphore 
blade for the sidetrack. On the Pennsylvania Lines, the main-line switchstands 
are connected with standard semaphore signals, the running face of the blade 
being yellow, with a black band. This is good practice in view of the fact that 
the semaphore is practically the standard form for block and interlocking signals, 
and the same practice should be followed where interlocking plants or distant 
signals are used. As to the color of the targets, plain red and plain white are 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 137 

usually the most distinctive, and can be seen at the greatest distance. A black 
spot on the white does not make it any more readily distinguishable, except 
against snow. Any white on the red tends to make it appear pink and con- 
sequently less bright and prominent, but at a short distance and with a dingy 
background the combination may be more prominent than the plain red. Red 
and white are most commonly used, though some roads use green and red or 
green and yellow (or white) for yards. On double track, the backs of the tar- 
gets may be painted black. If the switchstands are painted white, or white- 
washed, their positions will be more easily seen by the engineman, and the same 
applies to the signal posts of block signals. 

Inquiries made by a committee of the American Railway Engineering Asso- 
ciation, as to practice in switch targets on 50 roads, produced the following 
information: (1) On double track, 43 roads use targets and lamps on both 
facing and trailing switches and 4 on facing only. (2) Targets for both posi- 
tions are used by 38, and for "switch open" only by 12; most use targets of 
different shapes for the two positions. (3) A target in the form of a sema- 
phore blade is used by 11 roads. (4) A distant signal interlocked with the 
switchstand of a facing switch is used by 31 roads. (5) A high tripod stand 
is used by 23 roads, so that the target can be seen over freight cars. (6) All 
50 use a lamp to show when the switch is closed; white and green are used, 
but the majority favor green. 

Switch Lamps. — The switch lamps should be of riveted sheet steel or galvanized 
iron, these being preferable to soldered tin. They are either square or round, 
and have generally hinged doors, which are preferable to slides. In some cases 
there is no door, the oil pot being put in and taken out from the bottom of the 
case, while the top is sometimes hinged to swing open. Side doors and slides 
should be air tight, and the ventilating openings so protected that the light 
cannot be blown out by the wind. The top draft system is usually considered 
the best. In this, the air supply is taken in at the top of the lamp (A, Fig. 70), 
and diverted by a cone to the sides; it rises at the center to the flame and escapes 
through the apex of the cone. There is said to be steadier draft and less col- 
lection of moisture than with the bottom draft system. In this latter, the air 
enters at the bottom of the case, a perforated plate above the openings pre- 
venting the air from blowing directly on the flame. This is claimed to have an 
advantage in keeping the oil fount cool. Kerosene is generally employed for 
the lamps, a better grade being employed in high than in low altitudes. Chim- 
ney glasses are not often used. There should be a peep hole and wick raiser 
in the outer case, so that the lamp can be inspected and trimmed without open- 
ing the door. A spring bottom or socket is also sometimes used to prevent the 
wick from being shaken down by the jarring of the switchstand. 

The lenses should be of ample size and good design, so formed as to throw a 
direct beam of light of the greatest intensity, and not a diffused light. The 
lenses may be of plano-convex form (flat at the back and spherical on the face), 
but the best form has the back cut in concentric corrugations, as shown at A 
and B, Fig. 70. In some cases, however, the corrugations are on the face of the 
lens, as at C, Fig. 70. The ordinary size of lens is 5 or 5f ins. for semaphores 
and main-line switchstands. A diameter of 8 ins. is sometimes employed for 
lamps at bridges, tunnels and crossings. The lamps for yard switches and 
dwarf signals may have 4-in. or 4§-in. lenses. Backlights may be 2 ins. diame- 
ter. With good lamps, ordinary lenses, and no reflectors, the lights will be 



138 



TRACK. 



visible for from 1 to 3 miles in clear weather. They will be stronger and sharper 
with reflectors. Yellow lights cannot be seen as far as red or green. The 
prism glass reflector is being favorably considered for signal lamps; it increases 
the intensity of the light, and is free from the deterioration in reflecting power 
after long service, such as is experienced with metal reflectors. (See also 
Signals.) 

To insure the lamp being in proper position on the switchstand, the socket 
or fork should be so shaped that the lamp can be put on only in one position. 



■ COt» AIR III TAKfc 




Fig. 70. — Switch Lamps. 

If the socket on the lamp fits on the top of the vertical shaft of the switchstand , 
the top should be rectangular instead of square, or one corner of the socket 
may be filled up to fit a chamfered Corner of the rod. The lamps should be 
kept clean, in good repair and properly trimmed, the lenses especially being 
wiped free from grease and dirt. The wick should rarely be cut with shears, 
but the charred crust may be scraped off with a match stick. The light should 
be turned down as soon as lighted, and in a few minutes gradually turned up 
to give the proper size of flame, being watched for a few moments to see that 



SWITCHES AND FROGS. 139 

it burns steadily and does not flare or smoke. When the light is extinguished 
the wick should be turned down to prevent waste of oil. Long-burning lamps 
with large founts are being extensively adopted, but should not be used for; 
more than four to six weeks, as the wick will become clogged with impurities. 
They should be cleaned and trimmed every few days. An English long-burning 
lamp tried on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. has a solid round wick 
in a slotted tube, around which is coiled the top of an auxiliary wick. The 
latter does not reach the flame, but feeds the upper end of the main wick. This 
will burn day and night for from 10 to 14 days, but should be trimmed and 
filled every week to keep a good light. The founts should not be continuously 
refilled, but every few weeks all the oil should be poured out. The burners 
should be occasionally boiled in water and soda. If the lamps are carried 
lighted from the section house they should be examined after being put in 
position on the switchstand. The filling and trimming of the lamps should be 
done on a shallow zinc-lined tray or shelf with raised edges to prevent waste 
of oil, and the oil cans may be set on a shallow tray filled with sand, to 
prevent the floor from getting oil soaked. 

Red and green are the colors most generally used for switch lights, while 
some roads use green and white for yard switches. There is a strong tendency 
to avoid the use of white as the clear signal for main track, as station and street 
lamps are liable to be confused with white signal lights, especially at yards in 
towns. For main-line switchstands, the lamps show a green light in each direc- 
tion when the switch is set for the main track, and a red light in each direction 
when it is set for the sidetrack. On some roads, however, the light is shown 
only in the facing direction, the lamp having only two lenses. This is specially 
the case on double track. The lamps are usually kept lighted from sunset to 
sunrise, and during foggy weather. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 
all switch and signal lamps, and all lamp men, are under the charge of the Signal 
Department, and a standard pattern of lamp is used over the entire road. 

Switch Protection. 

Main-line switches are too often inadequately protected, and the unprotected 
switch is one of the great dangers to traffic. Periodically a careless or weary 
man leaves the switch open after a train or switch engine has entered the sid- 
ing; or thinks he has left it open and hastily closes it when startled by the 
approach of a train. In either case there may be a collision or a derailment 
on the sharp curve of the turnout. In other cases, the switch is opened by 
mischievous or malicious persons, who have only. to break a common switch 
padlock. A switch target and lamp are not sufficient protection for a main- 
line switch, whether used at high speed or not. The use of the common switch- 
stand, unprovided with any safeguard, should not be permitted at main-track 
turnouts. On lines with heavy traffic, and not equipped with block signals, 
the turnouts (especially at passing sidings and similar connections) should be 
equipped with interlocking switch and signal plant (including distant signals), 
controlled by an operator in a tower. This is advisable not only for safety, 
but also to increase the facility of handling traffic, as a heavy train has not 
then to stop at each switch (for the brakeman to run ahead and operate it) 
and then pull slowly into the siding. Further particulars as to the protection 
of main-track connections will be found under "Sidings." Where the traffic 
does not warrant this expense, the switch should be provided with a distant 



140 TRACK. 

signal, automatically operated by mechanical or electrical connections from the 
switchstand, the switch also having a lock. Then the switchstand cannot be 
thrown to open the switch until the signal indicates "stop," and must be closed 
before the signal can again indicate "clear." The distance is usually from 
1,000 to 2,000 ft., sufficient to enable a train to be stopped (or at least checked) 
before reaching the danger point. There are numerous devices of this kind 
available, and main railways use them to some extent, but it is desirable that 
their use should be more general. The Southern Pacific Ry. uses an electrically 
operated signal 2,000 ft. from the switch at all points not equipped with inter- 
locking or block signals. 

At sidings near stations, the switchstand may have an electric lock controlled 
by the signalman or telegraph operator. Where automatic block signals are 
used they serve to indicate open switches. The ends of double-track sections 
should be protected by electric locking, with distant signals and track circuits. 
When a train has passed the signal, the switch is locked until after the train has 
cleared the junction. The safety to traffic may be increased by reducing the 
number of switches in main track. This may sometimes be effected by putting 
in a drill track or siding from which spur tracks are run, the only switch in the 
main track being that which connects with the siding. On double-track roads, 
also, it is often possible to materially reduce the number of facing switches. At 
passing sidings, accidents often occur through an engineman pulling out without 
orders or thinking that the opposing or superior train (or its last section) has 
passed. For this reason, such sidings should be under some control. Further 
notes on this matter will be found under "Sidings" and "Signals." (See also 
Engineering News of March 28, 1907, and Sept. 21, 1905.) 

Devices have been invented to enable a train to automatically close am open 
facing switch, but their use should never be permitted. They are wrong in 
principle in recognizing that such a dangerous feature as an open switch is to 
be expected and that a train may close it, regardless of conditions (which are 
of course unknown to the engineman). A device which automatically closes a 
switch after a train and so prevents it from being left open is more reasonable. 
One of the earliest forms of the latter was a switch operated by a weighted 
lever, which had to be held up to keep the switch open, but the men soon learned 
to prop this up and of course often forgot to release it. Another device was a 
cabin enclosing the switchstand, so arranged that a man could not open the 
switch without entering the house, and could not then get out as long as the 
lever was in position for an open switch. This was tried many years ago in 
this countrv and abroad. 



CHAPTER 8— FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 

Fences. 

The numerous styles of right-of-w r ay fencing in use by railways are due to 
local conditions and to the varying ideas of engineers and manufacturers, while 
some States have laws specifying the style of fence more or less in detail. The 
height should be at least 4 ft. G ins., and 5 ft. is preferable where cattle are kept. 
Board fencing is comparatively little used, except near towns and where snow 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 141 

causes trouble. Strand and woven-wire fencing is largely used in open country, 
the latter especially for pasture and farm land. 

Fence Posts. — Fence posts are largely of oak and chestnut (lasting about 9 
years), locust (10), catalpa (12) and cedar (15). They are usually from 7 to 8 
ft. long, 6 to 8 ins. diameter at the bottom and 4 to 6 ins. at the top. They aro 
preferably round (not sawed or split), and should be stripped of bark. The 
lower part may be coated with pitch, creosote or other preservative to about 

6 ins. above the ground line. They are set about 3 ft. in the ground, the holes 
being excavated by long-handled shovels, or by post-hole augers or diggers. 
On long stretches of prairie a small pile driver mounted on wheels has been 
used. The proper height above ground may be gaged by making the holes to 
a uniform depth as marked on the handle of the digger, or by means of a stick 
having a flat board to stand on the ground. On rocky or swampy ground, the 
posts may be mortised into sills -1 ft. long (made of old ties cut in half), and 
secured by braces nailed to the top or side of sill and the back or side of post. 
Rough A frames made of two posts with a plank brace at bottom may also be 
used (Fig. 74). End, corner, anchor and gate posts should be set 3^ to 4 ft. 
deep, and anchored by bottom planks with side cleats or inclined braces. 

Concrete posts of various designs have been tried, but are not in general use, 
although a few railways use them extensively. Those on the Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. are 5X.5 ins., with four J-in. steel rods. Others 7 ft. 
long taper from 4X6 ins. to 4X4 ins.; the anchor and corner posts taper from 

7 ins. to 5 ins. square. The concrete may be composed of 1 part Portland cement 
to 2 or 3 parts of gravel, coarse sand or stone screenings (from dust up to |-in. 
size). The reinforcing consists of wire, rods, pipe, old rails or boiler tubes, etc. 
The posts should be left 24 hours in the molds, and then 24 hours in the mold- 
ing room; they are then stored for 4 to 6 weeks, being protected from sun and 
wind and kept wet for from 1 to 4 weeks. Some posts, however, are made in 
place, the post hole forming the mold for the lower part. The inclined braces 
in end panels may be of concrete reinforced with a 2i-in. angle. The molds 
may be coated with soft soap to give the posts a smooth surface, and may have 
the corners filled with triangular strips to form chamfered corners on the posts. 
Projecting staples, wires, hooks, or cast-iron sockets for staples, may be embedded 
in the concrete to serve as attachments for the fence wires; holes may also be 
cored for fastenings and gate irons. The Union Pacific Ry. has used concrete 
posts in timberless country; the line posts are 4X5 ins. with a two-strand 
cable of No. 10 wire at each corner (eight cables in corner posts). Several of 
these are made at a time, the molds filling the bottom of a box in which the 
concrete is dumped. They are of cement and sand, 1 to 3, with cored holes 
for attachments. Metal posts made of old boiler tubes set in concrete bases 
(and filled with concrete) have been extensively and successfully used, especially 
in prairie country where wood is scarce and wooden posts are liable to destruc- 
tion by fire. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. makes about 20,000 of 
these every year. Metal fence posts, however, are not extensively used for 
right of way, but are used at station grounds, etc. They may be angles or tee- 
bars, driven into the ground or set in bases of concrete or burned clay. They 
may be slotted for the wires or have special clip staples. 

Wooden Fences. — The most common type is the board fence, with posts S 
ft. apart. The boards are generally of pine, hemlock or other cheap wood, 10 
ft. long, 1 or 11 ins. thick, and 6 to 8 ins. wide. They should all be of the same 



142 



TRACK. 



size, with the bottom boards usually placed closer together than the upper ones, 
so as to stop small stock. The boards are placed on the field side of the posts, 
and each is secured by two or three nails. These are 10- or 12-penny nails, 3 
or 4 ins. long, 69 or 62 per lb. If all the joints come on the same posts, a bat- 
ten, 1 X6 ins., may be nailed to cover them, but in general the joints are broken, 
and come on alternate posts. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. uses 
for station headquarters a board fence with posts 7 ft. long, 2 ft. 9 ins. in the 
ground, spaced 8 ft. c. to c. There are four boards 1.X6 ins., 16 ft. long, break- 
ing joints on alternate posts. Each is secured by two 10-penny nails at the 
ends and three at the intermediate post. The bottom board is 4 ins. from the 
ground, and the others are 4, 8 and 9 ins. apart. In some cases a cap board 
is laid flat on the top of the posts. When this is done, the top board may be 
omitted, but the standard board fence of the Michigan Central Ry., Fig. 71, 
has both cap and top boards. It is not often that the bottom board is laid on 
the ground as shown, but this is the legal railway fence in Michigan. In rail 



6" Post 




wm>iwiiiiw/i)>i////Hii///w//////s//»Mww///////////>//w//////w//7 7n 



K 8'0" -•>• 




fences, the posts are slotted to receive the ends of split rails, having the ends 
flattened to fit into the slots, where they either lie loosely or are secured by pins 
through the post. 

Wire Fences. — These are extensively used, on account of their efficiency, 
safety from fire, and small amount of maintenance required. They are of two 
kinds: strand fencing and woven fencing. The posts may be from 8 to 16 \ or 
20 ft. apart (sometimes even 25 or 33 ft.). It is rarely advisable to exceed 20 ft., 
and with a spacing of over 12 ft. strand wires should be connected at intervals 
by vertical stay wires or wooden battens to maintain the proper spacing and 
stiffen the fence. Gate, corner and end posts must be well anchored and braced 
to resist the pull of the wire. The anchor may consist of two cross-pieces, one 
on the face (near the ground) and the other at the back (near the bottom). 
The brace is generally a timber 4X4 ins. or 3X5 ins., having one end let into 
the top of the brace post and the other into the next post at the ground line. 
The post may also be tied by heavy wires wrapped around its top and around 
the lower part of the next post. Very frequently the brace and tie are put in 
the same panel. In long stretches of unbroken fence there should be braced 
panels not more than A-mile apart. In depressions, the lowest post should be 
anchored by a bottom board or cleats, so that the strain of the wire will not 
pull it out. 

Strand wire fencing consists of independent lines of plain, twisted, ribbon 
or barbed wire. At one end, the wires are secured to an anchor post, while at 
the other end they are attached to spools in a special post, so as to allow of 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



143 



adjusting the slack. Plain wire is generally No. 9 or 10 (306 or 255 lbs. per 
mile); vertical stays may be of No. 13. Ribbon wire is flat, usually twisted, 
and sometimes cut in barbs. Ordinary barbed wire has two strands twisted 
together, and wrapped at intervals of 5 ins. (3 ins. for hog wire) with short 
wires leaving 2 or 4 sharpened projecting ends. This weighs from 280 to 400 lbs. 
per mile (with wires of No. 12 or 12J). The wires are usually secured to the 
posts by l|-in. staples, 72 per lb. (or for soft cedar posts If -in. staples, 65 per 
lb.). On long panels, they may be stapled to a batten midway between the 
posts, so as to keep them evenly spaced and prevent them from sagging. Barbed 
wire fencing is objectionable in many ways, and its use is prohibited in some 
States, while many railways as well as landowners are opposed to its use. With 
this wire, and in fact with almost any fence of longitudinal wires, a top board 
should be used, so that horses and cattle may see the fence more clearly and so 
be prevented from running against the wire and being injured. Some roads 
cut the tops of the posts at an angle of 45° and spike on a top board or rail 2X4 
ins. The standard wire fence of the Michigan Central Ry., Fig. 71, has six 
wires, a top board and a cap board. 

The height of fence is usually 4 ft. 6 ins. The number of wires is sometimes 
as low as four, but generally five for ordinary work in open country; or as 
high as ten through farm lands. For hogs and sheep, there should be six wires 
in the first 24 ins., spaced 3 to 5 ins. apart. Hogs are very difficult animals to 
turn, and sheep will often get through a barbed wire fence that seems impass- 
able. A special fence for holding hogs may have a bottom board, then two 
boards, and then two, three or four wires and a top board. The close (4-in.) 
spacing of the bottom wires of the Michigan Central Ry. fence is to prevent 
sheep and hogs from getting through. Where wires get slack, they may be 
connected by stays (between each pair or for the full height of the fence), or 
the slack may be wound upon a device looped to the main wire. 

The wire fence in Fig. 72 has 16-ft. panels, with five lines of barbed wire, 



vBrtXCFOSt 



Brace Post-.. 




PJan. 



This Side 

towards Track 



Fig. 72. — Wire Fence and Farm Gate. 



spaced 5, 7, 10, 14 and 18 ins. The fence of the Canadian Pacific Ry., Fig. 73, 
has four barbed wires, a top board, and an inclined cap board. The posts are 
of round cedar, not less than 5 ins. diameter at the top, straight and peeled. 
The wire is stapled to the posts. The boards are nailed to each post with six 
4-in. cut nails, and braces are put in at intervals of 300 ft., notched 1^ ins. into 
the posts and secured by 40-penny nails. Fig. 74 shows the styles of fence 
used by this road on rocky ground. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 
uses five wires on posts 16£ ft. apart, spaced as follows: 3 ins. (from ground), 
10, 12, 12 and 14 ins. The hog fence has seven bottom wires (2$, 3, 3£, 4, 4£, 



144 



TRACK. 



5 and 5| ins. apart) with vertical stay wires 6 to 12 ins. apart; above these 
are two wires spaced 12 and 14 ins., without stays. The wire fence of the Louis- 
ville & Nashville Ry. has posts 7 ft. long, 10 ft. c. to c, with seven wires, spaced 
4, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 12 ins. The three lower wires are of barbed hog wire; 



k"Bolt 






Stiles notched I" 
forBoards 




Elevation . 



=a£3 




Details of Gate Hinge 






%'lron' !t *M 



**Jt 




Detaiisaf date Latch . I^" 3 "^ 
Fig. 73. — Wire Fence and Farm Gate; Canadian Pacific Ry. 

the four upper wires are of barbed cattle wire, except that where there is danger 
to stock, the two top wires are plain ribbon wire. The Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western Ry. has a fence \\ ft. high, with 8-ft. panels. The posts are 7 ft. 
long, not more than 8 ins. at bottom or less than 6 ins. at top. A top board 
1X6 ins., 16 ft. long, is nailed against the face of the posts, and there are four 



Track 







Section for Rock. 
Fig. 74. — Fence Posts for Rocky Ground; Canadian Pacific Ry. 



Alternate Section 
tor Rock or Boulders. 



lines of two-strand No. 12 twisted wire. The bottom spacings are 6 and 8 ins.; 
the upper ones 11 ins. 

Woven wire fencing is extensively used both for steam and electric railways. 
The old style, resembling poultry netting of large mesh, did not prove satis- 
factory. That now used is of heavier material, with longitudinal wires con- 
nected by vertical or diagonal stay wires. A special feature of many of these 
is that the longitudinal wires are coiled around a bar so that when straightened 
and made into the fence they retain sufficient bend and spring to take up expan- 
sion and contraction. The spacing of the longitudinal wires depends upon 
requirements, but is usually from 3 to 4 ins. at the bottom and 6 to 10 ins. at 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



145 



the top. Vertical stay wires are usually 12 ins. apart, and are either wrapped 
around or tied to each longitudinal wire; they are usually continuous from top 
to bottom, but sometimes extend only from wire to wire. In one style, the 
longitudinal wires are given a bend or kink at intervals, instead of being coiled, 
and the stays are electrically welded to them. In several makes of woven 
fence, the stays are diagonal, and wrapped around each main wire. These are 
6 to 12 ins. apart. The top and bottom wires are usually No. 7 or No. 9; other 
wires, No. 11 or No. 12; stay wire, No. 11 or No. 14. In some cases all the 
wires are of the same size. Fencing of this kind is delivered in rolls of from 20 to 
40 rods, and the 54-in. railway fence weighs 10 to 12 lbs. per rod. For hog fencing 
a narrower width may be used, with horizontal wires above; and it is sometimes 
necessary to put a line of barbed wire above the top of the woven fence to pre- 
vent animals from leaning their heads over and bending down the top. 

The right-of-way fence of the New York Central Ry. (Fig. 75) has 20-ft. panels. 
A 9|-ft. braced panel is put at corners, gates and angles, and at intervals of not 
more than 1,500 ft. in line fencing. Where the fence makes a flat angle, the 
post between the two braced panels is tied back by a wire attached to the top 
of the post and to an anchor set in the rear of the angle. The bottom wire is 
1^ ins. from the ground, and the 11 wires are spaced 3 to 9 ins. apart, as in Fig. 
75. The 6-in. posts are 8 ft. long, 3 ft. 2 ins. in the ground. The wires are No. 









v 



* 



</2-> 



No. 7^ CT 



)ini/niiiiiiinniimii>iiiiitinni)))>wiii>if»))i»i}. 



8 Ft. Post- 




w)>njw))}wnnwiiit)ii 

stapled u, urn vol- <«. 
/OFt.Post atAngfes, W/eys/ yJ_J 
and Brace Panels— - - ' '2Y4 "*/8 

ZO ft. Mam Panel >< 9'6* Braced Panel >, 

Fig. 75. — Woven- Wire Fence; New York Central Ry. 



■O 



7 for the top, No. 8 for the bottom, No. 10 for other longitudinal wires, and 
No. 11 for the stay wires, which are 12 ins. apart. Some fences of this kind 
are built in the field, vertical stays of No. 7 hard steel corrugated wire, about 
30 ins. apart, being secured to the longitudinal wires by special flexible clamps. 
Considerable trouble has been experienced from the corrosion of wire fencing 
on steam railways, due to the acid fumes and gases from the locomotives. For 
this reason the wire is given a zinc coating. This is not by galvanizing but by 
passing the wire through a bath of molten zinc, the surface being smoothed and 
the excess removed by asbestos wipers. The speed of the wire should be such 
as to give it the same temperature as the bath, in order to get a coating that 
will adhere and not crack. An extra-heavy coating might be given by a slower 
speed, but it is said that this would be more liable to crack and flake when the 
wire is twisted or coiled in making the fence. It is not practicable to treat the 
finished fence, and such treatment would result in lumps at the intersections, 



146 TRACK. 

where the metal could not be wiped. These would be liable to crack and fall 
off, leaving the wire bare. 

Gates. — Fence gates are for openings 12 to 15 ft. wide in the clear; openings 
of 18 to 20 ft. may be necessary for harvesting machinery, and for such wide 
openings double gates may be used. The gate shown in Fig. 72 slides back for 
half of its length and then swings round, while some gates slide back for their 
whole length, parallel with the fence. An ordinary swinging gate is shown in 
Fig. 73, and this is well supported against drooping by means of the long brace. 
Iron-framed sliding and swinging gates are extensively used, some having a 
frame of steel angles or l^-in. gas pipe, with wires or netting attached to the 
frame. Gates should be strongly built and well hung on strong hinges. They 
may be so hung as to close by their own weight after having been opened, as 
farmers are frequently very careless about the gates. Even if made in this 
way there is a liability of their being propped open. A sheet-iron sign, marked 
"Close the Gate," may be attached to the gate. Trackwalkers should be on 
the lookout for open farm gates, and report any that may be habitually left 
open, as accidents have frequently been caused by cattle straying onto the 
track through an open gate, and in such cases a country jury may award dam- 
ages to the farmer, in spite of the fact that the railway was properly fenced 
and the farmer himself was really responsible for the accident. 

Walls and Hedges. — In districts where field stones and boulders are plenti- 
ful, dry rubble walls are sometimes built, but as a rule they are not very stable 
and soon get more or less broken down. Hedge fences are rarely seen in this 
country, and have the objection of taking up considerable space, and rendering 
an adjacent strip of field land useless on account of the shade, though they are 
sometimes considered desirable near cities for the sake of appearance. The 
Pennsylvania Ry. has tried hedges of osage orange. Hedges are sometimes 
used as snow breaks, as noted below. The Russian olive is very satisfactory 
and will survive heat, cold and drought; honey locust, barberry or California 
privet may also be used. 

Station and Yard Fences. — Brick walls and ordinary or high board fences 
with vertical or horizontal boards placed close together are frequently used at 
station yards. A tight board fence may have 8-ft. posts 6X6 ins., or 8 ins. 
diameter, 6 or 8 ft. apart, with a cap board 2x6 ins., and two flat nailing planks 
2x4 ins. mortised into the face. To these are nailed vertical planks |X6 ins., 
6 or 8 ft. high, with a top board 1X4 ins. on the face. A line of barbed wire 
may be laid on the cap board. Picket fences or neat (and more or less orna- 
mental) iron railings or fences^ are often used for the grounds at passenger sta- 
tions, or to prevent persons from crossing the tracks, especially where there are 
separate tracks for through and local trains. A picket fence may have posts 
5X7 ins., 7 to 10 ft. apart, with two flat rails 2X4 ins., or triangular rails (cut 
from a stick 4X4 ins.) let into notches in the posts. To these are nailed pickets, 
1X3 ins., or 2X2 ins., with pointed tops, the pickets being 2\ to 4 ins. apart 
and about 3 ins. above the ground. The Pennsylvania Ry. uses a fence between 
tracks at way stations, having pickets If ins. square, 4 ft. long, 6 ins. apart, 
on rails 3X3 ins. ; the ends of the rails rest in iron sockets attached to the posts, 
so that the panels can be lifted out when track repairs are going on, or to allow 
room for attention to hot boxes, etc., on trains standing at the station. The 
posts are 4| ins. square, 10 ft. c. to c. A neat iron fence between the tracks 
or upon retaining walls may be 4 ft. high, with two rails of 2-in. channels or 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



147 



"bars |XH ms - 3 ft. apart, and pickets £-in. square, 5 ins. apart. All fences 
between tracks should have sliding or rolling gates for the use of employees, 
the gate having a spring lock, which is opened by a button or knob not readily 
found by the reckless passenger who tries to cross the tracks. Two designs of 
iron fence used in railway service are shown in Fig. 76. For ornamental grounds 
at stations, ribbon-wire or woven-wire fencing may be used, with steel angles or 
T-bar posts; the posts have back braces at intervals. Another plan is to use 
two lines of 2-in. gas pipe, 18 ins. apart, set in wooden or iron posts from 5 
to 8 ft. apart. Hedges may also be used for such grounds. 



I A. J A J A -J— 




N 



i 



i 




Fig. 76. — Iron Fencing for Stations. 



Snow Fences. — The style of fence to be used on any road depends upon the 
topography and the amount of the snow. In prairie country these fences are 
of great importance, as that is often the most troublesome country in which to 
■deal with drifting snow, especially if the track is raised but little above the 
normal surface. The fences may be either permanent or portable, the latter 
being made in sections which can be taken down when the winter is over. 
The permanent fence should be about 50 ft. from the track (or edge of cut) to 
allow for the drift, and may be from 6 to 8 ft. high, with eight or ten boards. 
If there is no room for this on the right of way, then the portable fence may 
be used, having the advantage that it can be set when needed, and that it 
does not permanently obstruct the view. The permanent fence shown in 
Fig. 77 is used by the Canadian Pacific Ry. at division yards, etc. Another 
style is shown in Fig. 78. Some of the fencing on the Northern Pacific Ry. 
is 9 ft. high, posts 8 ft. apart, with 8 boards 1X8 ins., and 6 ins. apart. There 
is also a considerable quantity of tight board fence, from 8 to 10 ft. high, which 
is found to be the most effective in heavy snow. 

The movable fence in Fig. 79 is a good example of its type. The sections 
are 16 ft. long, and the braces and stakes are pivoted by carriage bolts, so that 
when taken up in the spring the panels can be folded flat and piled on the ground. 



148 



TRACK. 



A similar fence on the Boston & Maine Ry. has the two posts intersecting and 
pivoted, with a cross-piece connecting their feet. The panels are set a panel 



/ "x b" Fence Boarde-i "S pace. 




Wm77/y77Tfflm7777777m. 

% 'Drift Bolts, 
24" long. 
Cross Section. 



k I4'0" ■■ >j 

Elevation. 

Fig. 77. — Permanent Snow Fence; Canadian Pacific Ry. (Winnipeg Yard). 



length apart, the fence side facing the track, and the intermediate spaces are 
filled by loose panels made of planks nailed to two battens. These panels rest 
against the rear posts of the folding panels, and slope away from the track. 



BTiTH 




trm Posts 12' 0" long. 


pm i 


™ rti 




> 5 


A 






i-iiii 


_S 


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i ■ : 


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> y\ 1 ' ,r.'n» 


->! i 




* 


* * J 






> ; 1 


<*> 






HI - -!--> 


\ 


* -!„„;l 




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s 


iLL 


V 


! \ Boards /"thick-, 


1 lb'0"lonq. | 




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yi_ J 







u 



7 V 



■-■ M 7'6" -A 7'6" >K- 7'6 • 

Elevation. 



m 

k- 



ie'o" 
Fig. 78. 



m 



I6'0" 



tf. 

Plan. 
-Permanent Snow Fence. 



The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses 12-ft. panels, a pair of posts 
3X4 ins., 7 ft. long, put together at the top with a §-in. bolt. There are seven 
boards 1X6 ins., 5 ins. apart; at the back of these (midway between the posts) 



Cam'aqe. / fi*}*? 'Batten 
D "ft,f>h 




Q 



s 



!''6'* 



■^m 



16'0'Planks 



i!K-2Wi 



Fig. 79. — Portable Snow Fence. 

is a batten 1X6 ins. The New York Central Ry. puts open portable fences 
about 80 ft. from center of track, and tight board fences 10 ft. distant for each 
foot of height. In extreme conditions, two lines of fence are set 100 ft. apart. 
At shallow cuts, the fences may be nearer the track, but the minimum distance 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 149 

from top of cut is 50 ft. for open fences and 40 ft. for 7-ft. tight fences. The 
fence is parallel with the track, but at each end is 100 ft. of flanking fence reach- 
ing to about 40 ft. from the center of the track. This road recommends hedges 
as permanent protection where tight board fences must be used on account 
of inability to occupy the adjacent land. 

The snow fences should extend beyond the ends of cuts and then flare in 
gradually towards the track, so as to protect the cut from drifts caused by 
winds blowing at an angle to as well as directly across it. If they are not extended 
far enough, an oblique drift may be formed and cause a derailment. The Xew 
York Central Ry. practice in this respect is noted above. On one part of the 
Boston & Maine Ry. permanent snow fences are built down the slopes of the 
cuts, about 90 ft. apart, alternating on opposite sides of the cut, and placed 
at right angles to the direction of the prevailing winds which tend to fill the 
cuts with snow. They serve admirably to prevent snow from drifting across 
the tracks, but the portable fences would answer the purpose equally well and 
be less objectionable in appearance. In Scotland and Germany some use has 
been made of fences so placed along the windward side of the cut as to deflect 
the wind downward into the cut and so keep the snow scoured out. The fence 
panels or deflectors are pivoted between posts set in the slope of the cut, and 
are adjusted to the proper angle, the upper edge being above the top of the cut. 

If the movable fence is used as an auxiliary to a permanent fence it may be 
placed 100 ft. beyond the latter, or where required to break the force of the 
drifting snow, the eddy formed by the wind causing the snow to be deposited 
on the field side, as in Fig. 80, while beyond is the secondary drift. Land- 



Fig. 80. — Position of Permanent and Portable Snow Fences. 

owners may demand a small rental for the right to put up this fence in the 
winter. When the first drift is as high as the fence the snow will blow over, and 
the fence may then be placed on top of the drift. If it becomes buried in the 
snow, a wall may be built of blocks of snow, wide eaough for stability and 6 or 
8 ft. high. Such work is very hard, and should be avoided, as it must generally 
be done during severe cold and often in a high wind with driving snow. It is 
a good plan to widen the cuts with very flat slopes, using the material exca- 
vated to form permanent snow banks or fences a little distance from the edges 
of the cuts. Rows of small balsam, cedar or small evergreen trees, 8 ft. apart, 
staggered in two rows, the nearest row being 100 ft. from the track, make good 
snow fences or snow breaks, but their use is not generally practicable. Certain 
bushes make good snow hedges, as already noted. 

Wing Fences. — To shut off the right of way between the track and the bound- 
ary fence at road crossings, a wing fence is built from the middle or end of the 
cattleguard to the right-of-way fence. This usually carries a rectangular or 
triangular panel of apron fence parallel with the track, as shown in Figs. 81 
and 82. The ditch may be closed against small animals by stakes driven into 
the ground and nailed to the bottom of the wing fence. The width between 
the aprons at rail level is generally 10 ft. and they should be inclined away from 



150 



TRACK. 



the track, so as to be clear of persons on car steps or freight-car ladders. In 
districts where there is much snow, the aprons and the ends of the wing fences 
are sometimes removed in winter, so as not to foul snow plows. The wing 
and apron fences should be kept well whitewashed, as cattle object to passing 
a whitewashed fence more than an ordinary fence. 

Cattleguards. 

Where highways are crossed at grade, a cattleguard is usually placed across 
the track at each side of the road, with wing or lateral fences extending to the 
main fences, to prevent cattle from straying onto the track or right of way. 
They are also used to some extent at the approaches to bridges, tunnels or deep 
cuts. The cattleguard is placed some distance from the bridge, and the fence 




Plan, 



)fh ' 




^ i , 








111 


I 




m, ; 




_Jll ) 



With Beveled Ties. Wit* Slnfc. 

Fig. 81. — Pit Cattleguard. 

is carried along on each side to the abutments or under the first span. At 
tunnels, the cattleguard is placed near the mouth of the approach cut, and the 
fence is carried along the cut and over the portal. For deep and narrow cuts 
the cattleguard is placed near the mouth of the cut. Besides being effective 
in turning cattle, the guard should meet the following requirements: 1, Reason- 
able in first cost and maintenance expense; 2, Permit of proper maintenance 
of track; 3, Not liable to cause derailment or wreck a derailed train; 4, Not 
liable to become loose or to be caught by low-hung brake rigging, etc. ; 5, Easily 
and safely passed by employees; 6, Not liable to trap or throw cattle attempting 
to pass; 7, Not noisy or rattling under trains. 

It is not as easy to turn cattle as might be supposed. If straying along the 
road they will sometimes spend considerable time in trying the guards, either 
from a desire to wander or to reach some tempting feed. Some cattle are invet- 
erate wanderers, and will cross almost any form of guard, even as others are 
inveterate fence breakers or jumpers. If being driven they will often either 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



151 



run blindly into or over the guard, and the length of the guard should be suffi- 
cient to deter them from jumping. Ordinary farm cattle rarely give much 
trouble (with the exceptions noted), but range cattle are very hard to turn. 
Hogs and sheep are persistent in attempts to reach forbidden ground. If 
cattle are standing up when struck by a train there is a good probability of 
their being thrown clear of the track, but if they are lying down a derailment 
is almost inevitable. The killing of cattle is a troublesome feature (especially 
in the West, where so much land is unfenced), both on account of the liability 
of injury to trains and passengers, and the amounts involved in paying for 
cattle (the value of the animals being usually put at a maximum). It does 
not seem reasonable, however, to hold the railway company alone responsible 
for the killing of cattle, as is usually the case, and not to hold the owner respon- 
sible for not fencing his land or for allowing his cattle to stray in such a way 
as to endanger the safety of railway passengers. The trains have a right on 




Plan 
Fig. 82. — Metal Surface Cattleguard; Pennsylvania Lines. 

the track, but trespassers and cattle have no right, and this should be recog- 
nized. The laws of some States prohibit the turning of cattle loose on the 
highways. 

The guards are ordinarily placed with the road ends in line with the road 
fences, but a Canadian commission recommended that they should be set in 
the waste strip for each side of country roads, with a section of fence on each 
side of the guard (parallel with the rails). In this way, the fence would com- 
pel wandering cattle to turn towards the road, where they would be likely to 
walk past the narrow opening, especially as the full length of the guard then 
separates them from the right of way. Cattleguards may be divided into two 
general types, pit and surface. The former has a number of disadvantages, 
and the latter is now most generally used. 

Pit Cattleguards. — The pit guard consists of an excavation in the roadbed, 
the full width between wing fences, or about 12 ft. wide in the clear, from 5 



152 TRACK. 

to 10 ft. long (lengthwise of the track), and from 30 to 36 ins. deep below base 
of rail. The pit is often entirely walled up with timber or masonry, but the 
ends should be left open to provide for drainage. The rails are carried across 
the pit upon stringers, leaving an open pit; or upon cross- ties laid upon the 
stringers. If ordinary ties are used, they may be covered with longitudinal 
wooden slats, as shown in Fig. 81. It is more usual, however, to have the 
edges of the ties beveled (except at the rail seats) for about 4 ins. in depth, or 
they may be laid diagonally in V notches on the stringers, rail seats being 
formed in the upper edge. While both arrangements afford but an insecure 
footing to cattle attempting to cross, they have the objection of being liable 
to cause the animal to slip through while trying the guard, so that it could 
not escape and might easily cause the wreck of a train. In case of a derailed 
wheel or truck reaching the guard, the beveled ties would afford little greater 
security than the open pit. The pit also makes a bad riding place in the track, 
by breaking up the continuity of the roadbed, and its walls are liable to be heaved 
by frost. The timbers are also likely to catch fire, to rot, or to settle; and the 
pit forms a receptacle for dirt, refuse and moisture. 

Surface Cattleguards. — These have largely superseded the pit guard, since 
they are free from danger to trains, and (if properly constructed) should be as 
efficient in turning cattle. The simplest form consists of wooden slats from 5 to 8 
ft. long, and of triangular section, made from 3i-in. or 4-in. pine sticks cut diago- 
nally and laid parallel with the rails. They should not be nailed to the ties, 
but bolted together (with spacing blocks between). One or two of such sec- 
tions are placed between the rails, and two are placed outside the rails. Other 
sections are placed between the tracks on a double-track line, being supported 
by planks or ties. The construction is similar to that in Fig. 81, the slats being 
about 10 ft. long, 4 ins. deep, |-in. wide on top, and 2 ins. on the bottom, the 
lower 2 ins. of the sides being vertical, so as to fit the spacing blocks, 2X2 ins.; 
and 8 ins. long, placed between the slats at the ends and middle. The parts 
are held together by three f-in. rods passing through the slats and spacing 
blocks. In some cases a strip of barbed or twisted wire is nailed along the 
top of each slat, but this is liable to get loose. Surface cattleguards w"ith 
wooden slats are standard on many roads, and the usual length is 8 ft., though 
10 or 12 ft. would be better. On the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. the slats are 8 ft. 
long, made by cutting a stick 6X2^ ins. diagonally at 1| ins. from each end; 
this gives a 2^-in. base, and sides If and 4 1 ins. high. A triangular end panel 
on the wing fence carries an inclined triangular apron fence; the bottom of this 
is 18 ins. from the rail and the top 9 ft. 4 ins. from center of track. On the 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. the slats are also 8 ft. long, but rectan- 
gular, 2\ ins. wide, 2| ins. high and 2\ ins. apart. They are held together by 
three f-in. transverse rods, with spacing sleeves of 1-in. gas pipe. The ends 
are beveled. On top of each slat is an iron strap having the edges notched 
and bent up to form barbs. The inclined triangular apron fence rests on short 
posts. A 1-in. plank is laid on each tie, to carry the cattleguard, and on double 
track the two end ties are connected by planks to carry the intermediate section 
of the guard. The Climax guard, which is used by a number of steam and 
electric roads, consists of blocks of vitrified clay forming triangular ridges par- 
allel with the rails. Each block is 24 ins. long, 8| ins. wide (with two ridges) 
and 4 ins high, weighing 33 lbs. They are laid on five ties spaced 2 ft. c. to c. 
and are secured by cross strips nailed to the end ties. 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 



153 



Metal surface guards are also extensively used. The majority consist of a 
series of slats of steel angles, tees or flat bars parallel with the rails, and form- 
ing an insecure footing. One used on the Pennsylvania Lines is shown in Fig. 
82. The slats are inverted T-bars supported in triangular iron cross-pieces, 
and are set alternately high and low. In some cases flat bars set on edge have 
wavy or saw-tooth top edges, and sometimes barbs on the sides, so as to cause 
pain to any animal making a determined effort to cross. Flat plates sometimes 




Merrill- Stevens. 





Kalamazoo. 



Bush 




Standard. 

Fig. 83. — Metal Cattleguards. 

have teeth punched up out of the metal for the same purpose. While the teeth 
and barbs may add to the effectiveness of the guard in turning hogs and small 
stock, they are open to the objection of possibly causing injury to stock, for 
which the railway company may be held liable. They may also cause injury 
to flagmen and others walking on the track. Metal guards which have a flat 
bottom plate covering the ties and ballast have disadvantages over the slat 
forms in being liable to cause rotting of the ties by holding water between the 
plate and tie, while the heat of the plate in summer also aids in this effect. 



154 



TRACK. 



Some metal surface guards are shown in Fig. 83. The Kalamazoo guard has 
triangular ridges, and triangular teeth punched up out of the flat strips of plate 
between the ridges, so that an animal's hoof will slip down upon the teeth. 
The ridges, being higher than the teeth, would protect a person falling on the 
guard. This guard, 9 ft. long, weighs about 375 lbs. The National guard has 
slats of T or A section attached to cross-pieces, alternate slats being 1| ins. 
above the others. Another form has flat plates, 2^ and 3J ins. high, 2| ins. 
apart, set on edge in the transverse pieces. The Columbian guard has steel 
angles l^Xl| ins., laid to form A-shaped slats; this weighs 320 lbs. for a length 




...** ^60 2 'Wire Spikes B i 

" k- - /2'o---- — -J 

Plan. 



Fig. 84. — Cattleguard for Range Cattle; Oregon Railway & Navigation Co. 

of 8 ft. The Merrill guard has slats of T-iron, about l^Xli ins., set diagonally 
in the end cross-pieces, and made level with the rail head; the space beneath 
the guard and the insecure footing of the slanting bars tend to check cattle. 
The Standard guard has flat or Z-shaped plates, parallel with and inclined towards 
the rails. The Bush guard has slats of inverted T-irons, 2 ins. apart, carried 
in slotted cross-pieces of pressed steel, the bars being at different heights; this 
guard weighs about 450 lbs. In the Climax guard, no slats are used, but a 
A-shaped strip of expanded metal is placed upon each tie, with its edges pro- 
jecting beyond the tie, so as to strike the leg of an animal trying to set a footing 
between the ties. With this arrangement there is no interference with the 
ordinary work of lining, surfacing and ballasting, while slat guards must be 
removed for this work. 



FENCES AND CATTLEGUARDS. 155 

The difficulty of turning range cattle has already been mentioned, and the 
Kennedy cattleguard used as standard for this purpose by the Oregon Ry. & 
Navigation Co. is shown in Fig. 84. Cross timbers 6X16 ins., 11 ft. long, are 
set on edge, and bolted together with 6-in. spacing blocks at the ends and under 
the rails. Strips of barbed wire are laid parallel with the rails and secured by 
triangular sticks nailed upon the ties. No ballast is filled between the ties. 
This form of cattleguard is also the standard of the Western Pacific Ry.; in 
this case, however, the ties are 8X12 ins., 10 ft. long and 8 ins. apart. The 
wider spacing affords less chance of a horse's foot being caught, 8 ins. being 
about the size of the largest horseshoe. The wider spacing and reduced depth 
also facilitate tamping the ties. No through bolts are used. In any slat or 
open guard, the removal of ballast from between the ties adds to the efficiency, 
spacing blocks being used to give the necessary support. Among the various 
designs for surface guards there are some in which the animals are compelled to 
step on planks between the ties, which planks are loose, and are connected 
to a transverse rod carrying several prongs 18 to 24 ins. long, forming a fence 
which rises in front of the animal, but lies normally flat on the ties. 



CHAPTER 9.— GRADE CROSSINGS. 

Highway Grade Crossings. 

The avoidance of grade crossings at highways has within recent years become 
a consideration in railway location in the settled portions of the country, while 
existing crossings are being eliminated, to the benefit of the railways and the 
public. In too many cases, railways still run through towns and cities on the 
street grade; they either have their own right of way and merely cross the 
streets, or else run along the middle or side of a street. In such cases it is very 
difficult to keep the track in good condition. In many cities steps have been 
taken to eliminate the grade crossings; the railways are either depressed and laid 
in an open cut with retaining walls, and crossed by bridges; or raised on a viaduct 
or bank, crossing the streets by bridges. Street grades are very frequently 
changed at the same time so as not to require the tracks to be raised higher 
than necessary. Such work is often very difficult and almost invariably very 
expensive, involving a large amount of railway and municipal work. The work 
must be done during traffic, which is an unfavorable condition for economy. 
The railway, however, is then free from the expenses incident to gates, watch- 
men, accidents, etc., and from the delays caused by crossings, so that it can 
operate its traffic to better advantage. There are also many cases where coun- 
try road crossings can be eliminated to advantage, especially in improving the 
grade for the railway. In New York State, the law prohibits new railway and 
highway construction involving grade crossings. Where a new railway crosses 
a highway, the expense of avoiding a grade crossing must be borne by the rail- 
way. Where a new highway crosses a railway, the cost is divided equally 
between the railway and the municipality. In the elimination of existing 
crossings the cost is distributed as follows: 50% by the railway, 25% by the 
municipality and 25% by the State. Similar laws exist in Massachusetts and 
other States. 



156 TRACK. 

Country Roads. — Country road crossings are usually either planked all the 
way across or have planks on each side of the rails with gravel or cinder filling 
between. The planks are 3 or 4 ins. thick, from 12 to 16 ft. long for farm crossings 
and side roads, or up to 30 ft. for main roads. Five 10-in. or four 12-in. planks 
will fill in neatly between the rails, while a similar plank will be laid outside of 
each rail. If the rails are high, the planks rest on strips nailed to the ties, so 
as to bring the planks flush with the top of the rails or |-in. below. The ends 
of the planks are adzed to an incline for 6 to 12 ins., so as not to catch loose 
hanging rods, chains or brakebeams. Pine planks are more suitable than spruce 
or oak; the second are too soft and the third have a tendency to warp. They 
should be spiked by f-in. boat spikes 8 to 10 ins. long, track spikes being too 
short. If planks are laid only against the rails, cross planks may be laid between 
their ends, forming a shallow box to be filled in with broken stone or gravel 
for roads, or gravel or cinders for private and farm crossings. Where track 
is liable to heave, the planks may be removed from unimportant crossings in 
the winter, so as not to be struck by engine pilots or snow plows. At narrow 
crossings the planks should, if possible, be placed so as not to cover any rail 
joints. It is difficult to properly inspect and repair such joints, and in some 
cases 60-ft. rails are used to bring the joints beyond the crossings. 

The outer planks are laid close against the rail heads, but the inner ones 
must leave flangeways about 2\ ins. wide. These planks may be set that dis- 
tance from the rail, or their edges may be rabbeted to fit under the rail heads, 
leaving flangeways 2\ ins. wide and the full depth of the rail head. A shallow 
flangeway has the objection of being more easily obstructed by loose stones, etc., 
but if the space is left open for the full depth of the rail, horses are liable to 
get the calks of their shoes caught under the rail head. It is generally best, 
therefore, to put a filler against the web at any rate. A steel rail is frequently 
placed as an inside guard rail to form the flangeway and protect the edges of 
the planking or the gravel filling. This is generally laid on its side, with its 
head resting against the web of the track rail, thus forming a shallow flangeway 
with filler. If placed upright or laid on its side with its base toward the track 
rail, broken-stone filling or a wooden filler strip should be placed between the 
rails as already noted. In the latter arrangement (rarely used) a plank must 
be cut to shape to rest upon the guard rail, being secured by long spikes driven 
through holes in the plank and rail web. The ends of the guard rails should 
be flared out from 6 to 12 ins. at the ends, giving a clearance of at least 4 ins. ; 
this space should be filled with some form of footguard. Several arrange- 
ments are shown in Fig. 85. 

The approaches to the crossings should be properly built and graded, and 
may be carried across the roadway ditches by planks spiked to timbers or old 
ties, resting on the bank and the roadbed, but these timbers are liable to rot 
and easily become loose, making an unsightly crossing. It is generally better 
to carry the ditch through by an iron pipe 8 to 12 ins. diameter, and then to 
fill in the earth to make a properly graded approach. Clay pipe is likely to be 
broken or displaced unless the earth cover over it is pretty thick, while a wooden 
box drain is likely to break or decay and allow the earth to fall in and block the 
drain. The ends of the pipe or drain may be laid in small dry walls and covered 
by screens. These pipes should be of ample capacity, and should be cleaned 
out occasionally. Signal wires may be laid through an iron pipe; or electric 
wires may be protected by being laid in a 1-in. pipe with end caps and gaskets 



GRADE CROSSINGS. 



157 



(having holes for the wires); the pipe to be filled with oil. These pipes are 
supported on stakes. Crossings and approaches should be well drained and 
always kept in good repair, not only on account of the safety of railway and 
highway traffic, but also because defective and unsightly crossings are a fre- 
quent cause of public complaint, leading to an ill feeling against the railway. 

Streets. — Where the tracks run along or across paved streets, an iron guard 
rail is generally placed inside the track rail, and the paving filled in over the 
ties, leaving only a flangeway, which should have a filling piece up to the level 
of the underside of the rail heads. In some cases a line of planking is laid along 
the outside of the rail head. For freight tracks in Philadelphia, the Pennsyl- 
vania Ry. uses a 141-lb. grooved girder rail 9 ins. high with a 6-in. base. The 
groove is If ins. deep; the width of head is 2^ ins., and the flaring guard is 
3^-in. thick; the width from head to outside of guard is 2§§ ins. The joints 
have flat narrow-flanged splice bars (with an inner rib bearing against the rail 




N.Y Central Ry. 



Phil. & Read. Ry. 






■'■■^•'■■^^r-'' '■ -■:-:-': ; ' ^^'ljJ^^^^[^^=:^'::v:^r^7 



K 12 0" ->j 

- 9'0"- Jk- 9'0" 



Plank Crossing. Gravel Crossing. 

Fig. 85. — Road Crossings. 

web), with 12 bolts in two rows. The rails are connected by tie rods through 
the webs at intervals of 5 ft. 6 ins., and concrete filling is packed against the 
rail webs. The rails are laid on shoulder tie-plates and spiked to ties 7X9 
ins., 24f ins. c. to c. The ties are laid on 1 in. of sand on a 6-in. concrete base; 
the sand is filled in between and 1 in. over them, and on this is laid the 8-in. 
stone block paving, level with the top of the rails. The New York Central 
Ry. uses chairs to carry ordinary track rails. The ties are 3 ins. below the 
normal level, laid on 6 ins. of gravel ballast, with 6 ins. of concrete between 
them and extending to the sides of the street. Upon each tie are spiked two 
iron chairs, 3 ins. high, with a base 9|X4 ins., and weighing 20 lbs. each (25 
lbs. at joints). The rail seat has a shoulder along each side, and the rails are 
secured by semicircular steel spring clamps which are driven on parallel with 
the rail and grip the rail flange and top of chair. To the inside of each rail is 
bolted a continuous angle-bar of special section, with a broad upper flange 
about 2 ins. wide. This built-up section resembles a side-bearing street rail, 
the depth of flangeway being the full depth of the rail head. The bolts are 4 
ft. 4^ ins. c. to c, and at the rail joints a 36-in. length of the guard angle or bar 
is used, with an outer six-bolt angle splice bar. The clamps on the three joint 
chairs grip the flange of this latter splice bar. The track and guard rails break 
joint about 18 ins. Over the concrete and ties is a 2-in. layer of sand, upon 
which are the paving blocks; those on the outside are f-in. below the top of the 
rail, while those on the inside are level with the flange of the guard rail. In 



158 TRACK. 

brick paving, the rails are laid on steel plates of such thickness as to give 6 ins. 
from tie to top of rail. . On a 2-in. bed of sand is laid the 4-in. brick paving, 
grouted with pitch. A rail laid on its side forms the flangeway, and a round- 
nosed brick is laid against this. 

Road-Crossing Signals and Gates. — Country road crossings are generally pro- 
tected only by warning signs, though flagmen or automatic gongs are also some- 
times employed. At suburban crossings of busy lines, signs and gates are 
very generally used (or flagmen instead of gatemen). These are often supple- 
mented by automatic gong signals, having either a large gong to warn persons 
approaching the railway, or a small gong to warn the watchman to flag the 
highway traffic or to close the gates. Lamps may be operated in connection 
with the large gong, but this is rarely done, except on electric lines. For these 
automatic warning signals, the train usually closes an electric circuit when 
600 to 2,000 ft. distant, and the gong continues to ring until the train has passed 
the crossing. Unreliable appliances are dangerous, as a silent gong indicates 
a safe crossing, and persons who have once found the gong inoperative are 
likely to disregard it in the future. Some of these signals, however, are reliable 
within all reasonable requirements (including proper attention). In this con- 
nection it is pertinent to call attention to the folly of employing incompetent 
men at low wages as flagmen or gatemen at crossings. Such men will not and 
do not attend faithfully to their duties and many accidents have resulted from 
their carelessness. 

Ordinary street crossings have usually gates operated by watchmen. In 
rare cases "portcullis" gates are used, sliding vertically in high frames, while 
an arrangement has been suggested by which the gates would drop into deep 
narrow slots in the street. The most common form of crossing gate is a light 
wooden arm, swinging vertically and pivoted to an iron post near the curb, and 
being operated by gearing by means of a crank handle in the post. The side- 
walk arms are operated by segmental racks on the shafts. The arms on both 
sides of the track are worked together, the connections being wires, chains, or 
pipes led underground with bell-crank connections. The arms are counter- 
balanced. They are sometimes as much as 55 ft. long, with 35-ft. sidewalk 
arms, where the tracks cross the street at an angle, but it is common to use 
two arms on each side of the track. These gates are about 9 or 10 ft. from 
center of track. The gateman usually has a small cabin at the side of the track, 
or an elevated cabin like a signal tower. Gates of this kind may have a flexi- 
ble piece at the end, opening upward and outward, so that if a team is shut 
in on the track it may be driven through, and thus perhaps avoid a serious 
accident. A flag or target may be placed on the gate, while at night a green 
or white lantern is hung upon it. The Philadelphia & Reading Ry., however, 
puts a green flag by day, while at night there is a lamp showing red to the high- 
way and green to the railway. The gates are sometimes operated by wires, 
chains or pipe lines, connected to levers. More generally they are operated by 
compressed air, one or two strokes of the lever of a pump in the tower effecting 
each movement of the gate. A pressure of only 7 lbs. per sq. in. is required. 
The operating mechanisms for the arms are enclosed in the gate posts, which 
are connected by £-in. pipes, and the arms are locked in either position. One 
design uses a rubber diaphragm in an iron case; others use a piston in a cylinder. 
One stroke of the pump operates the arm or arms on one side of the track, 
thus requiring two strokes to close the crossing and so reducing the liability 



GRADE CROSSINGS. 159 

to shut a team in on the track. One diaphragm of each pair closes the gates, 
and the other opens them, motion being transmitted by a rod, chain and bell 
cranks in each post, connected by rods underground. Automatic gates are not 
advisable, being likely to trap horses or vehicles. 

Street crossings at yards and stations, where trains and switch engines are 
constantly moving to and fro, are often protected only by flagmen, who signal 
the drivers of vehicles when to cross. If there are many tracks, an open refuge 
place should be provided near the middle, so that teams need not wait until 
the entire crossing is clear. Such crossings, however, are extremely dangerous, 
especially in dark and stormy weather, when the drivers cannot see the flagmen 
distinctly, and the flagman's view is obstructed by smoke and steam. At 
street crossings having tracks for electric cars, there should be provided some 
means of automatically stopping or derailing these cars if they run past a cer- 
tain point when the gates are closed, as many accidents occur through care- 
lessness or neglect on the part of car drivers, conductors and gatemen. The 
ordinary rule is that the car must be stopped and the conductor walk onto the 
crossing to see if trains are approaching; but he may be neglectful, or his view 
may be obstructed by steam, smoke or moving cars. Derails or stop blocks, 
about 50 or 100 ft. from the crossing and interlocked with the gate, should be 
set in the street track, and for electric railways the current may be automatically 
cut off from the trolley wire for a short distance on each side of the crossing. 
This matter is further discussed in connection with railway grade crossings. 

Railway Grade Crossings. 

Railway crossings at grade were freely adopted in earlier days, but it is now 
generally recognized that every such crossing is a point of danger and expense, 
causing more or less interference with traffic and increase in maintenance work. 
At unprotected crossings, where all trains are required to come to an absolute 
stop, there is likely to be increased wear of rails due to the frequent stopping 
and starting and the use of sand. The extent of the wear will vary with the 
local conditions of grade, speed, traffic, etc. The expenses due to the delays 
at crossings are discussed in the Proceedings of the Railway Signal Association, 
1905. In many cases these crossings can be avoided or eliminated with advan- 
tage to both roads (sometimes with an improvement in grades), and there is 
a growing tendency to protect crossings by interlocking switch and signal plants, 
so that a train will not have to stop unless the right of way has already been 
given to a train on the other line. In some States this protection is compul- 
sory. There is also a general tendency to eliminate groups of crossings near 
large cities, and enormous sums of money have been expended in the separation 
of grades, which expenditures have been fully warranted by the increased safety 
and freedom of traffic. Near "Philadelphia, the four tracks of the New York 
and Philadelphia divisions of the Pennsylvania Ry. connected with the line 
leading to the Broad St. terminal station in such a way that all passenger trains 
for that station had to cross the through main tracks, causing numerous delays, 
and also causing complication in handling the enormous number of freight 
trains at that point. This has been avoided by lowering the tracks of the New 
York Division on a grade of 0.5% until they can pass under the freight yard 
at 1%, and then rising again by a grade of 1.2% to the normal grade. The 
crossing of trains at junctions, especially on four-track lines, has also been 
avoided in some cases by carrying one track over or under the normal grade. 



160 



TRACK. 



Two arrangements of this kind are shown in Fig. 86. Such improvements not 
only facilitate the traffic and insure safety, but also reduce the expenses for 
maintaining crossings, switches, derails, interlocking plant, etc. 

In the building of new railways there should be some legislative restriction 
upon the right to cross existing railways at grade, thereby interfering with 
the traffic of the latter and conferring upon them no corresponding benefit. 
The permission of the Railway Commissioners (or similar authority) should be 
required in each and every case, and should be granted only when the impracti- 
cability of separating the grades (or other good reason) can be proved. Un- 
protected crossings should be permitted only in exceptional cases, and the new 
railway might well be required to pay the entire cost of the construction and 
equipment of the crossing, including signals, interlocking plant, etc., subject 
to the approval of the existing line; and to pay also the expenses of watchmen, 
signalmen, and maintenance of plant. With such requirements, greater care 




Low Speed 
TrackSj. 



-^ 

High Speed •/ 

Tracks 1, 



Simple Junction. Complicated Junction. 

Fig. 86. — Avoidance of Track Crossings at Junctions. 

would be taken to avoid such crossings, and there arc comparatively few cases 
where they could not be economically avoided, especially if the continued expense 
for their operation and maintenance is taken into account. In some States 
(including New York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Indiana, Ohio and 
Illinois), there are laws in regard to the avoidance and protection of grade cross- 
ings, including those of electric and steam railways as well as of steam rail- 
ways alone. 

All important crossings should be equipped with interlocking plants, with home 
and distant signals and derailing switches, but local conditions must govern the 
application of these switches, as in some cases they may be dangerous. Every 
interlocking plant should have both home and distant signals. If an engine- 
man finds the distant signal clear he knows he has the right of way over the 
crossing, but if he finds it against him he slows down and runs under control, 
expecting to be stopped by the home signal. The derailing switch should be 
not less than 300 ft. from the crossing on level track, and in Illinois the distance 
is required to be at least 400 ft., on account of the increase in weight and speed 
of trains. On a double-track line there should be a "backup" derail, 150 to 
300 ft. beyond the crossing. The home signal may be 150 to 200 ft. from the 
crossing, and the distant signal 1,200 to 2,000 ft. from the home signal. The 
location of the signal and derails will depend upon the speed of trains, grades, 



GRADE CROSSINGS. 161 

etc., but the distant signal should be so far back as to give room for a fast train 
to be stopped before reaching the home signal, while the derail should be just 
beyond the home signal, but so far back that a derailed train will not be likely 
to reach the crossing. The derail may open to a short curved spur ending in a 
sand bank, so as to turn the train away from the crossing. It should be dis- 
tinctly understood by all enginemen that the towerman is the man in authority 
at the crossing and can give the right of way to which train he pleases (subject 
to the general instructions given him), and the engineman has simply to look 
out for the signals and obey them implicitly. The signals are normally at 
"stop," and an approaching train whistles to notify the towerman. He may 
not hear this at once, or may be unable to determine upon which line the train 
is approaching, and delay in clearing the signals may result in checking a fast 
train unnecessarily. To prevent this, a relay may be put in at any desired dis- 
tance; so that as the train passes it automatically operates a bell, buzzer or 
indicator in the tower. 

Crossings of small country lines with little traffic are often left entirely unpro- 
tected, except by "slow boards" or signs. If near a station, there may be a 
rzte or horizontal bar swinging around a vertical post, and having a target or 
lamp on it; one or other of the tracks being always blocked. Lifting gates, 
as used at road crossings, are also used in some cases, being so interlocked that 
only one road can be cleared at a time. The protection of crossings of steam 
and electric railways is discussed below. A simple interlocking system for 
grade crossings of main lines by smaller lines or electric railways, consists in 
equipping the less important track with derailing switches standing normally 
open, these derails being interlocked with the signals of the other line. In one 
system of this kind, when a train on the principal line reaches a point half a 
mile ahead of the automatic signal governing the block in which the crossing 
is located, it causes an indicator to be displayed at the derailing switches, 
giving warning of the approach of a train having the right of way. If a train 
on the smaller line finds that no main-track train is approaching, the trainman 
closes the derailing switch, and thereby sets the main-track block signals at 
danger. (See also Chapter 14.) 

Electric Railway Crossings. — The increased weight and speed of electric cars, 
and the numerous accidents and narrow escapes at crossings, have made it 
evident that the grade crossing of a steam railway and an electric railway should 
be as efficiently protected as a crossing of two steam railways, and should be 
under the same State regulations. This is specially important in view of the 
great development of electric interurban railways, on which cars run at high 
speeds, and the action taken by some States is much to be commended in put- 
ting a check upon this multiplication of dangerous grade crossings. They may 
require over or under crossings to be made, or at least put facilities in the way 
of providing such a separation of grades by permitting the condemnation and 
purchase of land for the diversion of an electric railway to avoid a grade crossing. 
The electric railway, as responsible for the crossing, may also be required to put 
in an interlocking plant approved by the Railway Commission and the steam 
railway, and also to pay a large proportion of the expense of operation and 
maintenance. Grade crossings of this kind call for more careful watching than 
grade crossings of steam railways and are really more dangerous, as the steam 
road claims the right of way, and the movement of cars on an electric road is 
liable to derangement without notice or apparent cause. Cases are numerous 



162 



TRACK. 



in which electric cars have in some way been deprived of power while passing 
over grade crossings. Interlocking plants may be used, it is true, but cannot 
insure absolute safety, while they involve continual expense for maintenance. 
Their use may in some cases be almost impracticable, as when the electric line 
crosses a high-speed line, switching tracks or a yard. In the construction of 
some electric railways intended for high-speed service, considerable expendi- 
tures have been incurred in building diversions or viaducts purposely to avoid 
crossing steam railways at grade. 

This applies to street-railway lines, as well as to suburban and interurban 
lines. At a double-track crossing of the Pennsylvania Ry. and an electric line 
at Newark, N. J., a derailing switch (to both rails) is put in the electric track 
at about 80 ft. from the steam tracks and another derail beyond the latter. 
These are connected, and are normally open. The conductor must get off and 
close the derail by a lever placed near the steam tracks and must hold the lever 
until the car has crossed the derail on the opposite side of the crossing, as a spring 
will open the derail as soon as the lever is released. This plan has the objection 




Fig. 87. — Track Crossing Laid on Ties and Long Timber 



that the conductor is away from the car at the critical moment when the trolley 
is liable to leave the wire and stall the car on the crossing. .There are, however, 
devices in the form of a trough over the trolley wire (extending 50 to 75 ft. 
beyond the crossing), which are electrically connected with the wire; thus the 
trough would not only catch the trolley but supply it with current. The lever 
of the derailing switches might have an electric lock to automatically prevent 
its being operated when an approaching train is within a certain distance. This 
could not be used at those dangerous crossings in or near cities where switching 
movements foul the crossings. 

Construction of Crossings. — The construction of the crossing frogs has already 
been described, and it is, perhaps, best to rivet them to base plates, particularly 
where they carry heavy traffic. The riveting must be good and substantial 
work, or the rivets will work loose and the frogs will clatter. The rails and 
frogs may be supported in either of three ways: (1) By ordinary ties placed at 
such angles as to afford the best support of all the rails; (2) Upon long switch 



GRADE CROSSINGS. 



163 



ties or timbers; (3) By framed timbers which are halved together under the 
crossing frogs and give a continuous bearing to each rail. Where ties are used 
at a right-angled crossing they are usually laid at an angle of about 45°, but 
the arrangement cannot be anything but unsightly, and is inferior to the second 
plan. The third plan is the most substantial, especially for angles of nearly 
90°, and it affords the best resistance to lateral shifting or creeping of the cross- 
ing. Where a main line crosses a minor line at right angles, one track may 
have a longitudinal timber about 6X10 ins. or 10X12 ins., from 12 to 14 ft. 
long, under each rail, while the other track has ordinary ties. Tie-plates should 
be placed on the longitudinal timbers. 

The Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. uses ties and long timbers 8X10 ins., 
10 ins. apart, for crossings of less than 75°, as shown in Fig. 87, and uses framed 
timbers for other angles. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. usually 
employs sawed ties, except at right-angle crossings, where framed timbers are 
used, as shown in Fig. 88. Some roads use framed timbers in all cases, but others 




Fig. 88. — Track Crossing Laid on Framed Timbers. 

use switch ties (about 7X9 ins., 8 ins. apart) for all crossings up to 80°. The 
earth and old material should be dug out and replaced with broken stone or 
clean gravel to a depth of 12 ins. on banks, and even deeper in cuts where the 
drainage is bad, while tile drains are sometimes laid. It is very important to 
have a thoroughly good foundation at the crossing. 



CHAPTER 10.— BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 

While solid floors for steel bridges are coming into more general use, the com- 
mon form is still the open floor, consisting of sawed ties laid upon the track 
stringers of through bridges or the top chords of deck bridges, and secured by 
he ok bolts taking hold of the flanges of stringers or chords. In rare cases, the 
rails are laid on longitudinal timbers, both on open and solid floors. In one 
system, these timbers are laid on steel stringers between the floor beams. In 
designing the floor of a bridge or trestle, the emergency of derailed trains must 
be provided for. This need involve but little additional expense, but may 
save many lives and many thousands of dollars in case of a derailment. This 
is discussed below in relation to guard rails. Bridge ties are usually 8X8 ins. 
to 10 X 12 ins., but sometimes 8 X 16 ins., in section. The length is from 9 to 14 ft. 
for single track; in some cases the standard length is 10 ft. while every fourth 
tie is 14 ft. long, carrying two lines of plank. On double track, timbers 24 ft. 



164 TRACK. 

long may be used, carrying both tracks. This is the practice on the New York 
Central Ry., the 24-ft. ties being 10X8 ins. (on edge) with a guard timber at 
each end and in the middle; they are spaced 12 ins. c. to c. and boxed out over 
the girders. Sawed ties of white oak or yellow pine are commonly used, the 
latter being less liable to warp; Douglas fir is also used. They should not be 
more than 4 ins. apart in the clear, and kept from bunching under derailed 
wheels by having the guard timbers boxed out for each tie, or by having spac- 
ing blocks fitted between the ties. The ties are frequently boxed out over the 
girder or stringers, so as to be held laterally. Every third or fourth tie is usually 
fastened to the flanges of steel girders or stringers by f-in. hook or through 
bolts; or to timber stringers by drift bolts, screw-bolts or lag screws about | X 12 
ins. On long trestles or deck bridges there should be a plank footwalk at one 
side or between the tracks; or else refuges should be provided at intervals. 
The latter (on trestles) may be conveniently located where the water barrels 
for fire protection are placed. Some roads lay a line of planks 2x12 ins. between 
the rails, and nailed to the ties, for the convenience of employees. Tracks on 
bridges and approaches should be kept in good line and surface; they should 
be firmly bedded at the ends of the approaches, so as to avoid shocks when 
trains come upon the bridge at high speed. 

Solid floors for steel bridges have advantages in safety, permanence and' 
smooth riding. The first cost is, of course, greater, but there is a decided sav- 
ing in maintenance work, while with a ballasted floor the track maintenance 
can be regularly attended to by the section gangs instead of by the bridge gangs. 
Ballasted floors are generally preferable to bare floors. They enable the stand- 
ard track construction to be carried across the bridge, while the extra dead 
load not only requires a heavier construction of bridge, but the ballast prac- 
tically eliminates impact stresses and also prevents much of the vibration which 
causes objectionable noise. This last point is very important for street bridges, 
as the thundering sound of trains passing is likely to frighten horses. The 
depth of ballast should be at least 8 ins. In many cases the solid floor is built 
up of transverse troughs of rectangular or trapezoidal section, but sometimes 
consists of flat deck plates on transverse I-beams. It has been suggested that 
ballast tends to corrosion of the floor, but experience does not sustain this. 
In some cases the troughs are filled with ordinary or asphaltic concrete. Floors 
of longitudinal troughs, carried on the floor beams, or forming in themselves 
a self-supporting floor, have been used. Concrete slab floors are also coming 
into use. In Europe, the floor is sometimes made to form a deep trough for 
each rail, in which derailed wheels would run safely. No general plan can be 
laid down for solid floors, but various designs may be made to suit different 
classes of bridges. The design should be made with special regard to strength, 
safety, noiselessness, maintenance, weight and economy. 

Both ballasted and unballasted solid floors have been used in track elevation 
work, but the former are now generally used. For parallel tracks, plate-girder 
through bridges are mainly employed, but where switches, crossovers, etc., 
have to be provided for, a flat deck, or a self-supporting trough floor must be 
used. Asphalt concrete is largely used by the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 
for filling trough floors and covering steel deck floors to protect them from the 
ballast. In the latter case it is from 2 to 5 ins. thick, sloped for drainage. The 
metal is heated to insure a close adhesion of the hot mixture. On some work, 
the trough floor itself forms the bridge, being supported on the abutments 



BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 165 

and on cross girders carried by columns in the street. In this case the troughs 
are longitudinal, 18 ins. deep, 15 ins. wide, and in spans of 12 to 30 ft. Facia 
girders retain the filling and ballast. At the new Washington terminal, the 
bridges over streets are composed of 24-in. I-beams, 18 ins. apart, in 26-ft. 
and 28-ft. spans. These are embedded in concrete which extends 2 ins. below 
them; above this is a f-in. layer of waterproofing and 5^ ins. of concrete rein- 
forced by f-in. steel bars to prevent cracking. Upon this is the ballast. Another 
arrangement is to lay I-beams between the flanges of plate-girder spans, and to 
cover this with 2-in. or 3-in. creosoted planking; the seams are calked, and the 
floor covered with layers of felt in hot pitch or asphalt compositions. Upon 
this is a layer of brick or a bed of sand and gravel to protect it from the ballast 
proper. A 4-in. concrete slab floor on the I-beams is sometimes used in place 
of the timber deck. 

Where unballasted steel floors are used, they are usually of the deck-plate 
type. Transverse 12-in. I-beams about 15 ins. c. to c. are laid on the bottom 
flanges of the girders and covered with a deck of ^-in. plates. In one system, 
a 10 X 4-in. channel is riveted to the floor for each rail, and has a l|-in. wooden 
filler or longitudinal covered with a ^-in. plate on which the rail is laid. The 
fastenings are U-bolts, with saddle pieces under the floor. In another design, 
each rail is laid on vulcanized fiber plates on a ^-in. steel plate 16 ins. wide, 
having riveted along each side an angle 3^X5 ins., with the 3|-in. leg hori- 
zontal and turned in toward the rail. At the back of this is a smaller angle 
riveted to the deck and the 5-in. leg. A third practice is similar, but with a 
single outside guard-rail angle 4X6 ins. (6-in. leg horizontal and inward), or 
two Z-bars forming a trough. A plan similar to that first described, but with 
a ^-in. deck plate, is used by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. ; each 
rail is laid on a f-in. plate of vulcanized wood (for insulation) in a 15-in. channel, 
while a 6 X 4-in. guard angle is riveted to the deck and one side of the channel. 
Continuous oak strips in 7^-ft. lengths are laid on the rail flanges, fitting between 
the rail web and the channel. The attachment bolts pass through these fillers. 
In a similar arrangement used on ordinary bridges, the 20-in. I-beams are 4 
ft. apart, with stringers between (each composed of two 10-in. channels and 
a 10|-in. web plate); each 4-ft. span has three crossties 10X10 ins., notched 
for the web plate, and carrying 15-in. channels for the rails. The channels are 
fastened by 8-in. lag screws. Between them is a plank floor covered with 
asphalt and gravel. With trapezoidal troughs on the bridges of its track ele- 
vation work in Chicago, the Illinois Central Ry. places ties on top of the inverted 
troughs. A bridge on the Kansas City Outer Belt Ry. has rectangular troughs 
11 ins. deep and 13 ins. wide; in these are 10-ft. ties 8X10 ins., set on edge 
and resting on blocks 4^X8 ins., 2 ft. long. In both these cases ballast is omitted. 
Unballasted steel floors are usually protected by asphalt paints or compositions, 
the adhesion of which is improved by cleaning and heating the metal (see Engi- 
neering News, Oct. 29, Nov. 12, 1903; May 5, 1904; Feb. 16, Sept. 7, Nov. 2, 
1905). 

Reinforced-concrete floors for ordinary bridges are being introduced. On a 
through- truss bridge of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. the floor beams 
are 9§ ft. c. to c, with eight lines of I-beams between them. Upon this fram- 
ing is a 4-in. floor slab, 13 ft. 4 ins. wide, with 8-in. curbs 16£ ins. high, to retain 
the ballast. A 1:2:4 concrete is used, coated with asphalt, and drain holes are 
cored in the floor. Ballast is filled in level with the curbs, and inside guard 



166 TRACK. 

rails are laid on the ties. The weight of this floor is 2,500 lbs. per ft. of single 
track, including ballast and track. For track elevation work, the road uses 
self-supporting slab floors on steel or concrete girders carried by columns at the 
street curb line. The slabs over the street are 24| ft. long, 7 ft. wide, from 30 to 
33 ins. thick; they contain 16| cu. yds. and weigh 36| tons. The smaller slabs 
for the 10-ft. sidewalk spans weigh 8 tons. The concrete is a 1:2^:4 mixture, 
using 1^-in. stone; or a 1:4 mixture using pit gravel with all stones over 2 ins. 
removed. In a plan proposed by J. W. Schaub, a concrete slab floor is used 
and is made of extra thickness at the middle. Longitudinal timbers at the sides 
carry the rails and are bolted together through the middle portion. 

For plate-girder deck bridges, ballasted floors of transverse troughs or old 
rails have been used to some extent. The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. has 
some double-track bridges of this type, with floors of transverse troughs 28 
ft. long, overhanging the outer girders about 4 ft. Along each side is a light 
plate girder 21 ins. deep, with gusset plates riveted to the floor, and gravel 
ballast is filled in to a depth of about 25 ins. above the troughs, the ties being 
embedded in the ballast. The Michigan Central Ry. puts the girders 9 ft. 
apart, and upon them are laid 10-in. I-beams 15 ft. long, 12 ins. c. to c, with 
a f-in. deck plate coated with asphalt. Curbs of angles 3^X7 ins. retain the 
ballast. Several railways use a concrete floor. On the Chicago & Eastern Illi- 
nois Ry. the floor is 14 ft. wide (for single track), 10 and 7 ins. thick at middle 
and sides, and with curb walls 18X12 ins. Fig. 89 shows a floor of old rails 

,lnside 
f f Guard Rails* t ^ 



jW?-# 8'0' V7J-IJ 

Fig. 89. — Bridge Floor of Old Rails; Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. 

on a deck bridge of the Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. The 70-lb. rails are spaced 
6 ins. c. to c, so as to fit between the rivet heads. The rails are 10 ft. 5 ins. long 
for single track and 23 ft. 5 ins. for double track. An angle iron 6X6 ins. on 
each side of the floor is secured to the extra wide bottom cover plate of the chord 
by J-in. bolts, 12 ins. apart. To the vertical flange of this angle iron is riveted 
a plate |X12 ins. to retain the ballast, which is only 4 ins. deep under the ties. 
The floor is well coated with tar, and the spaces between the rails allow for 
drainage. An angle iron retains the ballast at each end of the bridge, and a 
plate covers the space between the bridge and the back wall of the abutment. 
A greater depth of ballast and greater width of floor would be preferable. Solid 
timber floors are extensively used, composed of bridge ties laid close together. 
On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., the girders have no cover plates, 
and the web plates project ^-in. above the chord angles. The ties are notched 
to rest on the chord angles, and hook bolts attach the ties to the girders. On 
the Eastern Ry. of New Mexico, the timbers are 10 ft. long and 10 ins. deep; 
on high bridges some of them are 18 ft. long, to carry plank sidewalks, which 
are covered with 2 ins. of stone screenings as a protection against fire. The 
floor may be covered with ballast, carrying the usual arrangement of ties; or 
the rails may be laid directly on the floor, which is then lightly covered with 
gravel. 



BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 167 

Ballasted floors for trestles are coming largely into use and are of three classes : 
1, With longitudinal stringers or square timbers placed close together (using 
smaller ones at the sides); 2, With transverse ties laid close together; 3, With 
3 X 12-in. planks across the ordinary stringers. The ballast is retained by a curb 
timber about 10 X 12 ins. secured by knee braces on the floor, or by inclined 
anchors passing through the timber and spiked to the floor. With coarse ballast, 
the stringers or ties may be f-in. to |-in. apart. The depth of ballast varies 
from 5 to 10 ins. In some cases, as on the Wisconsin Central Ry., the ordinary 
floor construction is used, but planks are laid on the stringers as fillers between 
the ties, forming troughs for ballasted floors. On the Illinois Central Ry., 
there are ten longitudinal timbers, 7X16 ins., covered with planks 3X6 ins. 
X14 ft. long, laid transversely. Coping timbers 6X8 ins. are bolted on the 
ends of the floor planks and through the outside stringers at three points in 
each panel with f-in. bolts, 29 ins. long. These timbers are separated from the 
floor by 1-in. cast-iron separators to allow for drainage. This gives a deck 
14 ft. wide over all. The bents are spaced 13^ ft. c. to c, and the eight inside 
stringers are 14J ft. long, lapping on the caps. The two outside stringers are 
laid with butt joints and are 27 ft. long. The caps are 12X14 ins., 16 ft. 
long. On each side of the caps, planks 2X6 ins. X14 ft. long are spiked to the 
under side of the stringers by |X6-in. spikes to prevent creeping of the floor 
upon the caps. The timber used is all creosoted pine. The ballast is 12 ins. 
deep below base of rail. The Kansas City Southern Ry. uses a solid floor of 
ties 7X8 ins., 10 ft. long, sized to 6| ins. thick; and over each bent is a 7X8-in. 
tie on edge, boxed out over the stringers. Guard timbers 5X20 ins., laid flat, 
are at the ends of the floor and bolted to every fourth tie. Tie-plates are placed 
on alternate ties. Hot coal tar is applied to the floor, and 3 ins. of washed 
gravel laid upon this^as a protection against fire. Other roads use a similar 
construction, but a ballasted floor is generally considered preferable. The solid 
floors have the following advantages: 1, Safety from fire; 2, Low cost of main- 
tenance; 3, An easy riding track with less liability of damage in case of derail- 
ent; 4, With a ballasted floor the section gangs can maintain the track in 
line and surface, independent of the bridge gangs. 

Open culverts and short trestles for roads, cattle passes, etc., may often be 
advantageously replaced by solid embankments having concrete arches or iron 
pipes. In fact, the extensive introduction of concrete arches, girder spans and 
box culverts, with or without embankments above them, has materially reduced 
the maintenance expenses and increased the safety of traffic by eliminating 
short open-floor timber structures which are liable to be burned or washed out. 
Where the depth is insufficient for an embankment, concrete or masonry abut- 
ment walls may be built to carry a solid floor of I-beams, old rails or steel troughs. 
The Michigan Central Ry. uses concrete side walls, spanned by plate girders 
carrying I-beams 12 ins. c. to c, with f-in. deck plates. The ballast is put over 
this to a depth of at least 12 ins. under the ties. The Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe Ry. lays a floor of plank, 12 ft. long, with 5X8-in. curb timbers to 
hold the ballast. On the Virginia Ry., 6-ft. open-top culverts have concrete 
inverts, walls and portals. Under each rail are three 10-in. I-beams, 8 ft. 4 
ins. long, carrying ties 7X9 ins., 2 ins. apart. The spaces between the ends of 
the ties and the concrete portal girders are covered by longitudinal planks 
4X12 ins. On the New York Central Ry., culverts and spans up to 12 ft. have 
floors of old rails embedded in concrete (5 ins. t&ick over the rails), and covered 



168 TRACK. 

with a layer of gravel, upon which is the stone ballast. The concrete forms a 
curb wall at each side. The rails are given a coat of red-lead and a coat of 
bridge paint. They are laid on their flanges, and close together, but beneath 
each track rail there are six inverted" rails fitted between the others. In some 
cases, however, I-beams alternating with the rails take the place of the inverted 
rails. A 4-ft. span would have two 12-in. or four 8-in. I-beams under each 
rail; while a 16-ft. span would have from three 15-in. to five 12-in. I-beams 
under each rail. Ballasted floor culverts on the Southern Pacific Ry., Fig. 
90, have at each end four piles carrying a cap 12X12 ins., 12 or 13 ft. long, 
with 8-ft. or 9-ft. ties. Upon these is a close floor of longitudinal timbers from 
6 ins. deep for 4-ft. spans to 8 ins. for 10-ft. and 12 ins. for 14-ft. spans. Curb 
timbers retain the ballast, which is 9 ins. deep under the ties, and planks behind 
the piles hold back the face of the bank. For crossing irrigation ditches this 
railway has used under each rail a pair of 12-in. channels placed back to back 
and having saddles of steel channels riveted between them. Creosoted blocks 
4X12 ins., 12 ins. long, rest on the saddles, and the rails are bolted to the latter. 

' i i '. 

Center Lines of . Piles \ 



I 

i 



1 converge \to meer at\a Point • 
\ 25 ft -above Cof 1 Track. \ 



4x6"Coping,l6'/ona J__ 1 "^TWwg ^ 1 TTL 9 of Ballast underlies 



\ m "f J^- Lf*A*« g'l h_ 



c~ 



3i/23/4Z* — &£%:$WM"*/6'#W%^Z?&&r%$&^ — 1% 



3*/2*/7_ f?Zj=~r Cap I I2"x/E'xiz' I 




3*I2"*20' W\ I ffl 



3* 12"* 23' 

W ^ 

.Mr / ** 

Fig. 90. — Ballasted Culvert; Southern Pacific Ry. 

It would be better to use stringers instead of blocks, to give a continuous 
bearing for derailed wheels. The channels rest on shoes on 12 X 12-in. cap 
sills, and weigh 30 and 50 lbs. per ft. for spans of 12 and 15 ft. For crossing 
gutters which have to carry surface water, the railway sometimes uses two 
pieces of old rail bolted together at intervals of 18 ins., the track rail resting 
on spacing sleeves on the bolts. 

Corrosion and Fire. — On steel structures, corrosion is often caused by brine 
dripping from refrigerator cars. On structures over the tracks, corrosion is 
often caused by smoke and gases, while the cinders from the engine stacks 
have a sand-blast effect in cutting paint put on as a protection. The former 
trouble may be avoided by putting a plank flooring under the ties, made water- 
tight and well coated with tar. This should be slightly inclined to drain to a 
suitable gutter. The Illinois Central Ry. proposes to put gutters of galvanized 
iron between the ties to protect the structure from brine and from the rust 
of the rails, as the latter destroys the paint. The gutters are 4J ft. long and 
6 ins. wide, with a 2-in. flange at each side to rest on the tie. The depth is 
2 ins. at the inner end (near the middle of the track) and 6 ins. at the outer 
end. On solid floors, experiments have been made with asphalt and paint, 
and with a tar and gravel composition. The floor must be made water- 
tight and itself protected against corrosion. It has been suggested that the 
cars should be fitted with tanks Co collect the drippings and prevent this trouble. 



BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 169 

For the corrosion due to locomotives, a plank sheathing beneath the floor beams 
has been used in some cases, while in others the floor is of steel I-beams with 
concrete arches between them, the concrete enclosing the steel work. Pockets 
where gases may collect should be avoided or filled up. 

On wooden structures, special protection against fire should be considered, as 
a spark or cinder from an engine may result in the burning of the structure. 
For this purpose, sheets of iron are sometimes laid over the caps and stringers, 
having the sides bent down at an incline. The Northern Pacific Ry. has tried 
the use of a continuous deck of galvanized iron sheets in 5-ft. lengths, the seams 
made with copper rivets 1 in. apart in order to leave sufficient opening for the 
escape of water and melting snow. This deck extends beyond the ends of the 
ties, and the rails and guard timbers are laid upon it, the spikes and bolts passing 
through the plates. The use of solid floors for trestles, with ordinary ballast 
and ties, or with a light protective covering of gravel, is now very general, and 
some systems of construction have been described above. Water barrels are 
usually placed at intervals along trestles. 

Guard Rails and Rerailing Devices. 

Bridges should be equipped with means for protecting trains in case of derail- 
ment. A substantial floor construction to safely carry a derailed car or train 
is one requisite, as already noted. In addition, means should be taken to pre- 
vent derailed cars from striking the trusses or falling over the bridge, and also 
to catch and rerail these. It has been proposed to lay each rail in an iron trough 
(see Bridge Floors), or in a 15-in. rolled channel, leaving about 6 ins. clear 
between each side of the rail head and the flanges of the channel. It is question- 
able, however, whether these flanges would serve the intended purpose effect- 
ively. As a general thing all bridge floors are provided with guard timbers 
outside the rails. These are usually of oak, 6X8 ins. (which is too small) or 
8X10 ins., laid flat and boxed out 1 to H ins. for the ties, to hold these in place. 
They are secured to every third or fourth tie by a f-in. or |-in. bolt, the head 
resting on an ordinary washer or in a cup washer let into the timber. On steel 
structures there may be hook bolts engaging with the flanges of the girders or 
stringers. On trestles with jack stringers the bolts may pass through the 
stringers. At joints, the timbers are usually scarfed, with a bolt passing through 
the joint and tie. 

The timbers are usually set 10 to 18 ins. from the gage side of the rail head, 
or 7 to 9 ft. apart. The sooner a derailed wheel is met and guided, the less is 
the liability of its causing trouble, and with guard timbers more than 8 ft. apart 
the wheels have a chance to turn or slew to such an angle as to be likely to 
burst the guard or to climb over it. The guard timbers are more thoroughly 
effective if faced with angle irons on the top corners. In some cases the guards 
serve merely to keep the ties from bunching, being so far apart that a derailed 
car would strike the bridge truss before the wheels encountered the guard. 
This is not good practice, but on wide bridges with long ties, extra timbers are 
sometimes placed near the ends of the ties. The purpose of the wider spacing 
is claimed to be to provide for wheels very far off the track, but these should be 
provided for by flaring the timbers out on the approach for a distance of from 
30 to 60 ft., so as to catch any wandering wheels and guide them into position for 
crossing the bridge in safety. This important practice, however, is now gener- 
ally neglected, the guard timbers ending with the bridge floor. In this respect 



170 TRACK. 

present practice is decidedly inferior to that of 10 or 20 years ago. On some 
roads guards 10 ins. from the track rails extended 110 ft. from the end of the 
bridge (and 10 ft. beyond the inside guard rails), being then 10 ft. apart, on 
ties 12 ft. long. These guards extended 10 ft. beyond the end of the inside 
guard rails, being there 9 ft. apart in the clear. On the Delaware & Hudson 
Ry. the guard timbers are 8 ins. from center of the track rails, and extend 8 
ft. beyond the bridge, where they are 8 ft. apart. This angle is much too sharp, 
but on most roads, the guard timbers do not extend beyond the bridge floor. 
Long flaring guard timbers should be provided, as noted, and should be laid on 
long ties firmly bedded and well tamped in good ballast for their entire length'. 
In some cases, bumper posts are placed on the approach in line with the bridge 
trusses, so that a derailed car far enough off the track to strike the truss would 
have its trucks stripped from under it before reaching the structure. These 
bumpers may be formed of three piles in a cluster or a timber 16X16 ins., 10 
or 12 ft. long, with 4 ft. above ground. 

Inside guard rails are very commonly used, either with or without the out- 
side guard timbers, but it is better to use both. On some roads, the inside 
guard rails are considered unnecessary, but they are really of greater importance 
than the outside guard timbers, and it is unwise to rely upon the latter alone. 
In a derailed car, the shock of a leading wheel striking the outside guard tends 
to slew the truck to a greater angle and so make it even more liable to burst or 
climb the guard. The inside guard, however, will engage the back of the rear 
wheel, and so prevent the truck from slewing to a dangerous angle. It has been 
objected that inside guard rails are likely to catch a wheel far out of line and 
guide it to the wrong side. Experience shows, however, that wheels rarely 
swerve as far as the center line of the track, and would in any case be guided 
back by flaring guard timbers, which should extend beyond the inside guard 
rails. The inside guards are new or old rails, well spliced and spiked; they are 
spaced 6 to 12 ins. clear from the gage side of the track rails, the spacing being 
sufficient to admit derailed wheels. The Michigan Central Ry. uses three lines 
of rails, those at each side having the centers 13^ ins. from the gage side of the 
track rails. Heavy angle irons, with the horizontal flange set either towards 
or away from the track rails, are sometimes used instead of rails. In some 
cases, also, there are inside guard timbers, with an angle iron on the top corner, 
or laid on the ties and bolted through the guard timber so as to form a path 
for derailed wheels. The guard rails should be extended about 30 to 60 ft. 
on the approach, being gradually brought together and bolted to an old frog 
point or special point, beveled so as not to catch loose chains or brakebeams. 
In some cases, the ends are bent down vertically to lie between the ties. There 
should be rail braces inside the curved rails. At the leaving end of the bridge 
on double track, the rails need extend but a few feet beyond the structure. 

Rerailing devices which will replace derailed wheels upon the rails are not so 
generally used as they should be, in view of their importance as safety devices 
and of the experience as to their efficiency in preventing serious accidents. 
Their omission is a serious defect in bridge floor design. They consist of inclined 
planes fitted between the track rails and the guard rails and timbers, so that 
derailed wheels are carried up the incline, and guided laterally until their flanges 
drop into position on the inside of the rail head. One form is shown in Fig. 
91. The rerailing frog was invented by the late Charles Latimer, but the patents 
expired long ago. In the modified Childs-Latimer rerailing guard, as standard 



BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 



171 



on the Ontario & "Western Ry., there are four inclined planes of cast iron, two 
on each side of the rail. These are firmly bolted together, although the strain 
upon them is not severe, the wheels being already under control by the guard 
rails. The outside planes are flush with the top of the rail for the rear half of 
their length. The outside wheels ride up their flanges, and being thus of larger 
diameter they tend to roll inward to the track rail. The inside incline begins 
just before the crotch of the rail becomes too narrow to admit a wheel; it has 
a steep plane to raise the wheel at once to a position where the tread can slide 
over on the track rail. This casting, therefore, is kept about 1| ins. below the top 
of the rail. The rerailers are usually placed over the abutment, and the inside, 
guard rails are brought to a point at about 20 ft. beyond the bridge. The out- 
side timbers extend beyond the bridge for 6 ft. and then flare out for 14 ft. to 
an end spacing of 14 ft. 

It has sometimes been considered best to place the rerailers about 50 ft. to 
100 ft. from the bridge, so that cars too far out of line to be rerailed will be 
wrecked on the approach instead of on the structure, but such cars would be 




Section C-D. 



K-2* 





Section F -F 



Section E.-E 



Section 6r6. 



Fig. 91. — Rerailing Device for Bridges. 



guided by flaring outside guards extending beyond the inside guards, as already 
described. The Southern Pacific Ry., however, places the rerailers 30 to 50 ft. 
from the bridge, the guard timbers not extending on the approach. The out- 
side casting or rerailer is about 8 ft. long, inclined for about 30 ins. and having 
riveted to the top a steel plate level with the rail head. The inside casting 
begins 2 ft. beyond, and is inclined for about 24 ins. The rails and castings 
rest on tie-plates and beneath them, at the high end of the incline, is an inverted 
transverse rail serving as a tie bar. The inside guard rails are old 62-lb. rails 
carried in combined chairs and spacing blocks to bring them level with the 
track rails. They give a 3-in. flangeway, and are brought to a point in about 
25 ft. beyond the rerailer. Where no rerailers are used, the guard rails are 8 
ins. from the track rails, and extend about 50 ft. upon the approach. The 
outside guard timbers are 7 ft. 5^ ins. apart in the clear. 

Inside guard rails should be used on ballasted floor trestles and on masonry 
viaducts or bridges, especially as the latter usually have the track level with 
or even above the coping. All small trestles for culverts, waterways, etc., are 
a source of danger, and should have inside guard rails at least. Small structures 
of this kind, however, too often have short ties, with mere sticks of guard rails 
on the ends, while the ballast slope is continued right up to the floor, so that 



172 TRACK. 

a derailed wheel would strike the end of the structure instead of running across 
it. Trestles with long ties may have jack stringers under the outer guard rails 
to prevent the ties from being tilted up by derailed trucks. Trestles and bridges 
for electric railways are very often deficient in guards, although with light cars 
run at high speed there is often great danger of derailment. In fact serious 
accidents have happened in this way. 

Examples of Bridge Floors. — The standard floor of the New York, New Haven 
& Hartford Ry., Fig. 92, has ties 11 ft. long for single track and 24 ft. for double 
track, all 8X8 ins., 8 ins. apart (which is too far). The outside guard timbers 
are 6X8 ins., laid flat, boxed out f-in. for the ties, and faced on the upper corner 
with an angle iron £X2|X3 ins., secured by countersunk ^-in. screws, 3 ins. 
long, 24 ins. apart on the top and side, staggered. The timbers are 10£ ins. 
from the outside of the track rails, and do not extend beyond the bridge. For- 
merly they were flared out till they were 10 ft. apart at 83 ft. from the edge of 
the bridge, the end ties being 12 ft. long. They ended 8 ft. beyond the point 
of the inside guard rails, being 9 ft. apart in the clear opposite the point. The 
inside guard rails are 8 ins. clear from the track rails to a point 15 ft. beyond 
the abutment, whence they are inclined on a flat curve for 60 ft. until they meet 
at a point. The Wabash Ry. uses ties 8X8 ins., 10 ft. long for deck plate gir- 
ders and stringers 6 ft. 6 ins. c. to c; ties 8X10 ins., 12 ft. long, and 8X12 



*f t "Lj .«. . ...i_ tj'Q*. ...-_.., 

\ it 3i-j* & * MB t t » * Vtim 




8'x8* 



Fig. 92. — Bridge Floor and Guard Rails; New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. 

ins., 14 ft. long, for deck trusses or girders 8 ft. and 10 ft. apart respectively. 
The ties are spaced 14 ins. c. to c. and boxed out 1 in. (maximum 2 ins.) over 
girder or stringer flanges. The outside guard timbers are of long-leaf yellow 
pine 6X8 ins., boxed out to 5 ins. over the ties; they are in 18-ft. lengths with 
splices over ties. The minimum spacing from gage side of rail is 14 ins., varying 
on account of the spacing of girders. At every fourth tie, each guard rail has 
a f-in. bolt, with hook If ins. long, engaging with outside flange for girders 
spaced 6 ft. 6 ins., or inside flange for 8 ft. or 10 ft. spacing. The square nut 
and Eureka nut lock are on the guard timber. The inside guard rails are 60-lb. 
rails, 8 ins. from the track rail; they extend 60 ft. beyond the bridge, parallel 
with the track rails for 30 ft., then brought together to an end casting. The 
track and guard rails are spiked to every tie. The Michigan Central Ry. has 
oak ties 8X10 ins., 14 ft. long, 13 ins. c. to c. The outside guard timbers, 
6X8 ins., are not boxed for the ties; they are 12 ft. apart, with a bolt at every 
fourth tie, and a 1 X 10-in. drift bolt into the other ties. Every fourth tie 
also has f-in. hook bolts holding the outer flange of girder or stringers. Three 
parallel lines of inside guard rails are used; one in the center line of the track 
and the others with their center lines 13£ ins. from the gage side of the track 
rails. The ends are bent down to lie between the ties, and pass through slots 
in flat plates secured to two ties by screws. 

The Philadelphia & Reading Ry. uses ties 8X10 ins., 12 ft. long, boxed out 
over the chords (6? ft. c. to c.) and held laterally by two plates § X3X4 ins. 
under each fourth tie. The plates rest against the outer edges of the chords 



BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 



173 



and each is held by two lag screws |X7 ins. The ties are spaced 14 ins. c. to 
c. On double track, blocks 2x8x24 ins. bridge across the 12-in. space at the 
ends of every third tie; these carry two planks 2x10 ins. On single track, 
one plank is laid between the rails. The track rails are laid on tie-plates, with 
four spikes to each rail. The inside guard rails are laid on the ties and give 8 
ins. clearance. The outside guard timbers are 6X8 ins., laid flat, with a |X10- 
in. lag screw at every fourth tie, and ^XlO-in. boat spikes at intermediate ties. 
These timbers are 13 ins. clear from the outside of track rail. On curves, oak 
blocks carry the track rail, guard rail and guard timber on the high side; on 
the low side, the outside guard timber is set 5 ft. from center of track. 

The Boone viaduct of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. (half a mile in length) 
has a floor 25 ft. wide between the parapet posts, with two tracks 13 ft. c. to c. 
and four lines of deck girders 6 ft. 6 ins. c. to c. Outside of the girders are 
triangular web-brackets (the full depth of the girders) carrying the parapet 
posts. These brackets are connected across the top by transverse angles 6X4 
ins., 30 ft. long. The rails for each track are laid on separate ties; these are 
of yellow pine, 8X8 ins., 12 ft. long, 12 ins. c. to c. Yellow-pine guard timbers 
are laid along the inner ends. Inside of each rail is an angle guard rail 6X4£ 
ins., with the larger leg horizontal and facing the rail. This is backed by a 
plank 4X10 ins., while a similar plank is placed close to the outside of the rail. 
An unusually heavy parapet or hand rail is used, with posts of 10-in. channels 
set edgewise to the track; these are riveted to the web brackets and have out- 
side braces to the ends of the transverse angles. The posts are capped with a 
heavy bulb angle, the height from rail to top of angle being 4 ft. 5 ins. At 
four points on each side there are refuges for hand-cars, the width over the two 
refuges being 35 ft. On the Thebes cantilever bridge the ties are 10X10 ins., 
5 ins. apart, laid directly upon the stringers and carrying 8X8-in. guard timbers 
boxed out for the ties and bolted to alternate ties. The inside guard rails are 
steel angles, with the vertical leg facing the rail and 8 ins. from it. Table No. 
14 gives particulars of bridge floor construction. 



TABLE NO. 14.— BRIDGE FLOORS 
Ties 



Railway. 
A., T. & S. F. . 

Bait. & Ohio . . 



Wood. 
Long-leaf yellow pine; oak 



C, B. &Q... .. 

Del. & Hudson . 

Mich. Central * 

Phila. & Read.. 
So. Pacific 



White pine; fir 
Yellow pine. . . 



White oak; Douglas fir. 

Long-leaf yellow pine . . 
Creosoted pine 



s. 






. 


Guard-rail spacing 


Size. 


Spacing. 


Inside. 


Outside.. 


ins. ins. 


ft. 




ins. 


ins. 


ins. 


8X 8 


X12 




6 


8 


m 


f 8X 81 












1 8X16J 


X 9 




6 


10 


15 












[ 8X 8] 












to 


X10 


12 


c. to c. 


9* 


22* 


[ 8X12J 












f 9X 9] 












to 


X 9 




6 


8 


8+ rail 


I 9X11 J 












f 6X10 












to 


X14 




3 


12* 


43f 


{ 8X10J 












8X10 


X12 


14 1 


3. to c. 


8 


13 + rail 



8X10 X10 8 (12 c. toe.) 



16* 



* Ties 6X10 ins. on timber structures; 8X10 ins. on steel structures. 



Elevated Railways. 

The floor and track construction of elevated railways resembles that of bridges, 
except that there are generally inside and outside guard timbers secured to the 
ties by wooden pins or iron screw bolts, the nuts of the latter being usually in 



174 



TRACK. 



cup-shaped washers let into the tops of the timber. These timbers are some- 
times faced with angle iron on the top inner corners, and may be reinforced by- 
additional outside timbers on curves, while the inside timbers are replaced by 
iron guard rails on sharp curves. The original track of the South Side Elevated 
Ry., Chicago, is shown in Fig. 93, but some changes have been made, as noted 
below. The wide spacing of the ties is an objectionable feature. The purpose 
is to avoid obstructing the light to the streets, but with such very wide spacing 
heavy planks might be laid in the spaces between the rails and guard timbers 
to carry derailed wheels. The 80-lb. rails (of Am. Soc. C. E. section) are secured 
by screw spikes |X5| ins. to long-leaf yellow-pine ties 6X8 ins., 8 ft. long, 18 



jjagiyitm Sfati'on Platform 



K- 



4 6 



1 

"is 

!•§" , Lk- //'••■*« 



\"8o/f3 



20'0' 




Half Plan. 
Fig. 93. — Track and Floor System; South Side Elevated Ry. (Chicago). 

ins. c. to c; every fourth tie is 9 ft. long to carry the insulated support of the 
third rail. Steel tie-plates are laid on every tie. Every alternate tie is fastened to 
the top chords of the girders by f-in. hook bolts, and the inside guard timbers 
are bolted to the same ties. The inner guard timbers are 6X6 ins., 4 ins. from 
the rail; the outer guard timbers are 6X8 ins., on edge, bolted to the ties to 
which the inner guards are not fastened. On curves, an 80-lb. inside guard 
rail is bolted to every tie, and wedge-shaped ties are used to give the super- 
elevation. The line is operated by electricity, and the third rail for each track 
(not shown) is carried on insulators outside the outer guard timbers; the heads 
of these rails are 11 \ ins. above the ties, with the center line 20 \ ins. from the 
gage side of the track rail. Between the tracks are ties 8 ft. apart to carry the 
conduit or trunk for the electric cables; this is 38 ins. wide and forms a walk. 
Where these are not used, three or four lines of plank 2X6 ins. may be laid 
between or outside of the tracks for the convenience of trackmen and employees ; 



BRIDGE AND TRESTLE FLOORS. 175 

the outside walks are usually protected by gas-pipe hand rails. The Boston 
elevated railway uses hard-pine ties 7X8 ins., laid flat, spaced 8 ins. apart; they 
are boxed out for the girders and each is secured to the latter by two hook 
bolts. The ties are 8 ft. 3 ins. long, every fourth tie being 1 ft. longer to carry 
the insulated supports for the third rail. The 85-lb. rails are laid on tie-plates 
and spiked to the ties; they have the Continuous joint, with four bolts. Creep- 
ing is prevented by anchor plates made to fit the rail and top of tie-plate; these 
are bolted to the rails and spiked to the ties. The two inside guard timbers are 
6X6 ins., and the outside timbers 6X9 ins. (on edge); they are spaced 8 ins. 
and 10J ins. from the gage side of the track rails.- On curves, an inside 100-lb. 
guard rail is secured to the track rail by |-in. bolts 2\ to 5 ft. apart. Malleable 
iron spacing blocks are fitted between the rails, and rail braces are placed on 
the outside of the guard rail. There are curves of 82 ft. to 150 ft. radius, and 
the width of guard-rail flangeway varies as follows: 

Radius. Flangeway. Radius. Flangeway. Radius. Flangeway. 

ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. 

To 90 2| to 2V 150 2£ 500 II 

125 2i 250 2 Over 500 if 

In some cases ties have been dispensed with, each line of rails resting on 
wooden blocks or saddles riveted between a pair of channels placed close together 
and acting as guard rails. This system was originally used on the Hoboken 
cable line, but when electric traction was introduced cross-ties were substituted, 
resting on the channel stringers. This was partly on account of the attach- 
ments allowing too much lateral play of the rails to suit the narrow-tired wheels, 
and partly because the gear cases came too near the stringers. The Kansas 
City line has 48-ft. latticed trusses with top chords of two 10-in. channels, 8 
ins. apart. The rails-were originally laid on saddle plates riveted between the 
channels, but are now spiked to ties laid across the chords in the usual way. 
It has been proposed to lay longitudinal timbers in a similar way to the above, 
giving greater security than the blocks, and less obstruction to light than the 
ties. The latter point is important for lines built on city streets. Felt packing 
under the timbers might help to reduce the noise. On a part of the Chicago 
elevated loop, blocks were placed between the ties at each side of each rail, 
and planks put under them to form pockets. Gravel was then filled in half-way 
up the web of the rail, between the guard timbers. This had little effect in 
reducing noise. The gravel pulverized, and rain washed the mud through the 
joints so that it dropped into the streets. Much of the noise comes from the 
vibration of the metallic structure, but also from the rattling of wheels, couplers, 
gears, chains and other loose parts on the cars. 

Solid floor systems have been used in some cases. The Market St. line at 
Philadelphia has a floor of shallow rectangular longitudinal troughs, 5X15 ins., 
filled and covered with concrete. The surface slopes 3% to a central drain, but 
curbs at the outer side and edge of drain retain the stone ballast. The concrete 
has a minimum thickness of 4 ins. at edge of drain; it is reinforced by longi- 
tudinal and transverse bars to prevent cracking, and has a granolithic finish. 
On the elevated railway at Berlin (Germany) a buckle-plate floor is used where 
noise would be specially objectionable. This is carried by the top flanges of 
the floor beams, and is covered with gravel ballast; the rails are \\ ins. high, on 
ties 30 ins. c. to c. Where the question of noise is less important, 7-in. rails 
are carried by ties laid on the flanges of the floor beams (5 ft. apart). Between 



176 TRACK. 

the lower flanges of these beams are buckle plates carrying a light concrete 
which is filled in to the tops of the beams and covered with a waterproof coat- 
ing. Holes in the plates provide for drainage, the water being carried off by- 
gutters. The elevated portion of the Metropolitan Ry. of Paris (France) has 
truss spans of 72 ft. (50 ft. at stations), with transverse floor beams carrying 
brick jack arches. Ballast is filled in above this. 



CHAPTER 11.— TRACK SIGNS. . 

Various marking and warning signs are required along a line of railway, to 
indicate distances, boundaries, special points, danger points, etc.; these are for 
the guidance of trackmen, enginemen, property agents, and others. In the case 
of new railways and the reorganization or general improvement of existing 
lines, it is often necessary to establish a system of signs, or to reduce a variety 
of styles to some standard of uniformity. The signs should be strong and 
durable, simple in design, economical in construction, free from ornamental 
molding or painting, of as few different styles as practicable, and designed espe- 
cially with a view to being permanent, conspicuous and easily recognized. The 
signs which are for the guidance of enginemen should be set at a uniform distance 
from the rail, the length of post therefore varying on cuts and banks, but this 
cannot be universally observed. Mile posts, for instance, are often placed on 
the right of way, beyond the toe of the bank, instead of on the slope. These 
signs should be on the engineman's side (right-hand side) of the track, except 
where sidetracks or buildings interfere. They should never be less than 6 ft. 
clear from the nearest rail, and 8 ft. is a better distance, some roads specifying 
6 ft. 6 ins. on embankments and 8 ft. in cuts. Signs should never be set in the 
ditches. 

The signs may be either simple posts, or posts carrying boards of various sizes. 
Posts of different sizes and shapes are used for a variety of purposes, and have 
the advantages of simplicity and low cost. They do not allow of as much 
lettering as is sometimes required, and are not conspicuous enough for some of 
the more important signs. Larger signs may be of wood, cast iron or sheet 
iron, the latter being sometimes enameled instead of painted. Wooden board 
signs are usually of 1-in. plank, and if of large size they should have battens 
about 1X3 ins. screwed to the back. Iron straps or wooden strips may be 
nailed to the ends of the board, but the use of molding strips as a frame is not 
to be recommended. The boards are generally nailed, screwed or bolted to the 
post, and are sometimes let into it, but this latter practice involves extra work. 
For a long board, a strap or brace of wrought iron, \ X 1 in., may be used, pass- 
ing over the back of the post and having its ends secured to the ends of the 
board by |-in. carriage bolts. Cast-iron plates, with raised letters or figures, 
are quite frequently used, being screwed to the posts. Small ones may be 
f-in. thick, with rim and letters J-in. or f-in. thick, while large ones may be 
f-in. and 1-in. thick. The latter may have a rim l|-in. thick and f-in. wide. 
Cast-iron posts with flat disk tops are now rarely used; they are very liable 
to be broken and cannot be repaired. A simple, cheap and effective sign has 
targets of ^-in. steel or heavy sheet iron fastened to posts of angle or tee iron 
or old rails or boiler tubes. Scrap material of little value can often be utilized 



TRACK SIGNS. 177 

to advantage in this way. Old rails are sometimes used for posts, depending 
upon their value as scrap. Stone, in the form of posts or slabs, is sometimes 
used for mile posts, but rarely for any other signs. Concrete is being used for 
mile posts and whistle posts. 

Wooden posts are usually of oak, cedar or chestnut. They should be set not 
less than 3 ft. deep in the ground, and deeper if the sign is high or the board 
large. The lower end should be coated with pitch or creosote to about 12 ins. 
above the ground line. The top should be cut pointed, slanting or rounded, so 
as to shed water, and sometimes a piece of thin sheet iron is nailed upon the 
rounded top, but this is rarely necessary. The edges of square posts may be 
chamfered, but no other decoration or trimming should be attempted. Broken 
stone or small field stone piled around the base of the post looks neat, protects 
the post from burning grass, and tends to keep weeds from growing. 

There should be as little lettering as possible, and the letters or figures should 
be large, clear and plain, without attempt at ornamentation. In some cases 
the figures or letters are of malleable iron, about J-in. thick, so that an ordinary 
track laborer can renew and repaint them. Where a word is placed vertically 
(and this is a poor practice as a rule), it usually reads downwards, whether the 
letters are upright or sidewise. Caution boards with long-worded warnings in 
small letters are of little practicable use. They may serve to meet legal require- 
ments in some cases, but nobody will stop to read them. 

As to color, plain black letters and figures on a white ground are the most 
common and the most conspicuous, but sometimes the lettering is white on a 
black or blue ground. Two colors are usually sufficient for ordinary signs, but 
in some cases a third color is desirable for the back of signs, to render them 
inconspicuous. The third color may for the same reason be used for boundary 
and other signs which are not for the information of enginemen. Red and 
green, with white lettering, should be used for ''stop" and "slow" signs respect- 
ively, although yellow is now sometimes used for the latter. White is in general 
the most striking color and should be liberally used. It is also the best color 
for signal posts, as the brown and dull ochre colors sometimes used are less dis- 
tinct and tend to "kill" the brightness of the color of the signal blades. On 
several roads, a brown mineral paint is used for posts, and where letters or 
figures are to be marked, there is a white patch or panel with black border and 
lettering. On some roads the signs are painted twice a year (in April and 
October) by a painting gang, which may be accommodated in a boarding car 
or train. 

The signs used vary on different roads, but some of the principal ones are 
noted below. Besides these, there are such signs as "Shut this Gate," for 
farm crossing gates; " Keep off the Track," at bridges and streets where people 
are likely to trespass; "Derail," placed at the headblocks of sidings so equipped 
(hut not interlocked with signals). Also miscellaneous temporary or movable 
signs such as "Clean Ashpans Here," "Dump Ashes Here," etc. 

Block Section Limit Signs. — The Cincinnati Southern Ry. places a cast-iron 
sign 150 ft. in advance of each automatic block signal, to mark the overlap. 
It is set 9 ft. from the rail. It is a triangle, with sides 8 ins. wide; the height 
is 3 ft., with the top 10 ft. above the rail. The sides are f-in. thick, with i-in. 
letters and f-in. edges. It is painted black, with white letters. 

Boundary Signs. — The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. marks its crossings 
of State lines by a rather elabo ate sign, Fig. 100. It is of oak, set 13 ft. from 



178 



TRACK. 



the rail and facing the track. County and township lines and city limits may 
be marked by round posts with faces flattened for the lettering, as in Fig. 101, 
which is that of the Pennsylvania Lines. Board signs are less frequently used. 
The Cincinnati Southern Ry. uses a cast-iron circle 3 ft. diameter with a hori- 
zontal diametrical cross arm for the name of the town or county. A socket at 
the lower edge of the circle fits upon the post, which is 9 ft. from the rail. For 
State boundaries it uses a 6 X 8-in. post, having the names of the States on the 
sides, and "State Line" on a horizontal arm 8X2 ins., 5 ft. 2 ins. long, passed 
through the post. (See also Property Posts.) 



6rptmd\ 




Fig, 100. 



V-z'o-- 
F1g.lE2. 



Track Signs. 



Bridge Signs. — Bridges, trestles and large openings are usually numbered, 
for convenience of reference in regard to repair, etc. The numbering should 
include every opening and waterway, however small; where additional openings 
are afterwards provided, fractional numbers may be used. The structures or 
openings may be numbered consecutively from divisional points or by miles 
and letters, as 250A, 250B, etc.; indicating the first and second bridges beyond 
mile post 250. The numbers may be on iron plates or wooden boards on the 
portals of through bridges, or attached to posts, f-in. rods or old rails 4 ft. 6 
ins. long, on the abutments of deck bridges or trestles. The New York Central 



TRACK SIGNS. 179 

Ry. uses an old rail with a 24-in. octagonal target of ^-in. steel. In some cases 
a wooden block of triangular section is spiked on top of the end of a tie, having 
the number marked on the inclined face towards the abutment. The Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. paints the number on the end post, using a white panel 
with letters 5 ins. high, 2 ins. wide, f-in. lines. 

Clearance Signs. — These are to indicate the nearest point at which the end 
of a car on the turnout may stand without fouling cars on the main track. This 
point is where the tracks are 1\ or 8 ft. apart in the clear for tracks 12^ or 13 
ft. c. to c. They may be round or square oak stakes, about 4X4 ins., 2\ 
to 4 ft. long, with the top a few inches above rail level. The post of the Balti- 
more & Ohio Ry. is shown in Fig. 102. They are usually placed between the 
tracks, and as they are liable to be stumbled over by switchmen and yardmen 
they should be made clearly distinguishable, being painted white, with a flat 
or rounded black top. A distinctive mark on the end of the tie would be as 
useful and avoid danger. The Canadian Pacific Ry. uses a more conspicuous 
sign, consisting of a tall post with a black cross arm having two white disks, 
and places this sign on the turnout side of the track. The Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry. uses a 3-ft. piece of old telegraph pole, painted white, and with 
its rounded top 4 ins. above the rail. It is set where the distance between gage 
lines of the rails is 8 ft. at all main-track switches, or 6 ft. 10 ins. at switches in 
yards and from house tracks to sidetracks. The New York Central Ry. uses 
an old rail 7 ft. long, Z\ ft. above ground, with a 10-in. iron disk lettered "C." 
This is on the outside of the sidetrack, 8 ft. from center line, at the point where 
tracks spaced 13 ft. c. to c. are 12 ft. c. to c. In yards, the ties at the points 
where tracks approach 12 ft. c. to c. are painted white and have the edges (out- 
side the rails) beveled. 

Crossing Signs (Highway). — These signs are erected to warn people to look 
out for trains. In some States the style and lettering are specified by law. 
The sign should be 10 to 20 ft. from center of track, and so placed as to be 
conspicuously visible from the road, but at the same time clear of such bulky 
traffic as wagon loads of hay, etc. A gong or lamp or other automatic signal 
may be attached to the post. (See Highway Crossings.) Three common 
styles are as follows: (1) A horizontal board; (2) Two boards (12 to 20 ins. 
wide) crossed at 45° to form an X; (3) Four boards framed together in 
diamond form. The crossing signs of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. and the Lake 
Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. are shown in Figs. 103 and 104, the latter hav- 
ing a post built up of planks. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. 
uses a chestnut post 8X8 ins., 16 ft. long, 4 ft. in the ground. The cross arms 
are of white pine, 1^X12 ins., 6 ft. 8 ins. long, painted at the ends and spread 
21 ins. apart. The post is painted black to a height of 9 ft., and above is white 
with "Danger" in 5-in. black letters. The letters on the arms are 9 ins. high. 

Crossing Signs (Railway). — These are to warn enginemen approaching grade 
crossings. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses an oak or cedar post 
carrying two boards crossed at 45°; this faces the train, and is lettered "Rail- 
way Crossing." On the post is lettered the distance to the crossing, 2,600 ft. 
The post is 8X8 ins., 17 ft. long, 6 ft. in the ground, with pine boards 1|X12 
ins., 6 ft. long. It is painted brown, except a white strip for the lettering. The 
arms are white. The post is set 14 ft. from the rail, on the right-hand side of 
the track. In some cases an additional sign is used, reading: "Stop, Railway 
Crossing, 200 Ft." At a crossing protected by interlocking plant this "stop" 



ISO TRACK. 

sign is not used, but the regular sign may be lettered "Look out for Signals," 
as in that of the Southern Pacific Ry., Fig. 105. (See Drawbridge Signs.) 

Curve Signs. — On lines (or division,?) with numerous curves, it is a good plan 
to number and mark the curves for convenience in directing the attention of 
trackmen or enginemen to any particular point. The degree of curve may be 
marked on the sign for the guidance of trackmen in giving the proper super- 
elevation and in bending rails for renewals, as well as for the guidance of engine- 
men in handling the brakes. The sign may be a small white board on a stake, 
close to the ground, or a board 12X18 ins., attached to a telegraph pole at each 
end of the curve. The New York Central Ry. uses two boards forming a V, 
attached to a telegraph pole; they are lettered to indicate the mile, the number 
of curve in that mile, and the degree of curve, thus: "237-A-3 47'." The 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses an old boiler tube 4 ft. long, 2\ ft. in 
the ground. The upper end is flattened for about 12 ins., and the figures (2° 
30') stamped and painted black. The letters are vertical. It is set on the 
right-hand side (in the direction in which the miles are numbered), being placed 
opposite the point of curve and 2 ft. from the rail, with the lettered side facing 
the trains. A curve post is shown in Fig. 106. The curve elevation post of 
the Pennsylvania Lines, Fig. 107, is set 6 ft. from the rail; it is white with black 
letters. Roads using transition curves set posts at the point of main curve 
and point of spiral curve. These resemble clearance posts, and the second has 
the superelevation marked upon it. The Cincinnati Southern Ry. follows this 
practice: the first is lettered "E. 0," and the second with the superelevation 
(to the nearest half -inch). The posts are 2X4| ins., 3^ ft. long, 1| ft. in the 
ground, painted black, and set with the lettered side facing the tangent. (See 
also Speed Limit Signs.) 

Drawbridge Signs. — The Southern Pacific Ry. uses three oval signs, 27X42 
ins., in advance of the bridge. All are made of 3-in. plank on posts 6X6 ins., 
16 ft. long, set 4 ft. in the ground. The signs are lettered "Drawbridge" at 
top and bottom, with "1 Mile," "1,000 ft." and "Stop," respectively, in large 
letters in the middle. A similar arrangement is used for railway crossings. 

Flanger Signs. — These are to indicate where the blades of snow plows and 
flangers are to be raised to clear switches, etc. One style is a l|-in. black board, 
12X24 ins., let flush into a white post, 6X6 ins., with the top 8 ft. from the rail. 
The board is not lettered. This sign is for temporary use only, and is placed 8 
ft. from the track, on the right-hand side, and 50 ft. in advance of the obstruc- 
tion. Other roads use black with white disks, or yellow with black disks. The 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses a post 4X3 ins., 8 ft. long, having 
at the top a board 8X25^ ins. inclined upwards 1 on 2 on the side away from 
the track. The post is set 10 ft. from the nearest rail, and is painted black for 
3£ ft. The board is black with a 1-in. white border (and back). At the location 
for the sign, there is set in the ground a 30-in. piece of old rail having bolted 
to the top a malleable-iron socket just above the surface of the ground. Before 
winter sets in, the signs are erected, the post being secured to the socket by one 
bolt. As a rule the flanger signs are taken down and stored in the section tool 
houses for the summer. In November, the section foremen are notified to have 
them painted and erected. 

Junction Signs. — The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. puts up signs 2,600 
ft. from junctions, these being identical in style with its railway crossing signs 
above described, but lettered " Railway Junction." 



TRACK SIGNS. 181 

Mile Posts. — These are commonly timber posts, about 10X10 ins., 8 ft. long, 
set 3 ft. 6 ins. in the ground and 12 ft. from center of track. The post in Fig. 
108 is of this style, but the cast-iron cap is an unnecessary expense. The post 
is set either with one side or one edge towards the track, and may have the 
distance from (and the name or initial of) one or both of the terminal points 
painted on opposite sides. The Northern Pacific Ry. sign, Fig. 109, is a post 
of barked cedar, set on the north side of the track, 8 ft. from the rail. Two 
boards, 2X12X16 ins., are let into the post at an angle of 60°, and have the 
names of the terminals of the division marked upon them, with the distances 
therefrom. The post and board are painted white, with black letters 3| ins. 
high and f-in. thick, and figures |X5 ins., with a margin of at least 1 in. The 
Baltimore & Ohio Ry. uses a 7-ft. post of 2^-in. gas-pipe, with a cast-iron shoe; 
this is set 3 ft. in a 3^-in. hole, 3^ ft. deep, which is then filled with concrete. 
On the post is a cast-iron sign 18X8 ins. with semicircular ends; it is f-in. thick, 
with rim and 5-in. figures on each side raised ^-in. A lug at the bottom fits 
into the pipe and is secured by a rivet. The post is black, with white sign and 
black letters. Several roads use a sign on the nearest telegraph pole. On the 
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. the sign has two 1-in. panels 9X15 
ins., set at 90° (45° with the track); on the top is a molding strip 2\ ins. wide 
to shed the water, and in the angle is a filler strip. Each panel is fastened to 
the post by two 6-in. lag screws. The sign is 10 ft. above the ground, and 
painted white. The post is painted white for 7 ft., beginning at 7 ft. above 
the ground. The half-mile pole is indicated by a 2-ft. white band 6J ft. from 
the ground. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses a plate of f-in. boiler 
iron bent to a V shape to form two panels 7^X20 ins. This is secured to the 
telegraph pole nearest to the exact distance by means of two lag screws |X4 
ins. It is 12 ft. from the ground on 25-ft. poles (15 ft. on 30-ft. poles). The 
poles are painted white from 3 ft. above the ground to the sign, which is white 
with black letters. 

Stone mile posts are used by several railways. The Boston & Albany Ry. 
has square granite posts, Fig. 110, with two sides dressed for 3 ft. from the top, 
and pene-hammered. The Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. uses 10-ft. 
posts, Fig. 111. The Maine Central Ry. uses a rough dressed stone slab, 12 
ft. long, 20 ins. wide and 8 ins. thick, set 4 ft. in the ground. It has 30 ins. 
at the top dressed smooth, and painted with three coats of white lead, with 
black lettering. The post is lettered on both sides, thus: "249 Miles to Vance- 
boro" on one side, and "2 Miles to Portland" on the other. The New York 
Central Ry. stone post is 8X16 ins., 9 ft. long, set 4 ft. in the ground on a 12-in. 
concrete block 30 X 30 ins. Concrete mile posts used on the Chicago & Eastern 
Illinois Ry. are 8X8 ins., 8 ft. long, 4 \ ft. above ground. The figures and the 
initial of the terminal are recessed ^-in. in a black panel 14 ins. high, and there 
is a f-in. horizontal V groove at top and bottom of this panel. The painting 
of the recessed letters is easily done by unskilled labor. The concrete is a 
1:1:2 mixture, and the panel is colored with a facing mixture of \ lb. lamp- 
black to 1 qt. of cement in water. The weight is about 500 lbs., and the cost 
82 cts. 

Premium Signs. — On roads having annual awards for condition of track, a 
sign is sometimes placed on the best section. A black board with "Premium 
Section" in gilt or yellow letters is a conspicuous sign for this purpose and may 
be erected on the section house or on posts at the section house or at a station 



182 



TRACK. 



on the section. There is no doubt that the men feel proud of such a trophy, and 
will work hard to prevent another section gang from winning it away from them. 
Property Post. — The marking of property lines or right-of-way boundaries 
should be done very carefully, and permanent monuments should be estab- 
lished. A piece of rail may be used with the web split for about 6 ins., and 
the head and base bent out to form an inverted T, as shown in Fig. 112. The 
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. marks important land corners, etc., with 



ONE MILE TO 

RAIL ROAD CROSSING 

LOOK OUT FOR SIGNALS. 



K 




Track Signs. 



a cast-iron post, Fig. 113, having a top cap 2 ins. square. In the center of 
the cap is a |-in. hole |-in. deep. A cast-iron post is also used by the Balti- 
more & Ohio Ry. to mark property corners; it is 3 ft. long, 3 ins. square for 
3 ins., with "B. & O. R. R." cast on one side and the date on the other. The 
body is rectangular, with a 1-in. rib on each corner and tapering from a 4^-in. 
circular portion above to a 5|-in. diameter on a flat base 9 ins. diameter. For 
property line posts, the road uses a wooden post b\ ft. long, set 3 ft. in the 



TRACK SIGNS. 183 

ground and anchored by a rod or old bolt run through it at 6 ins. from the 
bottom. The post is of red elm, locust, mulberry, chestnut or cedar; 6 ins. 
diameter; 2-in. pointed top; barked and tarred below ground; smoothed and 
painted white above ground. On one side is painted "B. & O. R. R."; on the 
other side "Property Line" in 5-in. black letters (sidewise). The post is set 
on the company's side of the line, with one edge on the line; only a sufficient 
number are used to correctly define the line between corners. The Cincinnati 
Southern Ry. uses cedar, chestnut or oak posts, or pieces of old telegraph poles, 
7 ft. long (3 ft. in the ground), placed at every corner and 500 ft. apart in straight 
lines. They are painted white and at the top is stenciled in black: " Ry. Co. 
Right of Way." All corners or angles in the boundaries of station grounds, 
etc., should be marked by posts, and if these cannot be set at the corners they 
should be set in the lines running thereto and have the distance plainly painted 
on the side facing the corner to be marked. These posts may be 8 ft. long, 
rough below ground, and 5 ins. square for the 3 ft. above ground. The Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses for station grounds a 5|-ft. piece of old rail, 3 ft. 
in the ground. 

Rail Signs. — The make of rail and date of laying are sometimes marked on 
stakes set near the track. The Cincinnati Southern Ry. uses a 12-in. cast-iron 
disk set in the slotted top of a 3X4-in. post, 24 ins. long. This is placed 10 
ft. from the center of track. 

Section Posts. — These mark the limits of track sections, and should be smaller 
and less conspicuous than signs to be observed by trainmen. On the Penn- 
sylvania Lines an oval iron sign, 10?X20f ins., is bolted to a post (Fig. 114). 
The plate has two panels sunk i-in., with raised figures flush with the surface 
of the plate. The post, panels, and back of casting are white; figures and face 
of post, black. It is set 7 ft. from the rail. The Southern Pacific Ry. uses 
iron signs (Fig. 115) ; the target of old sheet iroa, 10 ins. deep, is bent to form 
two faces 10X15 ins. at right angles to each other, one of these facing the 
track. At its corner the target is fastened to the top of an old boiler tube by 
three rivets. This is 15 ft. from the rail. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 
Ry. uses only an oak post 2X6 ins., 5 ft. long, set edgewise to the track, 6 ft. 
from the rail, with the section numbers painted on opposite sides. The Balti- 
more & Ohio Ry. uses a sign similar to its mile post, but with a 3-in. pipe 8£ 
ft. long; the cast-iron sign is L-shaped, with two panels 14X12 \ ins. The 
4-in. letters "Sect." are cast on; and the letters, figures and post are painted 
black. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. also uses a sign similar 
to its mile signs, with panels 18Xll| ins. Each panel has 7-in. figures and 
"Sec." in 2-in. letters. The New York Central Ry. uses a target of j^-in. sheet 
steel, 18X30 ins., on old rail 12 ft. long, A\ ft. in the ground. 

Sidetrack Limit Sign. — On long sidetracks, for use by two trains, a square 
post like a mile post, but without figures, is placed to mark the middle of the 
sidetrack, for the guidance of enginemen. 

Slow and Stop Signs. — These are used at the approaches to track crossings, 
drawbridges, etc., and should be painted green (or yellow) and red, respectively, 
and lettered in white. They are usually either flat posts about 3X12 ins., or 
large boards on posts. Sometimes the boards are only 4 ft. above the ground, 
but a greater height is preferable. On the Pennsylvania Lines, these signs are 
made to conform to the standard position of signals. Thus, one has "Slow" 
in white letters on an inclined green arm; and the other (Fig. 116) has "Stop" 



184 



TRACK. 



in white letters on a horizontal red arm. The arms are 8 ins. wide, with 6-in. 
letters, and point to the right of the track. The posts carry green or red switch 
lamps. These signs are used where all trains must be under control, or come 
to a stop, the "Slow" sign being set 2,000 ft. from the danger point, while track 
crossings have the "Stop" signs at a distance of 300 ft. in each direction. The 
Baltimore & Ohio Ry. uses similar signs. The post is an old rail, 13 ft. long, 
set 3 ft. in a 12-in. hole, 3^ ft. deep, fitted with concrete. The arm is of f-in. 
steel, 3 ft. long, 7 ins. deep at the post and 8 ins. at the end. The letters are 



BIG LAKE 

ONE MILE 







nn 



i&W- 



.' 



FJ9.1I9. 



Front Elevation. Side Elevation 

Fig.104. 

Track Signs. 




Fig. 103. 



cut out, and the end of the "slow" sign has a 3^-ft. arm with forked end. At 
the opposite side of the post is a bracket for a standard switch lamp. The 
colors are red and green, or red and yellow on the Baltimore & Ohio South- 
western Ry. The "slow" post is set 200 ft. from the point where all trains 
must be under full control, and the "stop" post at the point where they must 
come to a stop (200 ft. from a crossing). The post is 7 ft. 2 ins. from the gage 
side of the rail. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses a post 6X3 
to 4X4 ins., 8 ft. long, 6 ft. above ground; a 1-in. board sign, 15X31 ins. (with 
semicircular ends), is set 4 ins. below the top. The letters are 8 ins. high. The 
sign is white with black letters; the post is white for "stop" and yellow for 
"slow" signs. The "slow" board of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 
is shown in Fig. 117. This is set 8 ft. from the rail, at least 3,000 ft. distant. 
The "stop" post is like a station sign, and is set 200 ft. from the crossing. A 
"stop" sign is shown in Fig. 118. Where only freight trains are required to 



TRACK SIGNS. 185 

be under control, a post 3 X 10 ins. is used, 6 ft. high above ground, painted green, 
with "F. S." in 8-in. white letters. 

Speed Limit Signs. — Where bridge, culvert or track repairs are in progress 
on the New York Central Ry. a sign " Reduce Speed to — Miles per Hour" 
is set 3,000 ft. in advance of the working limit, which is marked by a regular 
"slow" sign. The former is a board sign 15X36 ins.; green, with white letters 
and border. A pocket receives a sheet-iron tablet lettered with the speed 
allowed, and there is a hook for a green lamp. The top of the sign is 10 ft. 
9 ins. above the rail. At a train length beyond the other end of the working 
limit is a similar but white sign lettered " Resume Speed," in black. Where 
these signs must be set between the tracks, they are 12 X 18 ins., with the bottom 
6 ins. above the rail. When the work will occupy less than four days a green 
flag (or lamp) is put 3,000 ft. in advance of the work and a white flag (or lamp) 
30 ft. beyond. 

For sharp curves, a sign 3X4 ins. on a 15-ft. rail (5 ft. in the ground) is 
set 2,500 ft. from the curve and facing the traffic. This is painted green, let- 
tered in white with the speed, name of curve, speed allowed, and track 
indicated: "Speed Limit; — Curve; — Miles; Track No. — ." The Southern 
Pacific Ry. sign to reduce speed for track work, etc., is a yellow flag, 19 rails 
or 15 telegraph poles in advance. The Cincinnati Southern Ry. uses a board 
sign 36X16 ins., 6 ft. above the rail, on a 6X6-in. post. At the point where 
speed is to be reduced, the board is green with "Speed 15" in white letters. 
At the other end of the section the sign is white, with "Resume Speed" in 
black letters. At bridges, the speed sign is a diamond-shaped cast-iron plate 
30X18 ins., on a post (as above); it is painted green, lettered in white, and on 
the top of the post is a stand for a lamp (green). 

Station Signs. — Assign is usually placed one mile each way from a station, 
and whistle posts are also usually placed half a mile from the station, directing 
the engineman to whistle for the station. The distance should be measured 
from the outer switch of the station yard, or from the yard limits. A common 
style is shown in Fig. 119. This is set 10 ft. from the rail. The board is 10 X 10 
ins., 1 in. thick, with a frame 1X3 ins., and a 1-in. molding strip. The post 
and board are white, with black letters, frame and molding. The letters and 
figures are 5 ins. high, 1J ins. thick, with a 2-in. margin, and 3^ ins. between 
lines. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses an oak post 3X10 ins., 11 
ft. long, set 5 ft. in the ground. This is set on the right-hand side, 6 ft. from 
the rail and 2,600 ft. from the headblock farthest from the station. It is lettered 
vertically. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses a 12-in. board 
(with 6-in. letters) 3 ft. long up to 9 letters, or 4 ft. for a longer name. 

Station Name Boards. — These should be large, boldly lettered and conspicu- 
ously placed. No advertising signs should be placed near them, and no adver- 
tising signs of similar style should be allowed. If placed on the platforms they 
should be set back from the track, and have lamps especially placed to illumi- 
nate them, but many roads place them on the ends of the building. It is a good 
plan to have glass name slips in the windows of the agent's office, waiting room, 
etc. The sign should be not less than 18 ins. wide, the length varying with the 
name. White or yellow block letters on a black or dark-blue ground are very 
prominent, while black on white or buff is very generally used. The station 
sign of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. is attached to each end of the 
building, with the bottom 8 ft. above the platform wherever practicable. Where 



186 



TRACK. 



there is no station building, the sign is placed on a 10-ft. post, midway between 
the headblocks of siding, and 20 ft. from the main track. The board is |X14| 
ins. with a frame 1JX1J ins.; it is white, with black frame and 12-in. black 
letters. Many roads put the distance to terminal points on the signs. The 
Southern Pacific Ry. uses a board 2X14 ins., with 7^-m- letters. On the ends 
are lettered "To New Orleans — Miles" and "To San Francisco — Miles," 
in 2-in. letters. Beneath the name is "Elevation — Ft." in 2-in. red letters. 
The Cincinnati Southern Ry. uses a board 28 ins. wide with beveled edges; 




Plan. 

Fig. 113. — Property Monument; Lake Shore & 
Michigan Southern Ry. 



YARD 
LIMIT 



■Fbintea 
White 




Fig. 



123.— Yard Limit Sign; 
Central Ry. 



Maine 



the shaded block letters are 12 ins. wide, with lf-in. lines and f-in. shade lines. 
At each end is a 13-in. panel for the distances from Cincinnati and Chattanooga 
respectively. The board is black, with gilt letters and edge. For the less 
important stations a 12-in. board with yellow letters is used. It is an excellent 
plan to make the name of the station in large clear letters of white stones, shells, 
flowers, etc., on a turfed strip or a leveled surface of cinders just beyond the 
platforms. , 

Warning Signs. — The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. uses a trespassing sign in the 
form of a cast-iron panel 271X10 \ ins., with socket to fit into a 3-in. pipe post 
8 ft. long (5 ft. above ground). This is lettered "Warning" in 4-in. letters, 



TRACK SIGNS. 187 

and beneath is "Trespassing Upon Railway Property is Forbidden." The Cin- 
cinnati Southern Ry. uses a sign 34|Xl8 ins., lettered "Caution. Do Not Walk 
or Trespass on the Railway." Also a board 25 ins. square: "Not a Public 
Crossing — All Persons are Warned not to Trespass." These are white, with 
black letters; and are set 8 ft. high on posts 15 ft. from the rail. 

Water Tank Signs. — At stations having water tanks for the engines, the 
words "Water Tank" may be painted on the one-mile st'-Mon sign, while for 
tanks between stations a special board sign with "Water Tank, One Mile" (or 
"\ Mile"), may be put up. The Cincinnati Southern Ry. uses a cast-iron 
diamond-shaped sign with sides 3 ft. long and 8 ins. wide, with 6-in. letters. 
This is 9 ft. from and 10 ft. above the rail. The ends of track tanks are usually 
marked by green targets or arms, on posts carrying green switch lamps at night. 
This is to indicate to firemen when to lower and raise the tender scoop, the 
latter signal being placed about 100 ft. from the end of the tank. 

Whistle and Ring Signs. — These are usually set J-mile on each side of the 
road crossings and J-mile or 1 mile from stations, placed on the engineman's side 
of the track. They may be flat posts, 10 X 4 ins., set with the edge to the track 
and having the top cut to a point or rounded. Fig. 121 shows the Baltimore & 
Ohio Ry. post. Square posts, 8X8 ins., are also used. The length is from 
8 to 12 ft., with 5 to 8 ft. above ground, the higher ones being used where deep 
snows occur. The posts are usually white, with a large black R or W (or both) 
GJ ins. high, the sides and back being sometimes painted light blue, so as not 
to be conspicuous. In some cases the face is cobalt blue with white letters, or 
brown with a white panel and black letters. The Delaware, Lackawanna & 
Western Ry. uses a cast-iron sign 14^ ins. diameter, having a lug fitted to the 
slotted top of a 10-ft. post; this is £-in. thick, with 1-in. rim and f-in. letters 
8 ins. high. A sign made from scrap is used by the Southern Pacific Ry., Fig. 
122. It is painted white, with black letters, and is set 1,320 ft. from the cross- 
ing or 2,700 ft. from the outer switch of a station. Where the former comes 
within 500 ft. of the latter, the latter only is used. The X on this sign is to 
indicate that it is a crossing sign, and some roads put "S. W." on the station 
whistle posts. For a post 10 or 12 ins. wide, the letters should be about 9 ins. 
high and 8 ins. wide, with lines lh ins. thick; plain block letters should be used. 
"Whistle and Ring" signs (lettered W. R.) are used at places where it is neces- 
sary to give warning to track and bridge men of the approach of trains; these 
should be 1,000 ft. distant from the point to be warned. Concrete posts are 
used on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. 

Yard Limit Signs. — These denote the limits covered by the yard gangs, and 
to which switching engines work. Trains are usually required to be under 
control entering the yard, unless the track is plainly seen to be clear. (See 
Chapter 12.) The Pennsylvania Lines use an oval cast-iron sign, 33^X20 ins., 
4 ft. 6 ins. above the ties; it is painted green, with white letters. A similar sign 
on the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. is set on a pipe post, 9 ft. above ground, and 
is white with black letters. A green (or yellow) lamp is shown at night. The 
Southern Pacific Ry. uses a Y-shaped sign, with two 9-in. boards 3£ ft. long 
set at 45° upon a post. The Maine Central Ry. sign is shown in Fig. 123. In 
some cases the station name is painted on these signs. 



188 TRACK. 



CHAPTER 12.— WATER AND COALING STATIONS AND OTHER 
TRACK ACCESSORIES. 

Water Supply and Water Tanks. 

The construction and maintenance of all structures and equipment pertain- 
ing to water supply frequently come more or less under the charge of the 
track department. The supply is usually taken from wells or streams, 
and where the supply is scarce and uncertain or where a large quantity is 
required, storage reservoirs are sometimes built, or dams to form natural reser- 
voirs. Where the supply is scarce it may be necessary to haul water in tank 
cars or to pump it long distances to supply the station tanks, and both methods 
are in use on parts of the Eastern Ry. of New Mexico. The El Paso & South- 
western Ry. is distributing a good quality of water along its road for about 
130 miles by a pipe line, the high cost of this being warranted by the extremely 
bad quality of the local waters. 

The water is usually pumped direct to tanks at the stations. The most 
common form of tank is of wood (cypress, cedar or pine), with vertical staves 
3 or 4 ins. thick, hooped with iron bands. Iron bands are in general more 
satisfactory than steel, the latter corroding much more rapidly. They are 
usually from |-in. to J-in. thick and from 3 to 6 ins. wide. Round rods are 
occasionally used instead of flat bands, giving better opportunity for inspec- 
tion, and less liability of concealed corrosion which might result in the 
bursting of a tank. There is liability, however, of their crushing or bruising 
the wood unless extra care is taken in tightening them. A very general size 
of tank is 16 ft. high and 24 ft. diameter, with a capacity of 50,000 gals., but 
the tendency is to use tanks of from 75,000 to 100,000 gals., even at ordinary 
water stations. The tank is supported on a trestle tower of timber or steel, 
or upon a masonry tower. Such a construction is shown in Fig. 124, but the 
tower should be considerably higher, to give a greater rate of flow in discharg- 
ing. Steel tanks are also used, and there should not be much trouble from 
corrosion if they are kept full and the outside is kept well painted. The 
level of water in the tanks is shown by a float connected to a ball sliding 
on a staff above the roof or to a pointer moving on a graduated scale on the 
side of the tank. A float may also operate an inlet valve or a pump starting 
device, so as to keep the tank full. 

Steel standpipes are used to some extent, and generally in connection with 
water columns. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. has 24-ft. steel 
standpipes with heights of 31§ ft., 47 ft., and 62 ft. for capacities of C0,000, 
115,000, and 165,000 gals. They are built of rings of 8-ft. plate, and have 
flat tops. In the concrete foundation is a chamber with the valves and 
connections for the 6-in. supply, 12-in. outlet, and 6-in. overflow pipes. There 
is also a blowout with an 8-in. tank valve, and a pipe to a drain of 8-in. 
sewer pipe. The standpipe is, if possible, put at an elevation of not more 
than 15 ft. above the track, and a 12-in. pipe is led to the 10-in. water column, 
which is set 350 ft. from the station on main lines or 200 ft. on branches. The 
water column is 8£ ft. from the track, c. to c; the spout is 12 ft. above the 
rails, the flexible joint allowing a movement of 1 ft. above or below this position. 
The concrete pit under the column contains a 10-in. gate valve and a 12-in. 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



189 



to 10-in. reducer or branch pipe from the 12-in. main. This pit is 4|X8 ft., 
and the depth from top of rail to center of branch pipe is 4 ft. in warm 
climates or 6£ ft. in cold climates. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 Ry. 










k — 6/0 — >fi^6yo-mmp£^6/o — * 
ij-.,. . 

Half Elevation. Half Section. 



Part Plan of 



Floor Framing. 




i- 




Part Plan of 
Foundations. 



Part Plan of 
Substructure . 



Fig. 124. — Water Tank for Supplying Locomotives. 

has standpipes 24 ft. diameter, 40 and 60 ft. high; the capacities are 96,000 
and 202,000 gals., or 57,700 and 163,800 gals, available above the spout for 
supplying engines, which is 12 ft. above the rails. A combination tank and 
standpipe has the lower portion of smaller diameter, steel columns supporting 



190 TRACK. 

the sides of the tank proper, which has a hemispherical bottom. The central 
portion is of sufficient diameter to insure safety from freezing, even without a 
frost-proof covering; it is fitted with a valve for blowing out the water and 
sediment in this portion without emptying the tank. Where the tank stands 
at the level of the track, this design may cost less than a standpipe of the 
same available capacity. The saving is due to lighter foundations and less 
steel plating, even with allowance for the cost of the columns. 

Trouble from freezing of tanks at wayside water stations varies greatly, 
even on roads in the same district. It is affected largely by the character 
of the water, the quantity of water drawn from the tank, and the degree of 
care given to the tank. This last is one of the most important conditions. 
A road giving particular attention to its tanks may have little trouble, while 
another road which gives them little attention may find it necessary to try 
sheathing and heating. The protection usually consists of top and bottom 
air spaces with double sheathing (side protection is rarely found necessary). 
A stove pipe may be carried through the tank, or a steam coil (for live or exhaust 
steam) may be set within it. The water pipes below the tank are usually 
enclosed in a wooden box or shaft, the walls of which are formed with two or 
more air spaces. One of these spaces may be packed with sawdust. A stove 
or steam pipe may be placed inside the boxing. On the Canadian Pacific Ry., 
the tank and its supports are completely housed in a tower 28| ft. diameter, 
leaving room for access to the bands of the 24-ft. tank. A stove with 8-in. pipe 
is placed beneath the tank. This arrangement provides ample protection, 
and with no ice in the tank there is no trouble from clogging of the valves. 
At tanks and water columns, provision must be made to prevent leakage, or 
in winter there maybe an accumulation of ice over the rails, which may perhaps 
cause a derailment. During extremely cold weather the section foreman is 
often called upon (through the roadmaster) to furnish a man to look after 
the water stations. All the pumps, pipe connections, valves, tanks and other 
equipment, should be thoroughly examined at least once a year, and a special 
examination made before winter to see that all outdoor work is tight and 
properly protected against freezing. 

Where engines take water directly from the tank, a horizontal pipe from 
the bottom leads to a hinged spout which may be let down to enter the man- 
hole of the tender, but is counterweighted to stand vertical. It is pulled 
down by a chain within reach of the fireman standing on the tender, who also 
operates the valve by means of a chain or lever, or the valve may be operated 
from a handwheel on a stand on the ground. This system of supply, with 
a wooden tank on a wooden tower, is shown in Fig. 124. When the tank cannot 
be placed close to the engine track, or where engines on several tracks have 
to be supplied, the usual practice is to lay pipes to water columns beside or 
between the tracks. The water column consists of a vertical stationary 
pipe, with a horizontal swinging arm, which should be so mounted as to lie 
normally parallel with the track, its end being over a catch basin with grated 
top. The arm may be hinged so as to reach down to the tender, or it may 
have a leather hose or adjustable vertical spout on the end. The position 
of the column in relation to the track and catch basin is shown in Fig. 125. 
At large water stations a pipe may be carried across the railway, and fitted 
with hinged spouts over the tracks. 

Many water stations have too slow a discharge from the tanks, so that trains 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



191 



are delayed in taking water. The Chicago & Alton Ry. puts 90,000-gal. tanks 
(18X30 ft.) 20 ft. above the rails, with 14-in. mains to 12-in. water columns, 
delivering 4,000 gals, per minute (or 4,500 gals, with tanks elevated 25 ft.). 
Where the tanks have spouts, these are served by 8-in. outlet pipes. Some 
of the tanks are two miles from the pump houses. The Chicago, Milwaukee & 
St. Paul Ry. uses wooden tanks of 50,000 gals, capacity and steel tanks of 
from 80,000 to 100,000 gals. The height from rail to bottom of tank is 16 ft., 



Catch Basin 




Fig. 126. — Water Column and Hydraulic Valve. 

except that those serving water columns are from 22 to 26 ft. high, according 
to the distance (50 ft. to several hundred feet) or other local conditions. The 
pipes are 8 ins. to the spout, and 10 ins. to 10-in. water columns. As a rule, 
however, the main should be somewhat larger than the water column, a 12-in. 
or 14-in. main to a 10-in. or 12-in. column. The Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. is 
using steel tanks of 150,000 to 500,000 gals, capacity, and these are replacing 
the older 50,000-gal. wooden tanks on steel substructures. The height is 21 ft. 
from rail to bottom of tank. An 8-in. pipe runs from pump house to tank, 
and 12-in. mains to 10-in. water columns are the standard, delivering water 
to the tenders at about 2,000 gallons per minute. The Canadian Pacific Ry. 



192 



TRACK. 



uses 40,000-gal. tanks 16X24 ft. (23 ft. at top), having the bottom from 20 
to 40 ft. above the rails, while the heel of the spout is 13£ ft. from the rails. 

In the water column which is shown in Fig. 12G, the pipe is supported by 
a high base casting, and is automatically latched when the arm is parallel with 
the tracks. The latch may be secured with a switch lock. The spout has a 
flexible joint of vulcanized rubber, or of metallic construction in large sizes 
where the force of the water would make it difficult to hold the spout down 
in the manhole. The weight of the spout is counterbalanced. The valve may 
be operated by a handwheel on the end of the spout, to prevent shutting off 
the water too suddenly. A relief valve may be provided where the pressure 
is heavy, or an air cushion to absorb the shock due to water hammer in case 
the valve is closed too quickly. In Fig. 126 the main valve is operated by the 
water pressure and not by hand. The piston in the hydraulic cylinder over 
the valve has an area considerably larger than that of the valve, and the flow 
of water to and from the cylinder is controlled by a slide valve operated from 
the lever on the end of the spout. The exhaust is controlled by a small stop 
cock which can be set to secure slow closing of the valve if required. 

The pumps supplying the tanks with water may be driven by wind wheels, 
electric motors, or steam or gasoline engines. The last are in many respects 
preferable to and more economical than steam; the economy varies with the 
cost of coal and is largely in the reduced labor for attendance and the lower 
cost of fuel. At stations the agent can attend to the gasoline plant. The 
Canadian Northern Ry. uses 5-HP. gasoline engines geared to pumps of 6,000 
gals, per hour. An electric plant for a 50,000-gal. tank has two centrifugal 
pumps, each driven by a 7J-HP. motor, and with a 2|-in. discharge to a 4-in. 
main. The controller is operated automatically by the float. Railway wind- 
mills have wheels from 10 to 25 ft. diameter, running at 50 to 30 revolutions 
per minute and operating pumps of 2X4 ins. to 10X24 ins. The steam 
pumps usually have a stroke of 6 to 18 ins., and double-acting pumps have 
twice the capacity of single-acting pumps. Vertical well pumps 4X12 ins. 
at 100 revolutions per minute deliver 64 gals, per minute; pumps 6X18 at 80 
revolutions deliver 175 gals. The capacities of some windmill and steam pumps 
are given in Table No. 15. The first four steam pumps are single-cylinder 
pumps making 100 revolutions per minute. The others are duplex pumps, 
the delivery per stroke being for each cylinder, while the delivery per minute 
is for both cylinders, making 50 to 100 strokes per minute. All the steam 
pumps are of 12 ins. stroke. 



TABLE NO. 15.— PUMPS FOR WATER STATIONS. 
Windmill Pumps. 



Inches. 


Gallons 




Inches. 


Gallons. 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


Inches. 


Gallons. 


2 X4 


0.052 




3 X6 


0.178 


4X 8 


0.422 


6X15 


1.814 


2£X5 


0.102 




3iX7 


0.284 


5X10 


0.835 


10X24 


8.040 










Steam Pumps. 








r*-. 


flinders 


. , 


Delivery 


Delivery 






Pinn 




• U 1 




i ipe. 


■* 


Steam 


Water. 


per stroke. 


per minute. 


Steam. 


Exhaust. 


Suction. Discharge. 








Gallons. 


Gallons. 










6 




6 


1.47 


147 


1 


1 


4 


4 


7* 




7* 


1.91 


191 


1 


H 


5 


5 


8 




10 


4.08 


408 


1 


H 


6 


6 


10 




12 


5.87 


587 


H 


1* 


8 


6 


6 




5 


1.02 


100- 200 


l 


H 


5 


4 


8 




7 


2.00 


200- 400 


H 


H 


6 


5 


10 




8* 


3.00 


300- 600 


2 


H 


6 


5 


12 




14 


8.00 


800-1600 


2 


2i 


12 


10 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



193 



Track Tanks. 

In order to enable trains to make long runs without stopping, means must 
be provided for supplying the engine tenders with water, and for this purpose 
long shallow tanks are laid upon the ties. A vertical pipe with its top termi- 
nating in an elbow is placed in the tender tank, and extends through the bottom. 
Its lower end is fitted with an adjustable hinged "scoop" which is lowered 
about 3 ins. into the water while the engine is running over the tank. The 
speed of the engine forces the water up the pipe into the tender. Water can be 
taken at 60 miles an hour, although it is better not to exceed 40 miles. The 
scoop is operated by the fireman by means of a lever or a compressed-air cylinder 
and is counterbalanced against the water pressure. The track tanks are 
usually from 25 to 30 miles apart, and are supplied by direct pumping or 
from elevated water tanks. This system was invented in England by Mr. J. 
Ramsbottom in 1861. 

The track tanks of the Michigan Central Ry., Fig. 127, are about 1,400 ft. 
long, 19 ins. wide and 7 ins. deep. They are of yq-iq. steel, with a half-round 




ft»~~ k J j^*»"_ ^""'■{' l >'- 

Cross Section, 



Enlarged. 



Part Longitudinal Section. 



Fig. 127. — Track Tanks; Michigan Central Ry. 



1 §-in. stiffening bar along the upper edges. Steel angles 1 1 X 1 1 ins. support them 
on the ties, which are 8X8 ins., 8 ft. long, boxed out to fit the bottom of the 
tank. Water is supplied by a pipe entering at the most convenient point 
through a box riveted to the bottom of the tank, from which it flows through 
a 5-in. opening. Branch pipes to admit steam to prevent freezing in winter 
are placed about 40 ft. apart along the entire length of the tank, and the con- 
struction of the |-in. brass nozzle is such as to throw the jet of steam down- 
ward. With very cold weather, however, steam jets are not sufficient to prevent 
the formation of ice, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. a circu- 
lating system has been introduced. At the mid-length of the tank a 5-in. 
pipe enters the bottom, and forms the suction pipe of a steam pump. From 
the pump the water is forced into an 8-in. return pipe, into which is led a 1-in. 
steam pipe from the boiler. From the end of the return pipe two 3-in. pipe3 
are laid to the ends of the tank, the water being discharged behind the inclined 
iron apron which raises the scoop in leaving the tank if the fireman has not raised 
it in time. The pipes are all laid in square boxes of 2-in. plank. This combina- 
tion of heating and circulation has proved successful at 20° F. Men must be 
employed to clean the tanks and clear the rails from ice formed by the spray 
and spilling of water. Some roads put lateral supply pipes 300 ft. apart, with 
automatic valves and floats. The track tanks of the New York Central Ry. 
are 23|X7 ins., built of ^-in. plates, and having along each side a 5-in. steel 
channel whose lower flange rests on the ties, which are boxed out 2 ins. 



194 TRACK. 

The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. in 1890 put on fast trains between Philadelphia 
and Baltimore (1 hour 47 mins. for 92 miles with heavy trains), and two track 
tanks were put in, dividing the distance into three sections of about 30 miles 
each. The troughs being 1,200 ft. long, it was necessary to make the track 
level for that distance, running off easily at each end to regular grade. This 
work was done by the regular track force. The hewed ties were replaced with 
sawed ties of white oak, 8x9 ins., boxed 1|X19 ins. to receive the tanks. 
The tanks are 6 ins. deep, 19 ins. wide, made of ^-in. steel sheets, 15 ft. 
long, with a shelf angle l$Xli ms -> riveted to each side, 1£ ins. from the bottom. 
These rest upon the ties, and the tanks are fastened by ordinary track spikes, 
the heads of which catch on the angles. This allows the tanks to expand or 
contract, but they are fastened firmly at the centers. They were made in 
30-ft. sections in the shop. In laying, each joint was red-leaded, and cold- 
riveted with f-in. rivets, 20 to the joint. At each end is placed an inclined 
plane, with a total length of 13 ft. 8 ins.; the inner end of this is riveted to the 
bottom of the trough and the outer end fastened to the tie by means of rail 
spikes driven at the edge of the plate, with heads of spikes resting thereon, 
thus allowing for expansion of the trough. The object of this plane is to raise 
the scoop on the tender in case the fireman should fail to raise it, thus prevent- 
ing damage either to scoop or tank. 

At each track tank the water is pumped into a 50,000-gal. tank 28 ft. above 
the track, and this is always kept full. An 8-in. cast-iron pipe is connected 
to the elevated tanks, and run to a point at or near the pump, where it is reduced 
tc 6 ins. At this point is placed a 6-in. gate valve. The supply pipe, running 
directly to the trough, branches off to three points by means of tees, reduced 
tc 3i ins at the point of leaving the valve. A 12-in. main with 6-in. outlets 
to the track tank would be better, enabling the tank to be filled more rapidly. 
Two of the branches are connected to the trough at 200 ft. from the ends and 
the third is connected to it at the center. At each of these connections there 
is built a pit the full width of the track, about 3 ft. wide and 3| ft. deep, with 
the side and end walls of masonry. The top is covered with 2-in. plank, and 
the bottom drained to one side. Into these pits the pipe is run, and it is con- 
nected to the trough by means of a 3J-in. pipe flange, nipple and metal 
expansion joint. These expansion joints were made in 1890, and were still in 
good condition in 1907, the only repairs required having been slight repairs 
tc the packing. Some roads have used a rubber hose in place of an expansion 
joint. A 3^-in. globe valve at the pit serves to empty the troughs for cleaning 
or repairing. 

In order to keep the troughs free from ice during cold weather, a 2|-in. pipe 
connected to the steam dome on the boiler in the pumping station is carried 
to the center of the tracks on double track, or to the ends of the ties on single 
track. There the pipe is reduced to 2 ins., and run to a point 5 ft. from the 
end of the trough. On this pipe at intervals of 45 ft. is placed a cross, from 
which a 1-in. pipe is carried to the troughs. This connection is made with 
a nipple of extra strong pipe, 3 ins. long, tapped out at one end and plugged, 
with a |-in. hole, inclined downward. Immediately back of this nipple is 
placed a 1-in. check valve to prevent the back flow of water when steam is 
turned off. The 2-in. pipe is drained from both ends with a drain cock placed 
at the lowest point. Expansion joints are placed at intervals of 200 ft. All 
steam pipe should be boxed in and packed with mineral wool or clothed with 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 195 

pipe covering, to reduce the condensation. The pressure of steam necessary 
to prevent freezing in the coldest weather was found to be about 80 lbs. 
During the warm months, when steam is needed for pumping only, an upright 
boiler of 25 HP. is used. During the cold months, when it is necessary to 
have steam constantly in the troughs, an old locomotive boiler of about 80 
HP. is used at each station. This system of heating has been in use for ten 
years, and has been tested by extremely cold weather, but none of the troughs 
have been frozen. At these, as well as at all other water stations on the 
Philadelphia Division, a pump of 260 gals, capacity per minute is used. 

At the approach end is placed a signal (similar to a high switchstand) to notify 
enginemen and firemen where to lower the scoop. At 100 ft. from the far end 
is placed a similar signal to warn the fireman to raise the scoop. As already 
mentioned, 6-in. valves are placed in connection with the supply pipe at or 
near the pump house. Over these valves is built a small valve house, with 
its floor about on a level with the track. After an engine has taken water, 
these valves are opened and water is allowed to run into the trough for from 
four to six minutes. At first there was considerable complaint that the troughs 
were often not more than two-thirds full. On investigation it was found that 
a considerable amount of water was thrown out by the current of air caused 
by the passage of freight trains. The pumpmen were, therefore, instructed 
to inspect the troughs five minutes before schedule time of trains; to see that 
they were properly filled; and to remain in the valve house from that time until 
after the train passed. It has been suggested that a float valve might be 
installed to allow the troughs to be filled automatically, as at some other track 
tanks, but as the pumpmen are required to patrol the troughs regularly and 
see that they are filled between all trains, it is not considered that this would 
be any advantage, as it might make the pumpmen careless. 

Water Softening. 

The quality of the supply is a very important matter, affecting the life of 
the boilers and the steaming capacity of the engines, and, therefore, the expense 
of operating and maintaining the motive power. It is rarely given much 
thought in location, however, the only consideration then being to get water, 
regardless of quality. Good boiler water is rather exceptional, and if it is 
not obtainable from natural sources, then the water should be chemically 
treated before it is delivered to the engines. The character of the water varies 
so much that each supply must be examined and the proper treatment pre- 
scribed, some simple means being adopted by which the proper proportions 
of chemicals in each case can be used by the man in charge of the station. 
The matter must be not left entirely in his hands, however, but must be 
under the regular supervision of a competent chemist in order to insure efficiency 
and economy. The treatment will effect great economy in reducing the cleaning 
and repairing of locomotive boilers, increasing their life and the time for which 
the engine will run before going to the shops. It will also reduce the engine 
failures on the road. The economic results are so evident that many railways 
have had comprehensive investigations made of the water supplies along their 
lines and the treatment required at each point, and have gone largely into 
the establishment of water-softening plants. On the eastern division of the 
El Paso & Southwestern Ry., however, the well waters are so bad that even 



196 TRACK. 

treatment cannot make them satisfactory, and it has been found economical 
to develop a supply of good water in the mountains and to distribute this 
along the railway by a pipe line for about 130 miles. 

The troubles due to bad water are of three kinds: Scaling, corrosion and 
foaming. The first is the principal trouble, due to hard water with scale- 
producing contents. The principal ingredients are carbonates and sulphates 
of both lime and magnesia. The carbonates form only soft scale or mud, but 
a very slight percentage of sulphate will cause a hard scale, and scaling will 
occur as long as there is the slightest amount of sulphate of lime. The chemicals 
generally used are soda-ash (carbonate of soda) and slaked lime, separately 
or in combination. The former has a tendency to increase the foaming proper- 
ties of the water. For this reason barium hydrate has been tried as a substitute, 
but it has no advantage over the lime in removing the carbonates. Tri- 
sodium phosphate has also been tried, but both of these are too expensive for 
ordinary use. Besides the scale-forming solids, water usually contains free 
carbonic acid, and sometimes sulphuric acid; these tend to cause corrosion 
in the boiler and must be neutralized. Alkaline water is also met with in 
certain districts, but it is rarely advisable to treat it with soda-ash if it contains 
50 grains per gallon, as it will give trouble from foaming, even though it does 
not form scale. As a general thing it will be beneficial to treat water con- 
taining more than 15 grains of hardening matter per gallon of water, or even 
less if there is a large proportion of, sulphate of lime. There are numerous 
water-softening systems in use, buz the chemical principle is the same in all 
cases, and the differences are in the mechanical treatment for mixing and 
measuring the solutions, and treating the water. It is essential that the 
chemical should be thoroughly mixed with the water, and that ample time 
should be given for the chemical reaction and for sedimentation. The time 
should generally be from three to four hours. The time increases with the 
badness of the water and its low temperature; higher temperature facilitates 
the settlement. As the water enters the apparatus it is dosed with the lime 
and soda-ash solutions, mixed and agitated, and then remains quiescent in 
a tank of sufficient capacity to give ample time for sedimentation. In the 
continuous system, the treated water has a slow rate of flow and is discharged 
through an overflow pipe into the top of the railway tank. In the intermittent 
system, it is delivered to settling tanks and thence pumped to the railway 
tank as required. Electric treatment has been tried, but is too expensive for 
general use. 

Coaling Stations. 

At points where locomotives take coal, there should be ample provision for 
coal storage (for about three days' supply). Storing the coal in cars is expen- 
sive and keeps cars out of proper service. The coal may be handled and 
delivered to the tenders in various ways, according to the location, the storage 
system and the number of engines to be supplied daily. The demand for 
saving in labor and time has led to a general use of mechanical appliances. 
The coal should have as little handling and as little direct drop as possible, 
to reduce expense and the breaking up of the coal. The supply should be 
weighed, but this is not generally done. In the large plant of the Terminal 
Ry. at St. Louis, the 15-ton elevated hoppers, or pockets, are supported on 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 197 

scales. In other cases the pockets are of 100 tons capacity, each connected 
to a scale. The coal is often stored in piles on the ground, and removed as 
required to the coaling plant by a conveyor system. Where no room is avail- 
able for this, it is usually stored in elevated bins for supplying the pockets, 
or in the pockets themselves. It may be delivered to the engine tenders in 
various ways. (1) Hand shoveling from a coal stage; (2) Buckets handled by 
a locomotive crane on the ground or on a coaling stage; (3) Grab buckets 
handled by a traveling crane; (4) Dump cars running on a coaling stage beside 
or above the track; (5) Elevated chutes. These general plans admit of various 
combinations and modifications. The coal may be shoveled from gondola 
cars or dropped from hopper-bottom cars onto the storage space on the ground 
or at the back of the coaling platform. It may be then either shoveled directly 
into the tender, or into buckets or cars which are wheeled to the crane or to 
the dumping track on the edge of the platform. 

The most usual plan is to deliver the coal from elevated chutes, which may 
be on a bridge over several tracks or in the side of a shed with a coaling track 
on one or both sides. In some cases small cars are wheeled by hand from the 
coal pile and dumped at the chutes, but the more common plan is to have bins 
or coal pockets behind the chutes. These pockets may be filled directly from 
coal cars run into the coaling station. The approach grade may be 5 or 6% 
if operated by locomotives, or 20% if a cable and hoisting engine are used. 
The cable may be hitched to the car, or to a dummy car or "barney" which 
runs on a narrow gage track between the main rails and normally stands in 
a pit between the latter, from which a steep grade brings it to the level of the 
main track. When the coal cars are pushed beyond this pit the "barney" 
car is hauled up and pushes the coal cars before it. The pockets may also 
be filled from the .storage piles or elevated bins by a bucket and cableway, 
or by a belt or endless bucket-chain conveyor system. Transverse troughs 
fitted with gates control the discharge into the various pockets. These pockets 
may have a capacity of from 5 to 20 tons each, and should be charged with 
different quantities so as to deliver any desired quantity to the engine. At 
medium-sized coaling stations, the coal may be dumped (or shoveled) into 
a hopper beneath the track and thence delivered to a vertical conveyor or a 
pair of dumping buckets for delivery into elevated pockets. The latter system 
is used in a number of cases by the Pennsylvania Lines; the buckets are of 2 
or 3 tons capacity, automatically filled in pits supplied from the track hopper, 
and operated by steam or electric hoists. The storage capacity is from 150 
to 350 tons, and the plants can handle from 75 to 100 tons of coal per hour. 

The Pennsylvania Ry. has at Morrisville a 500-ton coal bunker of reinforced 
concrete, 170 ft. long, 14 ft. wide, and 8 and 16 ft. deep at the center and sides. 
The sloping bottom supplies 15 chutes on each side, having openings 3 ft. high 
and 5^ ft. wide. These supply the engines. Girders across the top carry 
the coal-car track. The Inman yard of the Southern Ry. at Atlanta has a 
coal trestle on the sloping side of a bank which forms the back of a coal pile; 
the trestle is 42 ft. high. Along the lower toe of the pile is a trestle for a 
locomotive crane hauling a grab bucket, the crane track being 23 ft. above 
base of coal pile. The coaling track is 830 ft. long, and the crane trestle 
730 ft. long. The storage pile holds 20,000 tons. Three sets of coal pockets 
(each with 18 pockets of 5 tons capacity) are placed over two engine tracks 
(16 ft. c. to c.) and the spouts serve a third track. Under the two engine 



198 



TRACK. 



tracks is a cinder pit 100 ft. long, which is also served by the crane. (See 
also Ash Pits.) 

The Philadelphia & Reading Ry. has a plant of 1,000 tons storage capacity, 
and a capacity of handling 120 tons per hour. The coal is dumped into track 
hoppers and carried by a conveyor to a bin spanning seven tracks. There 
is a spout to each track, and four other tracks are served by a bridge on which 
small bottom-dump cars are run. The seven tracks have ash pits with chutes 
discharging into a conveyor which delivers the ashes to a 40-ton elevated bin. 
This conveyor can handle 20 tons per hour. The plant of the Terminal Ry. 
at St. Louis has an elevated storage bin of 1,000 tons capacity, filled by link- 




Cross Section. 

Fig. 128. — Coaling Station. 



Part Side Elevation. 



belt conveyors from the track hoppers, the conveyors having a capacity ot 
2,000 tons in 10 hours. The bin spans six tracks, and beneath it are 13 weighing 
hoppers of 15 tons capacity (one at the end serving a seventh track). About 
200 engines are handled daily; seven can take coal, water and sand simul- 
taneously, and 21 can have the fires cleaned simultaneously. In Fig. 128 is 
shown the construction of a coaling station fitted with chutes, the pockets being 
filled by shoveling from cars. The floor of the pocket is covered with No. 12 
sheet steel and is at an angle of about 35° with the horizontal for bituminous 
coal, while anthracite will slide on a somewhat flatter angle. The door which 
retains the coal in the pocket is of oak, and is latched or unlatched by the 
movement of the apron. This apron, which may be of wood or iron, serves 
to direct the stream of coal into the middle of the tender, and when not in use 
swings up to a vertical position, covering the door of the chute. The apron 
is pulled down by the fireman by means of a chain, and is balanced by arms 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



199 



which extend to the rear and carry an iron balance whose weight slightly 
exceeds that of the chute, so as to return it automatically to position when 
all the coal has run out. This avoids the use of chains and pulleys for counter- 
weights. In the construction of a system of pockets, strength, durability 
and reliability must be carefully looked after. The rough handling and the 
dirt and dust are likely to cause any complicated mechanism to get out of 
order, but it is necessary to have the opening and closing of the chutes effected 
easily and quickly. 



Ash Pits. 

Where engine'ash pans are to be cleaned, a common arrangement is to run the 
engine over a brick-lined pit, dump the ashes, and then shovel them up onto 
the ground and then into cars to be hauled away. The shoveling is unpleasant 
and expensive work, and should be reduced as much as possible. If the engine 
track is raised or the ash-car track is depressed, so that the floor of the pit 
will be somewhat higher than the sides of the ash cars, the ashes will merely 
have to be shoveled to the side instead of being lifted. One side of such a 
pit can be left open and the floor inclined, so that the ashes can be shoveled 
readily into the car. Iron chutes may be provided, down which the cinders 
will fall directly from the engine to the car, a water jet being used to wash down 
the heavier parts. 

With narrow pits the rails may rest on stringers on the side walls. With 
wider pits the stringers may be carried on iron columns or brick piers. Two 
15-in. I-beams under each rail, bolted together and connected by tie-rods, 
make a substantial support for the track, the span being about 15 to 20 ft. 
The ironwork, brick walls (of narrow pits) and piers, and wooden stringers, 
should be protected from contact with hot ashes by sheet-iron coverings. The 
pit in Fig. 129 is 80 ft. long. It has the outer rail carried on a 12xl6-in. oak 



67lt).Ra;k*—~4W * .61 Mail 



• 14' 0' 
.-Stone 



~5,. 

■4'8s- 



K-2'6'-x 




K — 3'4"~- * 
Fig. 129.— Ash Pit. 



3'4' --* 



timber on the side wall, protected by a channel iron with asbestos packing; 
the inner rail is carried on a line of 12-in. I-beams supported by cast-iron 
pedestals 10 ft. apart. These beams are bolted through to the timbers by 
1^-in. rods, with 4J-in. sleeves. The floor is of firebrick and has an oak fender 
8X13 ins. A pipe is laid on each side of the pit and provided with cocks to 
supply water for cooling the cinders and washing the pit. To enable engines 
on the main track to clean fires while taking water, the New York Central Ry. 
uses a shallow ash pit 30 ft. long. 11 ft. beyond the water column. A con- 
crete bed S ft. wide is 16 \ ins. thick at the middle and 12 ins. at the sides, 
which form benches for 12 X 12-in. longitudinal timbers connected by bolts 



200 TRACK. 

through the thicker part of the concrete, These timbers carry the rails, and 
at each end is fitted a transverse timber. The inner faces of all these timbers 
are protected by angles 3^X6 ins., the narrower leg resting on the top. 

Two parallel engine tracks may be served by a depressed ash pit between 
them. The Missouri, Kansas & Texas Ry. has at several points a pit 15 ft. 
deep, 11 ft. wide, with the upper part of the sides inclined to a top width of 
23 ft. Over each inclined part is an engine track, and vertical steel doors 
from a pocket under each track. When ash cars are run into the pit, these 
doors are swung outward (being hinged at the top) so as to allow the ashes 
to slide down the inclined floors of the pockets and fall into the cars. If steel 
cars are used, the doors may be kept open when the fires are being cleaned, 
so that the ashes will go directly into the cars. The Chicago & Western Indiana 
Ry. has a somewhat similar arrangement but with two engine tracks (16 ft. 
c. to c); each is over the sloping side of an ash pit 250 ft. long, 10 ft. deep below 
the rails and 12| ft. wide. On the outer side of each pit is a track for a loco- 
motive crane with a grab bucket for removing the ashes and loading them into 
cars. The same cranes handle coal from cars to the engine tenders. One of 
them also handles coal from a parallel storage pit of the same form and dimen- 
sions as the ash pits, and having a capacity of 1,250 tons. The coal-car track 
(16 ft. above the bottom) is over the inclined side of the pit. In another 
system the ashes are discharged into steel cars in a pit directly under the 
engine; these are run out of the side of the pit and up a 45° incline having 
an automatic device for dumping the ashes into a railway car under the inclined 
track. Each car is attached to a cable leading over a pulley to an air cylinder. 
There are two of these at the Milwaukee yards of the Chicago, Milwaukee & 
St. Paul Ry., serving 200 locomotives per day. The Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 
has at McKees Rocks, Pa., a four-track ash pit, 125X55 ft., with a concrete floor 
and brick pedestals carrying I-beam stringers for the rails. This is spanned 
by an inclined girder on which runs a trolley hoist. The ashes are discharged 
into steel buckets 5 ft. long, of 47 cu. ft. capacity, running on narrow gage 
tracks. These are wheeled to the hoisting plant, lifted out and run up to a 
35-ton elevated bin. Where large numbers of engines are handled, ample 
ash-pit facilities are needed so that engines have not to wait for cleaning. At 
such large terminals some arrangement of mechanical handling is generally 
necessary. At some terminals the engines taking, coal and water can at the 
same time drop their ashes into cars, buckets or conveyors. 

Turntables. 

A turntable for turning engines revolves in a circular pit from which radiate 
several tracks. The tables are from 60 to 90 ft. long, built for engines and 
tender loads of from 100 to 200 tons. They should be long enough and strong 
enough to take the largest and heaviest engines, should be well braced to resist 
racking, and should swing true and steady, it being borne in mind that they 
have heavy work to perform, and are often roughly used and indifferently 
cared for. The bearings, wheels and track should be carefully looked after, 
especially in roundhouse tables, as any failure of such a table may tie up 
all the engines. When turned by hand, two men bearing against levers at the 
ends ought to be able to operate them readily, but where many engines have 
to be turned, power operation is desirable on the score of economy in time and 
expense. A steam or gasoline engine or a pneumatic or electric motor may 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 201 

be used, and may operate either turning gear or a small traction truck running 
on the circular rail of the pit and coupled to the end of the table. Motors 
of 10 to 15 HP. are generally used, and the compressed-air motor may be 
operated from the engine. The speed at the rim may be from 100 to 200 ft. 
per minute. The side wall, pedestal and floor of the pit may be of brick or 
concrete, the wall having a bench for the circular rail, which may be laid on 
wooden blocks or directly upon the masonry. The masonry should be of sub- 
stantial construction. The pit may have a flat or dished bottom, a good 
arrangement in the latter case being to slope it from the side and center to a 
circular drain. The pit should be well drained and kept free from dirt, refuse 
and weeds. It is usually open, but sometimes covered by a circular deck 
attached to the table, though this latter plan is likely to result in a damp and 
dirty pit. 

Turntables are of two general types: (1) Those which have a center bearing 
or pivot and a rim bearing of wheels running on a circular track at the circum- 
ference of the pit; (2) Those which swing entirely from the center. The Erie 
Ry. has a 65-ft. table of the first type, operated like a drawbridge. It has a 
drum 8 ft. 2 ins. diameter and resting on 32 cast-steel rollers. The ends have 
a rocking movement of f-in. A 15-HP. electric motor operates a train of gear- 
ing which ends in a pinion working in the fixed circular rack. The Strobel turn- 
table is of the second type, having a horizontal faced ring which bears upon 
a live ring of conical rollers on the top of the pedestal, the rollers being held 
in their relative positions by a spider. The live ring is about 4 ft. diameter, 
and the table has a bearing upon it at four points, instead of at two points 
only, as in many tables. As an engine enters or leaves, the table rocks to 
take an end bearing on bolster plates, the use of end carrying wheels being 
optional. The Greenleaf turntable has conical rollers concentrated in a cap 
bearing (no spider being used) , and the table is steadied by vertical guide rollers 
on vertical axes, these rollers bearing against the base of the pedestal. The 
table tips and locks in line and surface for the engine to run on or off, unlocks 
when the engine is completely on or off the table, and then balances to a hori- 
zontal plane. Continuous plate girders may be used, or cast-iron girders 
in halves fitted to the central box casting or frame which envelopes the pedestal. 
They may be of fish-belly or parallel-chord pattern. They are usually deck 
girders; through and half-through girders with shallow pits being used in a 
few cases. The turning and locking should be operated from a cabin on the 
turntable, and the lock may be connected to a target and lamp on the end 
so as to indicate to enginemen when it is safe to run on and off. At some 
passenger terminal stations in Germany there are turntables pivoted at the 
end; these are set in sidings and connect with lateral spurs to mail and express 
platforms. The pit is quadrant-shaped instead of circular. 

Transfer Tables. 

A transfer table runs on a straight track in a pit 15 to 24 ins. deep, at right 
angles to a number of parallel tracks, so as to transfer engines or cars from 
one track to another. It is generally used at shops (the locomotive and car 
shops often fronting on opposite sides of the pit), but is also sometimes used 
at rectangular enginehouses having parallel (instead of radial) tracks. The 
table is supported by several pairs of wheels running on rails spiked to ties, 
short blocks or longitudinals, the rails being usually 10 to 12 ft. apart. It 



202 TRACK. 

may be operated by steam or electricity. A 70-ft. transfer table of 70 tons 
capacity on the Union Pacific Ry. has nine sets of 36-in. wheels with flat chilled 
treads. Each pair of wheels is carried between the ends of a pair of I-beams 
forming the transverse girders of the table, the bearings being on top of the 
beams so as to keep the pit as shallow as possible. The nine wheels on one 
side are attached to a single shaft, made in sections, and this is driven by an 
electric motor of 15 to 25 HP., current being supplied by a trolley wire. The 
power is also used to operate a capstan for hauling cars on and off the table 
at a speed of 100 ft. per minute. The traveling speed is usually about 250 ft. 
per minute with heavy loads and 500 ft. with light loads. At the Louisville 
shops of the Louisville & Nashville Ry. there is a 100-ft. transfer table with 
a travel of 1,000 ft. and a speed of 1,000 ft. per minute. 

Y-tracks. 

Where many cars have to be turned, a Y-track may be more expeditious 
than a turntable. The Peoria & Pekin Union Ry., forming the terminal of a 
number of railways at Peoria, 111., uses a Y-track for turning combination 
cars, sleeping cars, etc. A train is made up of 8 to 15 cars, taken out by a 
switch engine, and turned at the Y. This is about a mile from the car yard, 
and with a clear track the work is easily done in 30 minutes. The distance 
between switches on the straight line is 1,541 ft. One leg is of 441.7 ft. radius, 
872 ft. long on the curve. The other is 1,445 ft. long, with curves of 716.8 ft. 
and 955.4 ft. at the stem and straight track respectively, connected by a 
tangent. The Peoria Terminal Ry. has at Pekin a Y-track for turning engines 
and freight trains, and another (with 90-ft. curves) for turning passenger cars. 

Track Scales. 

Track scales and wagon scales for weighing cars, wagons, cattle, etc., are 
required at many yards. They consist in each case of a platform supported on 
weighing beams connected to the usual form of graduated scale beams. The 
apparatus is mounted in a pit covered by the platform, although in a few cases 
the platform is suspended from scale beams housed in an overhead structure - 
The pit should have walls of concrete, brick or stone, with a concrete floor 
graded for drainage. Wagon scales are of 5 to 15 tons capacity with plat- 
forms 8 ft. wide and from 14 to 22 ft. long. These are set at points convenient 
to the driveway or team road. Track scales are usually from 45 to 60 ft. 
long when cars in motion have to be weighed. The capacity must be from 
100 to 150 tons for the large cars and loads now operated. If the track is 
used for other purposes than the weighing of cars, a dead or through track 
is gantletted with the weighing track rails, the rails of the two tracks being 
8 or 12 ins. apart. One of the dead rails is supported by the wall of the pit 
and the other by a wall or by stringers on pedestals within the pit, so that the 
dead track is independent of the weighing apparatus. This necessitates making 
the platform in two sections. Where cars run slowly, the switch connections 
between the scale track and the through or dead track may be one or two rail 
lengths from the scale, but for higher speeds the distance may be 150 ft. to 
insure steady running. All scales should be periodically tested with a test 
car, the actual weight of which is known only at the headquarters from which 
the car is sent out. This weight is varied from time to time in order to check 
any "jockeying" on the part of the scalemen. For a wagon scale, the scale 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 203 

beams may be in a housing at the side of the platform, but where they are in 
general use this part of the apparatus should be in a cabin, as is usually the 
case with track scales. Occasionally two scales are used on parallel tracks 
about 22 ft. c. to c, with a cabin between. A single-beam scale indicates the 
total load, but a double beam enables the tare or light weight to be shown also, 
the light weight being taken from the figures stenciled on the car. In many 
cases a recording beam is used. Printed tickets are inserted in a receiver on 
the poise and when the proper weight is obtained a pressure of the latch causes 
this weight to be punched in a card or ticket. For track scales in busy yards, 
especially where strings of cars are weighed while in motion, an automatic 
recorder is frequently used, giving a printed record of the weight of each load 
as it passes over the scale. (See also the chapter on Yards.) 

Bridge Tell-Tales or Ticklers. 

Low overhead bridges are a constant source of danger to freight-train brake- 
men, whose duties call them on top of the cars to set the hand brakes, although 
the general use of power brakes has greatly diminished the necessity for this 
work. At such bridges, men on the cars must be warned to stoop or lie down, 
as there is sometimes so little headway that unless a man lies flat on the roof 
or steps down between the cars he is very liable to be killed or injured. A 
tell-tale or "tickler" is usually placed for this purpose about 100 to 200 ft. 
on each side of the bridge (or 50 to 100 ft. in yards). The ordinary form con- 
sists of a gallows frame with single or double post, having a row of ropes about 
30 ins. long, hung from the cross-arm and reaching 3 to 6 ins. below the level 
of the lowest part of the bridge. When ropes get wet or frozen they will strike 
quite severe blows, and in this respect leather thongs or straps are better, 
but, unfortunately, brakemen have a propensity for cutting off the thongs 
for personal use. They also show their dexterity by catching the ropes or 
thongs and throwing them up as the train passes, so as to twist them around 
the cross-arm. To prevent this, as well as to prevent the wind from blowing 
the ropes over the arm, the ropes or thongs may be attached to a bar or screen 
suspended by links from the cross-arm, or each rope may be attached to the 
eye of a rod passing through the cross-arm. This last arrangement is shown 
in Fig. 130, which is for bridges and structures less than 19£ ft. clear above 
the top of the rail. The requisite dimensions are as follows: 

ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. ft. ins. 

Clear headway 15 6 16 16 6 17 17 6 18 18 6 19 19 6 

Length of rope (A) 41 37 31 27 23 23 20 20 20 

Length of rod (B) ... . 3 5 2 11 2 8 2 5 2 2 111 111 111 111 

Height from rail (C) ... 23 22 6 22 3 1 10 219 21 6 216 216 21 6 

The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses a post made of 5-, 4- and 
3-in. gas pipe, 28^ ft. long, set 5 ft. 8 ins. in the ground. It is set in a hole 
filled in with concrete (1:6:12), and is anchored by two 3-ft. angles or old 
splice bars riveted to the bottom, which is swaged flat. The post is 6 ft. from 
the rail, and has a 10^-ft. arm and knee-brace of 2-in. pipe. An ash bar 
2^X1^ ins., 6| ft. long, is suspended 4 ins. below the arm. Into this are screwed 
2-in. brass eyelets, 4 ins. c. to c, each carrying a strip of No. 12 brass spring wire 
about 4 ft. 10 ins. long, but reaching at least 6 ins. below the lowest point of 
the obstruction. This is used for any obstruction with less than 20 ft. clearance 
above the heads of the rails, and is set 150 to 200 ft. from it. The Cincinnati 



204 



TRACK. 



Southern Ry. has suspended from the cross-arm (by three |-in. eye-bolts) a wire 
screen, 8 ft.X2 ft. 8 ins., made of No. 10 wire, with 1-in. mesh and having a 
rim of ^-in. rod. From this are hung double-braided £-in. cotton ropes, well 
knotted to the screen and having the ends bound to prevent raveling. The 
ropes are 3 ft. 8 ins. long, 6 ins. apart, with the ends 17 ft. 10 ins. above the 
ties. The post is 8X8 ins., with cross-arm 3X8 ins., and brace 3X6 ins. It 
is 8 ft. from center of track, or 9 ft. on curves; and the distance is the same 
when a double-post frame is used (in rocky ground). A different type of 
indicator consists of a light wooden rod (about 1J ins.) projecting across the 
track at the proper height and so pivoted to the post that when struck it will 
easily swing aside, being returned to position by a suspended weight. If 
pivoted to a shaft set at about 45° and carried by a swivel it will swing upward 




Fig. 130.— Bridge Tell-Tale. 

and backward, and will be returned to position by gravity. These rods, how- 
ever, may strike a severe blow unless nicely balanced, and are liable to become 
frozen fast. They are inferior to the other type, and are little used. 

Where there are several tracks to be guarded, as on four-track lines and 
at yards, the ropes may be hung from a f-in. wire cable. Care must be taken 
to brace the posts well, and to provide means for taking up the slack of the 
cable, or it may sag so much as to strike a man and throw him from the train. 
For three or more tracks, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. uses 
pipe posts as above described, 32 ft. long, sloped f on 1 away from the track, 
and having wire guys at the back. Attached at 3 ft. from the top is a galva- 
nized wire rope drawn taut and attached by loops or clips to a catenary cable 
which touches it at the middle and is attached to each post 1 ft. below the 
top. From the taut wire are suspended the cross-heads to which the brass ribbons 
are attached. On four-track sections the posts are 52 ft. 8£ ins. apart at the level 
of the rails. 

Mail Cranes. 

These are the frames to which are hung the bags to be snatched off by the 
"catcher" on the mail car of a passing train. The crane usually consists of a 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



205 



post with two hinged horizontal arms, to which are attached the straps on 
the top and bottom of the mail bag. These arms extend towards the track, 
and when not in use lie vertically against the post, so as to be out of the way. 
A long swinging arm may be used to reach across an intervening sidetrack, 
but on four-track lines, where the inside tracks are for passenger trains, an 
iron crane is used by the New York Central Ry. It is set between the tracks, 
and has the upper part turned parallel with them when not in use. This is 
shown in Fig. 131, together with the gage for erecting it at its proper position 




Fig. 131. — Mail Cranes. 



7**-/, ~7Jl9*36 m -'- 



in relation to the catcher on the mail car. When placed between passenger and 
freight tracks these are spread 15 ft. 10 ins. c. to c, and the center of the crane 
post is 7 ft. 5f ins. from the center of the passenger track. The stand should 
be carried on the ends of two long ties, so that any alteration of level of the 
track by surfacing, heaving, etc., will not affect the relative position of the 
crane to the car and rail. 

The wooden mail crane shown in Fig. 131 is very similar to that recom- 
mended by the Railway Mail Service Bureau of the Post Office Department. 
The arms are shown in position for the bag, but when it is taken off they swing 
to a vertical position, the upper one against the back and the lower one against 
the front of the post. Small rubber blocks prevent jarring when the arms 
fall. The iron tongues have no springs to hold the straps of the bags, a slight 



206 TRACK. 

groove in the irons and the tension on the straps due to the arms affording 
ample security. In the Post Office style of crane, the iron tongues are straight 
and flat, each with a light spring of curved steel to hold the strap. Sometimes 
the lower part of the post is enclosed in a box filled with stone, the steps forming 
a part of the box. Iron mail cranes of the same general form are also used. 
The face of the post is 6 it. 6 ins. from the gage side of the rail, and the center 
line of the bag is 11 1 ins. from that of the horizontal shaft (on the car) which 
carries the catcher arm. 

The standard height of the crane is objectionable in bringing the upper arm 
in such position that enginemen are liable to be struck when leaning out of 
the cab window. In a few cases it has been raised, using a special attach- 
ment to suspend the top of the bag. Mail bags delivered from passing trains 
are usually thrown onto the ground or on the station platform; this is liable 
to cause damage to bags and mail, and injury to persons standing near. In 
England a loose rope net is placed beyond the end of the platform to receive 
the bag. Mechanical devices to deliver and receive the bags automatically 
are in experimental use to a limited extent. 

Bumping Posts. 

Bumpers or bumping posts are generally erected at the ends of tracks in 
yards and stations to prevent cars from running off. In some yards it is con- 
sidered preferable to leave the ends open, except near buildings, as it is cheaper 
to rerail a car than to repair it after having struck the bumper heavily. In 
some cases it has even been found effective to replace the bumper by a flag, 
and to prescribe summary punishment for the first man who sends a car over 
the flag. In general, however, it is better to provide the posts and to rely 
on discipline to prevent the rough usage of cars. In some cases the stoppage 
of a car is of the utmost importance (as at stations, elevated lines, and near 
buildings or waterways or streets). There are many other cases where it is 
not advisable or necessary to erect an expensive bumper of such extreme 
stability as to wreck a car. A bed of sand or cinders to receive the wheels 
is an excellent auxiliary to a bumper. The Southern Pacific Ry. uses for 
permanent spurs at important stations a plank frame or three-sided box 
10X10 ft., 2 ft. high, filled with sand, which covers the rails. At temporary 
spurs and spurs at unimportant stations it uses a truncated pyramid of earth, 
3 ft. high, 15 ft. square at the base and 5 ft. on top. Some roads use a light 
bumper backed by planking and a bank of earth or cinders from 2 to 4 ft. 
high, with a slope of 1 on 2. Concrete blocks are sometimes used, and those 
of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. are 9 ft. long (under the rail), 
7 ft. wide, with the track rails embedded in the concrete. A granite striking 
block and reinforcing A-frame of old rails are also embedded in it. 

A car may easily jump an ordinary low bumper consisting of a timber laid 
across the rails, but Fig. 132 shows a form of low bumper with two timbers 
which it would be almost impossible for a car to jump. The timbers are 33 
to 36 ins. apart, and may be chained to the track. For minor sidetracks 
the New York Central Ry. uses a 12 Xl2-in. timber laid across the rails and 
bolted against brackets which are bolted to the webs of the rails. High 
bumpers which will catch the car frame or buffer are generally preferable. 
The simplest form of high bumper consists of three heavy timbers: a longi- 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



207 



tudinal sill, a vertical post, and an inclined back brace. These are all framed 
and strapped together, the sill being buried in the earth. A better form has 
two such frames, with a horizontal transverse timber or deadwood between 
them to take the blow of the car coupler or platform, and having anchor rods 




Fig. 132. — Low Bumping Post; Pennsylvania Lines. 

to the front ends of the sills. The bumper shown in Fig. 133 is of this type, 
with chamfered edges to the timbers to give a good appearance in passenger 
stations. A bumper of the same type at the ends of tracks on a slight down- 
grade in a freight station (with a platform directly behind the bumper) has 
sills 14X14 ins. 50 ft. long, with five transverse 1-in. tie-rods and five transoms 
6X14 ins. framed 1 in. into the sills. At 10 ft. from the rear end are two posts 




g Front View 



Fig. 133. — High Bumping Post; Louisville & Nashville Ry. 



14X14 ins., 7 ft. 8 ins. high above the sills, with back braces 12X14 ins. and 
2-in. anchor rods. The deadwood is 12X18 ins., and in front of this is a timber 
block faced with a f-in. iron plate 18X26 ins. Between these two timbers 
are six rubber blocks 6 ins. diameter and 5 ins. thick. The track ties are laid 
directly upon the sills. Instead of braces and anchor rods, long A-frames made 
of old rails, attached to the sills and passing over the ends of the deadwood- 
may be used. Numerous special and patented forms of bumpers are in use. 
Where springs are employed to help absorb the shock, rubber is of little use, 



208 



TRACK. 



having an insufficient range of compression and soon losing its elasticity and 
resilience when exposed to the air. Steel springs are also usually of insufficient 
capacity to take up severe shocks. In the Symons design, a steel A-frame 
is pivoted to castings on the track rails and is inclined backward at an angle 
of 45°; the apex carries a striking block and is supported by a curved post 
inclined forward and having its lower end nearly vertical. This end rests 
on a nest of coiled springs (or friction draft-gear) seated upon a casting on 
the track. 

For terminal tracks in passenger stations, low bumpers are sometimes used, 
having double timbers with car springs set horizontally between them. High 
bumpers are more generally used. Some are of the type above described, 
but with two or three pairs of car springs placed between the deadwood and 
the striking timber. To prevent the springs from deflecting vertically, stirrup 
irons may be used, having the upper end bolted to the striking timber and 
the lower end embracing the rail or rail head. In front of the bumper may 
be a timber across the rails to catch the car wheels, or sand may be filled in 
over the rails for this purpose. Heavy plate-girder bumpers are sometimes 
built in passenger stations. The Ellis bumper, which is largely used for both 
passenger and freight tracks, has a heavy post set in the ground and carrying 
a rubber-cushioned striking plate. Two rails secured to the ends of the track 
rails by six-bolt splices are bent upward and inward to form an inclined V 
whose apex is bolted to a casting just behind the striking plate and resting 
on an oak block or post at the back of the main post. A friction-buffer (as 
used in the draft-gear of freight cars) has been suggested for use on bumpers. 
The Webb hydraulic bumper used on the London & Northwestern Ry. (England) 
is shown in Fig. 134. To the deadwood are attached two hydraulic cylinders, 



Cylinders. S'B^'C.foC 



. This cyli'nder to bt pe r G rand *** JO, k'noka 
t '4 'brass Ramsbottom packi'tb n'np 




- Compressed AJr, 40 lbs per 54. inch. 

Fig. 134. — Hydraulic Buffer Stop; London & Northwestern Ry. (England). 



the piston rods of which have mushroom heads to fit the spring buffers on the 
end sills of the cars. The cylinder is 9X24 ins., with the front end open and 
the sides perforated with 30 holes J-in. diameter; it is enclosed in another 
cylinder, leaving an annular space of 2\ ins. An air chamber maintains a 
pressure of 40 to 45 lbs. in the cylinder, and this is retained for some months 
with one charge. The cylinder is filled with a mixture of petroleum, soap 
and water, insuring good lubrication. When a train strikes the buffers, the 
liquid is forced through the small holes and into the air chamber, the resistance 
increasing towards the end of the stroke as the number of holes for escape 
becomes less. A sand track has been used for this purpose in the terminal 
station at Dresden, Germany. (See Sand Track.) The number of the track 
may be indicated on a sign or target on the bumper, for the information of 
passengers and employees. 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



209 



Terminals of elevated railways should be provided with specially strong 
bumpers, but those used are not always very substantial. They are generally 
similar to those used on steam railways, the posts being braced by timbers- 
at the back and tied in front by rods to the structure. A movable stop-block 
to skid the front wheels might well be used in front of the bumper, the prin- 
ciple of the device being the gradual absorption of the energy of the train, 
and all the space that can be spared should be given up to it. Beyond the 
device, the track should incline sharply on an ascending grade, which rapidly 
grows steeper toward the end, thus absorbing the energy of the train. At 
the end should be a heavy timber bumper designed to take the shock of a 
collision and set perpendicular to the inclined track. For bumpers on docks 
and wharves, the sill should be the same depth as the track stringers 
and the track in front of the bumpers should be well anchored down, while 
a back brace may be put in between the bumping timber and one of the dock 
piles or a special pile. At ore piers and coal trestles the track sometimes 
ends with a grade of 25 to 30% for a length of from 15 to 30 ft. 



Stop Blocks. 

The use of stop blocks has been noted above, and a movable stop is shown 
in Fig. 135. The steel tongue (A) rests on the rail and is connected by a loop 
(B) at its rear end with a small grooved wheel (C) journaled in the sides of 
the strap. Between the wheel and the back of the tongue is a wrought-iron 
shoe (D) pivoted to the loop at (E); this rests on the rail and in a groove in the 
flat tread of the wheel. When a car wheel runs up on the tongue and strikes 



//////,A *,,/„/'. 





Fig. 135.— Rolling Stop Block. 



Fig. 136.— Portable Stop Block. 



the shoe (D), this is pressed hard against the wheel and rail, stopping the revo- 
lution of the car wheel, while the force of the blow carries the stop block back 
along the rail until it comes gradually to rest, being held on the rail by the 
grooved wheel and the lugs on the tongue. A portable stop block for use in lock- 
ing cars on yard or shop tracks is shown in Fig. 135, and may be fitted with a 
padlock. A fixed stop block used in engine houses on the Pennsylvania Ry. 
is a steel casting placed at the end of each rail. It is about 22 ins. long, 
exclusive of side bars which are bolted against the web of the rail. The upper 
surface is concave, with a radius of 10 ins., and the lowest part is 2\ ins. below 
the rail head, so that the wheel drops into it and is brought up against the 
end of the casting. The end projects only 3 ins. above the rail level, so as to 
clear the engine pilots. 



210 TRACK. 

Spare Rails. 

It is the custom to place spare rails at the side of the track ready for use 
in case of emergency, and these are usually near the mile posts. They are 
generally carried on three stakes, 6X12 or 3X8 ins., 3 ft. to 4 ft. long, with 
the top cut like a step to form a seat for the rail base, or notched to hold the 
head and web of an inverted rail. When stepped, one is set with the step 
in the opposite direction to those of the others, so that the rail cannot be knocked 
off. They are set about 12 ft. apart, with the inner face 7 ft. from the rail and 
the top about 18 ins. above subgrade. If special attention is paid to neatness 
and finish, the ground may be dressed off level and covered with cinders and 
gravel for a length of about 33 ft. The spare rails are generally placed near 
the mile posts, but where they are more than a mile apart, it may be desirable 
to keep two or more rails at each place. In this case the tops of the stakes 
can be offset to give two seats 4 or 5 ins. wide, or iron posts with brackets may 
be used. The New York Central Ry. uses posts of old rails 1\ ft. long, set 
4? ft. in the ground, with plates |X2| ins. riveted across to form brackets 
carrying the spare rails; there are three posts 18 ft. apart. The Chicago, Rock 
Island & Pacific Ry. uses posts made from old 16-in. trestle stringers, set 30 
ins. in the ground, with the narrow face 14 ft. from the center of track. The 
top is 21 \ ins. above the ground, notched 3 ins. deep and 11 ins. wide, to 
receive two rails. The three posts are 18 ft. c. to c. The spare rails are placed 
at the middle and ends of every track section. The Southern Pacific Ry. 
has six rails on each main-line section and three on each branch-line section. 

Hand-car Turnouts. 

These are provided for convenience in taking hand cars off the track and 
storing them while the men are at work. The Southern Pacific Ry. places 
them J-mile apart, every third turnout being at a mile post, though this arrange- 
ment is varied where necessary to avoid obstacles. The roadbed is extended 
to 11 ft. from the rail for a width of 9 ft. and covered with 3 ins. of gravel to 
the level of the bottom of the ties. 

Buildings. 

Many of the smaller buildings have to be looked after more or less by the 
track department. These include section tool houses; cabins or shanties for 
switchmen, flagmen and gatemen; signal towers; small stations and flag 
stations; and dwelling houses for foremen and sectionmen. Such buildings 
are usually of frame construction, and care should be taken that they are not 
allowed to get into a dilapidated and unsightly condition. The roofs may 
be of shingles, tin, tile, or roofing felt. Corrugated iron may be used also 
for the covering or paneling of small station buildings and gatemen's cabins, 
and for the covering of freight sheds. Brick and stone are often used for 
stations, and within the past few years there has been a marked development 
in the use of concrete for stations, section boarding houses, etc., giving perma- 
nent structures which are economical in cost of construction and maintenance. 
This may be in the form of monolithic concrete, or concrete building blocks. 
In the former case 6-in. hollow walls may be used, of concrete 1:3:5, with 
an exterior finish (placed in the form) of cement and sand, or a splash coat 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 211 

put on afterwards. The monolithic concrete stations of the Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry. were described in Engineering News of Sept. 6, 1906; and 
small concrete block stations in July 13, 1905. The material and style of con- 
struction will depend largely upon local conditions, the climate, and the amount 
of attention paid to appearance. Buildings should be at least 1\ ft. from 
center of main track or 7 ft. from center of sidetrack. 

Painting. — For painting frame buildings of this class (of yellow pine) the follow- 
ing has been recommended as a priming coat: 100 lbs. of pure white lead in oil 
4 \ gallons of pure raw linseed oil, and 1 gallon of pure spirits of turpentine. 
This gives 8 gallons of paint ready for use. It should be allowed from three 
to five days for drying, or longer in damp weather, the second coat never 
being applied until the priming coat is thoroughly dry. The second coat 
may be composed as follows: 100 lbs. of pure white lead tinted to shade with 
not more than 12 lbs. of tinting material, 5 gallons of raw linseed oil, and 1 
quart of good strong turpentine dryer. The third coat should consist of 5 
gallons of pure kettle-boiled linseed oil to 100 lbs. of a paste composed of 60 lbs. 
of pure white lead, 30 lbs. of zinc white free from sulphides, and 10 to 12 lbs. 
of tinting material. Old and dry timber should be given a coat of pure linseed 
oil before being painted. For ironwork the following is recommended : Priming 
coat, 100 lbs. of pure red lead to 5 gallons of pure linseed oil; second and third 
coats (for black color), 20 gallons of pure kettle-boiled linseed oil to 100 lbs. 
of a paste composed of 65 lbs. of finely hydrated sulphate of lime, 30 lbs. of 
fine quality lampblack, and 5 lbs. of red lead. This makes 30 gallons of paint. 
If much painting is to be done, it is well to have it made from good raw mate- 
rials purchased by the company; but for repairs and small jobs, ready-made 
paints of good quality may be used to advantage. 

As to the color of the buildings, various shades and combinations are affected 
by different roads. A plain dark tuscan red is a serviceable color, and may be 
relieved by a darker amber brown on belt-rails, posts, etc. Two shades of green 
also make a good combination, but the dull yellow with dull red or brown 
trimmings (used by several roads) is very ugly. The tool house in Fig. 137 is 
painted in two shades of grayish brown, one being of a very light shade. The 
Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. uses a Vermont-stone color trimmed with 
olive-green, and black for the window sashes. One of the most attractive 
and cheerful styles is the colonial buff or yellow with white trimmings. A 
little light paint on moldings, etc., will lighten up almost any style of coloring. 
Paint having an admixture of sand may be used to finish the lower part of 
stations, where loungers are in the habit of whittling the boards. It has a 
very discouraging effect upon this destructive amusement. 

The whitewashing of buildings, fences, cattle pens, etc., can be quickly, con- 
veniently and economically done by compressed air. Several roads have cars 
fitted up with air-brake pumps and reservoirs, the pumps being driven by steam 
from a locomotive, and a pressure of 40 lbs. being maintained in the reservoirs. 
Tanks are also mounted on the car. The nozzle consists of an iron tube with a 
wide flattened end, and to each nozzle are attached two lines of £-in. or f-in. hose, 
one from the air reservoir, and the other from the tank. The flow of air induces 
a stream of whitewash which is expelled in the form of a spray, the flow being 
regulated by a valve on the nozzle. Paint may also be used, being mixed 
somewhat thinner than when it is to be applied with a brush. This method 
of painting is not now much used, not being satisfactory. The advantages of 



212 



TRACK. 



this method of working are the rapidity of the work, the saving in cost of 
brushes where rough or unplaned lumber has to be coated, and the general 
reduction in cost, while whitewash (or paint) thus applied readily finds its 
way to joints and narrow spaces almost inaccessible by a brush. On some 
large roads there is a regular traveling paint gang, which is carried from place 
to place on special cars fitted up with living accommodations and the necessary 
appliances. 

Section Tool Houses. — Every track section must have a building to accom- 
modate the hand cars, tools and supplies of the section gang. These build- 




Half End Elevation. 



i'>6" , . 
Half Cross Section. 



Sectional Side Elevation. 



ings vary in size and design, but should 
be large enough to hold the hand car, 
push car, tools, supplies, etc., and still 
leave room for the men to do such work 
as cutting shims, sharpening tools, sort- 
ing scrap, etc., in wet weather. The 
building is generally oblong in plan, 
and may be placed with its longer side 
towards the track, with the hand-car 
track laid through one end of that side, 
so as to leave the other end of the build- 
ing unobstructed for the men to work 
in. It is well to partition off a separate 
room beyond or at one side of the 
hand-car track; this contains the work 
bench, vise, grindstone, lockers, stove, 
clothes hooks, etc. It should also have a shelf desk for the use of the foreman 
in writing up his reports, time books, requisitions, etc. In some cases mis- 
cellaneous supplies are stored in a loft or attic, accessible by stairs which may 
be hinged so as to lie against the ceiling. 

Shelves, hooks and racks for tools should be fitted up to suit the equipment. 
There should also be boxes for small tools and supplies; and boxes, kegs or half- 
barrels for different kinds of scrap. Long-handled tools, bars, etc., may be 
stood on end, with the tops resting in horizontal hooks or in inclined notches 
in a shelf. Edge tools should be placed where they are not liable to injury. 
There should be a locker or cupboard for special or expensive tools. A sliding 
door, carried on an overhead rail, like a freight-car door, is generally prefera- 




Plan. 

Fig. 137.— Section Tool House; 
Pennsylvania Lines. 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 213 

ble to double swing doors, as being more easily handled in stormy weather, 
and less likely to get out of order or to be damaged by being swung to and 
fro. There should be ample room for the hand car to stand between the house 
and the track without fouling trains. 

The section tool house of the Pennsylvania Lines, Fig. 137, is 15 ft. 2 ins.X 
13 ft. 3 ins. inside, with a track in the middle for the hand car and push car, 
which are shown by dotted lines. Double swing doors are used, and there 
is said to be no trouble in handling them. The Boston & Maine Ry. has a 
house of plainer design, 15^X24 ft., 10 ft. high from sill to cap, and covered 
with clapboards. The roof slopes § on 1. There is a wooden floor on joists, 
and the clear height inside is 8 ft. to the joists of the attic floor, which is 
reached by a hinged ladder. The house is set parallel with the track, and not 
less than 8 ft. or more than 16 ft. from the nearest rail. The hand-car track 
is at one end. A long seat in the corner is formed by the boxes for bolts, etc. 
A sliding door is used for the car, and at one end is a small swing door. Where 
a double tool house is required it is 13 X 40 ft., with a room 12 X 14 ft. at each end, 
and a middle room 10X12 ft. for the men of both sections. A fixed stairway 
leads to the attic. The height is 12 ft. from sill to cap, with 8 ft. clear for the 
lower floor. A cobblestone pavement 4J ft. wide is laid around the house, 
sloping to an 18-in. gutter. The tool house of the New York, New Haven & 
Hartford Ry. is 16X20 ft., with 8 ft. partitioned off for the use of the men 
and fitted with bench, locker, stove, etc. The double house is in duplicate, 
32X20 ft. On the Georgia Central Ry. the tool house is 18X15 ft., with 
5J ft. at the rear partitioned off as a room. The New York Central Ry. section 
tool house for main lines is 20X14 ft., 11 ft. 6 ins. high at the sides. It is 
parallel with the track, 8 to 16 ft. distant, and has the car track laid in one 
of the 14-ft. sides. A 36-in. gravel or stone walk is laid around it. On branch 
lines the house is 18X12 ft., 11 and 16 ft. high at the sides and ridge. The 
windows are placed high up, and there are windows in the sliding door. All 
the houses are roofed and sheathed with shingles, stained green. 

Section Houses. — In order to have the trackmen live on their sections it is 
often necessary to provide houses for them, the foremen very generally board- 
ing the single men. They are usually frame structures, but in some cases 
of concrete blocks. In many cases they are very bare in appearance, but they 
may be made attractive with very little expenditure. To avoid monotony, 
three or four standard designs may be used. Fig. 138 shows a very plain house. 
Boarding houses should be well built, roomy and convenient. They should 
be made comfortable and kept neat, and these requirements are specially im- 
portant for buildings far from a town, as good men will not stay in unpleasant 
quarters. Sometimes the house is furnished to the foreman, free of rent, 
and he is required to keep it in good condition and repair. On some roads 
a prize is awarded annually for the best kept section house and grounds. A 
simple and convenient plan is that of the Louisville & Nashville Ry., Fig. 139, 
and Fig. 140 shows the section-foreman's house of the same railway. A sketch 
plan of a dwelling house for sectionmen is shown in Fig. 141. The section- 
foremen's houses on the New York Central Ry . are 22 X 30 ft. , with a one-story 
kitchen (9X8 ft.) behind the 22-ft. rear wall. At one corner is a porch with a 
door opening at the side into a living room 15X15| ft.; adjacent to this are 
a dining room 13 ft. 8 ins. X8 ft. 8 ins., and a bedroom 13 ft. 8 ins. X 12 ft. 
On the second floor are two bedrooms. The floors are double, with sheathing 



214 



TRACK. 



paper between. The foundation posts and sills are of treated timber. The 
exterior is all shingled, and the interior finish is of pine |X3 ins. On branch 
lines the kitchen takes the place of the bedroom on the first floor, and there 
are three bedrooms above. For gangs of Italian laborers a shanty 10 \ X 22 ft. 
is used, 10 ft. high at the walls. The entrance is into a room 8|X10 ft., the 
other part being partitioned off to form a room 12 ft. long. On each side of 
this are four bunks (in two rows), the building accommodating eight men. 

Telegraph and Signal Tower. A neat design of tower for telegraph operators, 
signalmen, etc., is that of the Chesapeake & Ohio Ry., shown in Fig. 142. It 
has two rooms, the lower one square and the upper one octagonal. The plat- 
form sills, joists and floor are of oak, while the timbers of the tower are of heart 
pine. The signal tower of the New York Central Ry. is 15X12 ft., with a 
one-story adjacent shed 13X9£ ft. for coal room, lamp room arid toilet. The 




Front Elevation. 




i Cellar / Section A-B. 



i f 




Second Floor Plan 



-Vi-B 

Kitchen 



Frst Floor Plan. 



Fig. 138. — Section House; Canadian Pacific Ry. 



operating room is reached by an outside stairway, with turns; the room is 
8 ft. 4 ins. high, and its floor is 12 ft. above the rail. The roof has projecting 
eaves, and the entire building is sheathed with shingles. 

Watchman's Cabin. — The cabins for watchmen, gatemen or switchmen may 
be square or octagonal. The latter gives the better view, and if two adjacent 
sides are extended to meet at right angles, the extra space will afford con- 
venient room for a long bench and a berth. The cabin should not be less than 
6 ft. square or diameter, 1\ ft. high inside, and fitted with a chair, stove and 
locker for lamps, etc. There may be a shelter over the sidewalk where the man 
stands when operating the gates. On the New York Central Ry. the gateman 
has a two-story tower 9 X 9 ft. , with a ladder to a trap in the floor of the operating 
room; this is 9£ ft. high, with the floor 12 ft. above the rails. A surface cabin 
for switchmen and flagmen is hexagonal, with 4-ft. sides; a larger size has 
two opposite sides 6 ft. long. These are all 8 ft. 2 ins. high inside. An ele- 
vated cabin may be 6X6 ft. inside, with the floor 12 to 15 ft. above the rails. 
It may be carried on a single timber or built-up steel post. One common 
design has two posts 12x12 ins., set 6 ft. in the ground and provided with 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



215 



sills and braces. On top of each is a cap 8X10 ins., 7 ft. long, with knee- 
braces, and upon these rests the cabin. For suburban crossings, where appear- 
ance of the cabins is to be considered, very neat and tasteful designs can be 
built at small expense. The comfort of the men should be carefully looked 




to, an inner lining and ceiling or a layer of felt or tarred paper being used where 
the winters are severe. Similar cabins may be used for watchmen, yardmen, 
car inspectors, weighing machine-men, etc. In yards, and where the railway 
runs through the streets, it is sometimes necessary to place narrow cabins 
between the tracks or between the track and the roadway. These may be 
about 3 ft. 8 ins. X8 ft 3 ins., but should never be placed between tracks which 
are less than 15 ft. 6 ins. c. to a 



216 



TRACK. 



Station Platforms. 

Railway-station platforms are usually level with or only a few inches above 
the level of the rail heads, except for elevated and some suburban railways, 
where the platforms are level with the car floors as in Fig. 93. The platform 
should in general be 3 to 6 ins. above the rails, and within easy reach of the 
lowest steps of the cars. The edge should be 24 or 33 ins. from the rail, or 





Elevation on Track. 



Cross Section A-B. 



'-S///S &X.8' 




—8 



n'o'~ >J 

First Floor Plan 




-17' 0" H 

Second Floor Plan. 



Fig. 140. — Section-Foreman's House; Louisville & Nashville Ry. 

5 ft. 6 ins. from center of track. The main part of the platform should not 
be less than 10 ft. or 12 ft. wide, but at small stations the portions beyond 
the station building may be reduced to 6 ft. in width. Platforms between 
tracks are 12 to 15 ft. wide. The platform is generally one or two steps below 
the floor of the station building. It should incline slightly towards the track, 
while the ends should have an incline of 1 in 10 to the ground level. Where 
there is much passing across the tracks (though this should be avoided wherever 
possible), planking may be laid between the rails and between the tracks, 
being flush with the tops of the rails, and leaving the necessary flangeways. 
The New York Central Ry. places a rail laid on its side against the inner side of 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 



217 



each track rail to form the flangeway, with a 3X8-in. plank against this and 
another against the outside of the track rail. The planks are laid on fillers 
on the ties to bring them level with the rail heads. Between and outside of 
the planking is a filling of 3 ins. of 2-in. broken stone covered with 1 in. of |-in. 
to |-in. clean screenings; this surfacing is watered and rolled. This arrange- 




Fig 142. — Telegraph Tower; Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. 

ment may be used for the full length of the platform, or for 10-ft. cross-walks. 
Freight platforms should be level with the floors of the cars, being about 3 ft. 
8 ins. or 4 ft. above the rail, and having the edge at least 3| ft. from the rail; 
this clearance limit varies on different roads. A platform about 3 ft. 3 ins. 
high should also be provided for handling freight to or from wagons and carts, 
an inclined approach being built in each case. 

Brick, concrete and wood are the materials principally used, with asphalt 
occasionally in large terminal stations. Paving brick on 3 ins. of sand or 6 ins. 
of slag or gravel makes a good surface, but should have a curbing of stone or 



218 TRACK. 

concrete, as curb planks supported by stakes decay and become displaced. 
The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. has adopted a curb of concrete slabs 
which are made at its yards and shipped as required. These are 24 ins. deep, 
42 ins. long (4H ins. on the bottom), 6 ins. and 4 ins. thick at bottom and 
top, with the outer corner rounded to 2 ins. radius. In one end is a slot If 
ins. deep and 2 ins. wide, extending 16^ ins. from the bottom; the other end 
has a rib lJXlf ins., 16 ins. high. Where greater depth is required, the slabs 
are 36X36 ins., and 7 ins. thick at the bottom. The concrete is a 1:2:5 
mixture, made with ^-in. limestone, and there is no reinforcement. The stations 
on the Eastern Ry. of New Mexico have brick platforms 240 ft. long, 16 ft. 
wide at the building and 10 ft. at the ends. The pitch is |-m. to the foot; 
and the edge is level with the rail and 4^ ft. from center of track. At the 
rear and the end of the building (at the freight room) the platform is 3 ft. 
8 ins. high, for convenience in loading and unloading wagons. A 4XlO-in. 
timber wheel guard is bolted against the face of this. Inclines connect this 
with the lower portion, the incline to the front platform being against the 
end of the building. The retaining wall and curb are of monolithic concrete, 
1:3:5. On top of a cinder filling is a 3-in. bed of sand, wetted and tamped; 
on this the paving bricks are laid (flat) with x^-in. to £-in. joints swept full 
of sand. A concrete platform 12 ft. wide may have a pitch of £-in. per ,foot, 
and may be a 3^-in. slab of 1:3:6 concrete, with a £-in. finishing coat of cement 
and sand 2 to 1. Concrete cross-walks may connect such platforms. High 
platforms of reinforced concrete for the suburban stations of the New York 
Central Ry. have the top 4 ft. above the rail, and the edges 3£ ins. from the 
clearance line of the cars. The width varies, but there are two continuous 
8-in. walls, with each side of the platform extending beyond the wall as a 
30-in. cantilever. The floor slab or deck is 6 ins. thick, and the platforms 
are 350 ft. long. 

Wood is commonly used for platforms, and where the surface is to be level 
with the rails, it may have pine planks, 3X6 or 2X4 ins., nailed to oak sills, 
4X6 ins., laid at right angles to the rails and 24 to 30 ins. apart. The timber, 
however, is liable to be damp and to rot even if laid on sand, gravel or cinders, 
and under such conditions it will gradually develop holes which are likely to 
trip persons walking on the platform. It is much better to support the sills 
on small concrete or masonry piers, excavating the ground so as to leave an 
air space under the platform, as in Fig. 142. Oak posts or pile ends may be 
used instead of the piers. The sills slope 2 ins. towards the track. Upon 
the sills are joists or floor beams about 3X10 ins., 12 to 16 ins. c. to. c, laid 
parallel with the track and braced by bridging pieces. To these beams are 
spiked 2-in. floor planks. A layer of ashes or gravel should be placed under 
the platform, with its surface at least 5 ins. below the sills, so as to prevent 
the growth of weeds. For the ends of small platforms extending beyond the 
station buildings, an economical plan is to lay two lines of timbers 8X16 ins., 
connected at intervals of 10 ft. by transoms 6X12 ins., and f-in. tie-rods, 
between which is a filling of gravel or cinders. (See also Chapter 2.) 

Platform Roofs. — In front of station buildings, a shed roof may be extended, 
but where the platform is covered, it has usually a roof supported on one or 
two rows of columns. In the "umbrella" type the sides slope down from the 
middle to gutters along the edges, but in the "butterfly" type they slope from 
the edges to a central gutter. This latter arrangement gives less drip and a 



WATER AND COALING STATIONS. 219 

better protection to passengers. On the New York Central Ry. the edge of 
the "butterfly" roof is 14 ft. 10 ins. above base of rail and 4 ft. from center 
of track, extending over the car roof. Where the track is used by both passen- 
ger and freight trains the distances are 13 ft. and 6 ft., the latter in order to 
clear men riding in box cars. The "umbrella" roofs on the 15-ft. island plat- 
forms of the Dayton union station are 15 ft. wide, with the eaves and crest 
13^ ft. and 17^ ft. above the head of the rail; 9-in. pipe columns are used. 
These platforms are from 700 to 1,000 ft. long and are connected by a cross- 
walk which is also covered. 

Floors for Roundhouses and Shops. 

For roundhouses, etc., brick is probably the best paving material, as it will 
stand heavy trucking, and is easily drained and kept clean. Hard-burned 
vitrified brick should be used, laid on edge on 2 ins. of sand with a concrete 
base, or upon a 6-in. to 12-in. rolled bed of cinders, slag or gravel. The floor 
should be tamped level, rolled and grouted with cement or hot tar. A wooden 
floor is very generally used, and the Altoona roundhouse of the Pennsylvania 
Ry. has 3-in. tongued-and-grooved yellow-pine planks on yellow-pine stringers 
4X6 ins., embedded in stone ballast. A gravel or dirt floor is unsatisfactory, 
and causes dust, which is blown over the engines. In any case the floor should 
be kept in good repair. The rails may rest on longitudinal timbers 8X12 ins. 
or 12X12 ins., on the edges of the pits; or upon cross-blocks 6X8 ins. or 8X12 
ins., covering the full width of the top of the pit wall (about 2 ft.). Concrete 
may be filled in between the blocks, and they may be covered with planking 
level with the rail head. This gives a good support for jacking or blocking. 
In some cases the rails are laid directly upon the concrete walls, or upon cast- 
iron plates on the walls. With longitudinal timbers, shims 2X10 ins. and 
the full width of the timber may be used, 8 ins. apart, to prevent wear or 
splitting of the timber. Stop blocks to prevent engines from overrunning the 
tracks have been noted above. 

For tracks in shops, the rails may be laid on longitudinal timbers or cross- 
ties (with wooden or iron cross-ties under the former) embedded in or laid 
upon concrete; a tie-plate should be placed under the rail ends at each joint. 
They may also be laid directly upon the concrete, being held by clamps and 
nuts on 12-in. bolts bedded in the concrete, and having anchor plates on the 
lower heads. A groove or channel about 6 or 8 ins. wide should be left for 
each rail, to be filled in after with concrete, so that in renewing rails, etc., the 
concrete of the main floor will not be broken. A floor of this kind may be 
made as follows: 12 ins. of gravel, tamped and leveled; 3? to 4| ins. of con- 
crete (1:2:4); 2 ins. of cement (5 sand to 1 cement), and a £-in. finishing coat 
of equal parts of sand and Portland cement, or 1| ins. of sand and cement 
2 to 1. The shops of the Philadelphia & Reading Ry. have floors of bituminous 
concrete (cement concrete at pits) composed of 1 gallon of coke-oven com- 
position to 1 cu. ft. of screened cinder, laid hot and well rammed. In this 
are embedded yellow-pine sleepers, 6X6 ins., 4 to 5 ft. apart, on which is an 
under floor of hemlock planks, 3X8 ins., with a wearing floor of maple boards, 
1^X4 ins., laid at right angles to the hemlock. Tracks are laid on pine ties 
6X8 ins., 8£ ft. long, embedded in the concrete with their tops 5 ins. below 
the floor surface. The wooden floor is more comfortable for the men in winter. 



220 TRACK. 

A very general arrangement consists of 3-in. planking (or two courses of 2X8 ins.) 
on sleepers embedded in broken stone, gravel or cinders. 

A tar-concrete floor may be made of a layer of clean, fine gravel and sand, 
well mixed with pitch and tar (1 part pitch to 2 tar); it should be from 1 to 2 
ins. thick and laid on a 6-in. bed of gravel or of broken stone mixed with 
gravel to fill the voids. Plank floors laid directly upon cement concrete are 
subject to rapid decay, as the cement is hygroscopic and contains water in 
the pores, and is a good conductor of heat. Asphaltic concrete is a poor 
conductor of heat; it is antiseptic in its properties, and wood floors placed 
upon it have proved very durable, though the pungent smell of the tar lasts 
a long while, and may be objectionable in storehouses where certain goods 
are stored. The use of tar concrete is not advisable where heating pipes come 
near it, and in cement concrete fine crushed granite, in place of sand, will 
give a more durable and better-looking surface. The bottom planking should 
be well seasoned, and painted with some preservative, otherwise dry-rot may 
set in where any considerable area is covered by machines. 



CHAPTER 13.— SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 

Sidings. 

Sidetracks may be considered as being divided into two classes: (1) Those 
used in train service; (2) Those used for storage and for switching movements 
at yards, stations and industries. The former are now very generally called 
"sidings," to distinguish them from tracks of the second class. The track of 
the latter is often of inferior construction, having light and worn rails, few and 
old ties, and a partial equipment of spikes and bolts. This may be permis- 
sible to a certain extent, but the track should be in good and safe condition 
for its service. A sidetrack in defective condition, with bad line and surface, 
is generally an indication of carelessness or neglect in the maintenance depart- 
ment. Freight sidetracks at small stations may be placed to suit local require- 
ments, the freight-house track being (1) at the back of the combined passenger 
and freight building, or (2) between the main track and a freight house on the 
opposite side from the passenger station. The sidetrack may be slightly lower 
than the main track, so that cars will not foul the latter; it should be fitted 
with a derail for the same purpose. All turnouts should be well laid and bal- 
lasted, and kept up to the standard of the main track, while passing sidings 
should be maintained as part of the main track. Turnouts from main track 
should be protected by safety devices, as noted in Chapter 7, and their number 
should be as limited as possible. It is bad practice to multiply main-track 
switches by putting in spurs to industries, etc., with no other protection than 
an ordinary switchstand. The spurs can often be connected with a lead track 
or siding, the latter alone being directly connected to the main track. 

Passing Sidings. 

These are provided to enable opposing trains to pass on single-track roads, 
and also to relieve traffic by enabling freight or inferior trains to keep out of 
the way of faster or superior trains. Where they are long enough for the 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 221 

inferior trains to continue running (instead of waiting for the superior trains 
to pass) , they are known as relief tracks or relief sidings. On double-track roads 
the sidings may be placed between or outside of the main tracks. Lap sidings 
are so arranged that opposing trains can pass without either one having to stop. 
Passing and main tracks should be at least 13 ft. c. to c. 

The turnouts of passing sidings and relief tracks should be equipped with 
interlocking switch and signal apparatus operated from a tower. Where manual 
block signals are used, this may be a block-signal tower. This is desirable not- 
only on account of safety but to facilitate traffic with heavy trains. When 
switches are operated by hand, the train must stop to allow a brakeman to 
run ahead and open the switch, and then start again to pull into the siding. 
This means delay and expense, with liability to engine failures and the parting 
of couplers in starting a heavy train. Where a train takes an outlying side- 
track on a block section, and the block is thus clear and yet has a train on it, 
the towerman should be notified and give a following main-track train the 
"caution" signal. In such cases a bell circuit may connect the outlying side- 
track with the tower; in this way the conductor can notify the signalman 
or operator when his train is clear of the main track, and also when the 
superior train has passed the switch. There may also be an automatic indi- 
cator to notify the towerman when the main track is clear and when the train 
passes the switch. Still further protection may be provided by an electric switch 
lock controlled by the signalman or operator. When a middle relief track con- 
nects with the crossover connecting the two main tracks, the movement of trains 
from the relief track may be governed by the dwarf signal at the crossover 
switch. In order to allow of a second train being got clear of the main track 
when the relief track is occupied, the train may be switched onto the opposite 
main track, a call bell connected with the block-signal tower and interlocked 
with the dwarf signal being used to control the heading out of this train. 

Arrangements for "lap" passing sidings are shown in Fig. 143. Plan No. 1 
is a middle siding with the pulling-out switches at the tower. Westbound 
trains take the siding at (A) and pull out at (B); while eastbound trains take 
the siding at (D) and pull out at (E). The sidings are connected and have the 
end switches (C) and (F), so that in case of emergency the entire length of 
track can be used for trains in one direction. The telegraph tower is located 
at the center or "lap," the switches (B) and (E) being operated from the tower. 
This relieves the trainmen from responsibility for the switch when they have a 
clear signal to go on, and prevents them from pulling out onto the main track 
without the knowledge of the operator. Plan No. 2 is a middle siding in which 
trains pull in at the tower. Westbound trains enter at (B) and pull out at 
(C); while eastbound trains enter at (E) and pull out at (F). This plan is not 
used as much as the former. As the entering switches (B) and (E) are oper- 
ated from the tower, trains do not have to stop before taking the siding. In 
order to control the outgoing movements and place the siding entirely under 
the control of the operator, an electric starting signal may be placed at the 
pulling-out switches (C) and (F). This is operated from the tower and inter- 
locked with the switch, so that a train cannot pull out without the knowledge 
of the operator. 

Plans Nos. (3) and (4) are outside lap sidings, the operation of which is similar 
to that of Nos. 2 and 1 respectively. These outside sidings are used on long, 
straight lines to avoid the necessity of putting the reversions in main track, 



222 TRACK. 

which the construction of a middle siding would require. The capacity of the 
siding for trains in one direction cannot, however, be temporarily increased, as 
with middle sidings, except by crossing over and interfering with through traffic 
in the other direction. The lap sidings may be placed at intervals of ten miles, 
additional sidings being built between them as the traffic may demand. By 
having sidings with a capacity for two or more trains, at short intervals, with 
switches operated from a tower so that trains need not stop, a high facility of 
train movement is obtained. When the traffic becomes too heavy for such a 
movement an additional main track or tracks will be required. The arrange- 
ment shown in Plan No. 5 is used where the sidings hold only one or two freight 
trains, and also where it is desired to maintain only one telegraph office. Where 
the third tracks are of such length as to lap over two block sections and get the 
use of these telegraph towers, the connections are made as shown in Plan No. 

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Fig. 143. — Plans of Passing Sidings. 

6. A similar arrangement to Plans No. 3 and No. 4 can be applied to single 
track, as shown in Plan No. 7, and this greatly facilitates the handling of heavy 
traffic. With such an arrangement, two trains, headed in opposite directions 
and waiting upon the sidings, may proceed upon their respective ways imme- 
diately after the passage of the train on the main track, without waiting upon 
each other's movements. These sidings may be long enough to accommodate 
two or more freight trains, each of which pulls out as it gets the signal from the 
tower, the other following up to the tower. Thus trains in opposite directions 
do not interfere with one another, and no time is lost in waiting for train orders 
from a tower at a distance. The switches may be operated from the tower, 
the signalman being notified of the train orders. These sidings may be event- 
ually extended to form a double track. 

An ordinary passing siding is simply a piece of track parallel with the main 
track and connected with the latter at each end. Its length should be at least 
sufficient for the longest trains operated. If long enough for two trains, the 
middle should be marked by a sign, and it is well to have two crossovers, as 
in Plan No. 8. The New York Central Ry. arrangement of a single siding with 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 223 

station siding or house track is shown in Plan No. 9. Double sidings for single 
and double main tracks are shown in Plans Nos. 10 and 11. In the relief- 
track arrangement on the New York Central Ry., Plan No. 12, one or both of 
the main tracks (12 ft. c. to c.) are swung out to a distance of 26 ft., with the 
relief tracks between. No. 10 frogs are used at the connections with the main 
track, and No. 7 at those with the relief track. The standard passing-track 
arrangement of the Union Pacific Ry. is shown in Plan No. 13; the siding is 
4,000 ft. long, with middle crossovers, and the tracks are 13 ft. c. to c. No. 10 
frogs are used at the main track and No. 9 at the relief- track connections. 
The main track on the station side is left straight, in order to give the operator 
or towerman a good view. The swing in the other main track is made by 10- 
min. curves 670 ft. long, so that trains can run at full speed. 

Yards and Terminals. 

The word "terminal" is applied to cover all the property and facilities at 
the end of the railway or division. The terminals may be subdivided into 
passenger and freight terminals, and further classified as line terminals, division 
terminals, rail and water terminals, branch or district terminals, etc. The 
word "yard" is applied to the system of tracks (independent of running tracks) 
which is provided at terminals and division points, stations, etc., for storing and 
switching cars in the work of making up and distributing trains. It is also 
applied indiscriminately to each group of tracks making up a general yard. 
Yard operations have an important bearing upon the cost and facility of trans- 
portation and the handling of freight traffic. The delays to cars in yards are 
among the most serious hindrances to the continuous movement of freight, and 
as through cars have to pass through a number of yards the cumulative delay 
may amount to days. At the smaller yards, inefficient construction or opera- 
tion may lead to delays much greater than the time properly required for sort- 
ing cars, and at large cities there is additional delay where cars have to be 
transferred from one road to another. Within recent years great improvements 
have been made in yards and terminals with two special objects in view: (1) 
To increase the speed and facility of handling the cars in the necessary switch- 
ing movements; (2) To increase the facility of handling freight in loading and 
unloading cars. These matters were discussed by tne writer in a paper on 
" Railway Yards and Terminals," read before the Western Railway Club in 
November, 1900, and in an article in the Encyclopaedia Americana (1907). 
(See also Engineering News, March 22, 1906, and April 4, 1907.) 

Passenger Terminals. 

As to passenger terminals and yards, very little can be said in the way of 
laying down general rules, the conditions and requirements varying so greatly 
in each case. Convenience of operation is usually of greater importance than 
economy of yard service, as the switching movements of passenger cars are 
comparatively limited. At terminal stations, the tracks are generally arranged 
in pairs, with platforms between, but in the Southern terminal station at Boston, 
the two tracks of each alternate pair are separated by a platform 8 ft. wide, 
used exclusively for baggage. These tracks are 17 ft. c. to c, while the passenger 
platforms are 14 ft. wide, the adjacent tracks being 23 ft. c. to c. The LaSalle 
St. station at Chicago has 11 tracks, spaced alternately 12 ft. and 24 ft. c. to c. 



224 TRACK. 

The Union station at St. Louis has 32 tracks in pairs, 800 ft. long, with approach 
curves of 12 and 13°. A subway system is provided to avoid trucking baggage 
on the platforms. The New York Central Ry. station at New York has 17-ft. 
platforms between the pairs of tracks, the platforms being 700 to 1,400 ft. long. 
The station of the New York Central Ry. at Albany has tracks in pairs between 
platforms 20 ft. wide and 20 ft. apart, with two rows of columns (for umbrella 
roofs) on each platform, 5 ft. from the edges. In the Pittsburg station of the 
Pennsylvania Ry., the pairs of stub tracks are 17 ft. between outer rails, and 
20 ft. between the inner rails of adjacent pairs. The tracks of the Wabash 
Ry. terminal at Pittsburg are in pairs 12§ ft. c. to c. and 18 ft. c. to c, with 
9-ft. platforms 12^ ins. above base of rails. Platforms between tracks should 
have a minimum width of 12 ft., and 15 to 20 ft. is better, especially if there 
are columns or if baggage is conveyed on the platforms. The main platform 
between a sidehouse station and the tracks (parallel with the latter) should 
be 20 to 30 ft. wide; while the transverse platform between the headhouse 
and end of tracks in a terminal station should be 30 to 75 ft. wide. At 
many large stations there must be both through and stub tracks, the latter 
for trains making these their terminal points. Stub tracks should be in pairs, 
and connected at their ends by a crossover or transfer table, so that the engine 
of an incoming train can be sent to the roundhouse,, coaling station, etc., without 
the necessity of waiting for its train to be moved. 

Ample connection should be made between the station or house tracks and 
the main tracks, with interconnections by slip switches, etc., so that there will 
be no liability of a station track being blocked. At the South station in Boston 
two intersecting double- track lines form an X in the middle of the yard, and 
cross all the approach tracks. At each intersection is a double slip switch, 
thus giving a great variety of combinations for connecting any of the 28 station 
tracks with any of the approach tracks. The special equipment for passenger 
yards will include express, baggage and mail-car tracks, car-cleaning tracks, 
inspection and repair tracks, car-storage tracks, engine tracks, turntables and 
transfer tables, coal and water supply for the engines, water for washing cars, 
attachments for charging gas tanks or electric storage batteries, water supply 
and ice for car tanks, etc. Passenger terminals were discussed in Engineering 
News, Jan. 12 and June»l, 1899. 

The arrangement of tracks and track connections at stations of the smaller 
class is an important matter that is often overlooked. At stations having much 
local traffic, special tracks for the local trains should be developed from the main 
tracks. The tracks nearest the station should be for local trains and the outer 
ones for through trains The points where the local tracks leave and rejoin the 
main tracks should be thoroughly protected by signals and interlocking plants, 
which may be controlled from the station. Where a through station on a main 
line forms also a terminal for branch or local traffic, the latter trains may be 
accommodated on stub tracks (generally parallel with the through tracks) at the 
end of the station. There should of course be the necessary connections between 
the through and stub tracks. 

Trainsheds. — The trainshed at a large terminal may consist of a single arch 
or truss span, or a series of truss spans supported by intermediate rows of 
columns. The former system is not now in favor; it is costly, difficult to keep 
in repair, hard to light, and often damp and drafty. A modification of the 
multiple-span system is the low-roof trainshed of the Hoboken (New York) 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 



225 



terminal of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. Rows of columns 43 
ft. 4 \ ins. c. to c. and 27 ft. apart longitudinally, 9 ft. 3 ins. high, carry plate 
girders with curved bottom chords; on these are purlins for the 2-in. concrete 
roof. There are skylights in the middle and at both sides of every span. 
Each span covers two tracks, and the headway is 16£ ft. above the rails at 
the middle of the span. Over the center of each track is a continuous open- 
ing 26 ins. wide, with concrete sides 25 ins. high, half above and half below the 
roof. This opening carries off the smoke from the engines, while the sides 
rising above the roof protect the platforms from driving rain. The girders are 
encased in concrete where they cross the openings. The platforms are 20 ft. 
wide, with the center and edges 1\ and 6 ins. above the rails. Some large 
stations have no trainsheds, but umbrella roofs over the platforms and over 
the cross-walks between the platforms. (See Station Platforms. ) 

Rapid-Transit Terminals and Loops. — On rapid-transit lines the headway 
between trains is largely dependent on the arrangement of the terminal tracks, 
for in practice trains cannot be run on a headway less than the time used by a 
train entering and leaving a terminal. It should not be necessary to stop a 
train to put it in proper order as to engine or cars, or put it on the proper track 
for the outgoing trip; nor should the arrangement permit an incoming engine 
to be blocked in, thus necessitating an exchange of engines. Quick service 
can best be made by arranging for the continuous forward movement of the 
trains, and avoiding the necessity of having the traffic in one direction cross 
that in the other direction. The "loop" system best fulfills the desired con- 
ditions, the loop being a circular track connecting the inbound and outbound 
tracks so that trains pass from one to the other by direct forward movement. 
At points where there is not room for a loop, space should be reserved for a 



Storage Tracks reached from Station 
by Backward Movement. 





Storage Tracks reached thm Station 
by Forward Movement. 



Fig. 144. — Loop Terminals for Rapid-Transit Railways. 



number of parallel terminal tracks. If the room is so limited that even these 
cannot be accommodated, a trailing crossover should connect the two main tracks 
about an engine length from the end of the incoming track, so that an arriving 
engine can get out of the way without having to move against incoming trains 
or without having to wait for the train that it brought to be taken away. 
There should be another crossover a train length farther back to admit of the 
passage of trains from the incoming to the outgoing track. Double crossovers 
are sometimes used in such cases. 

Loop terminals are now used in a number of cases. The New York station 
of the New York Central Ry. will have on the lower floor a terminal for sub- 
urban trains, with a number of parallel tracks (separated by platforms) all 
served by a double- track loop of 137 ft. radius. The South terminal station at 
Boston was designed with a double-track loop for suburban traffic, but in this 
case the platforms are on the loop itself. The Metropolitan Elevated Ry. of 
Chicago has loops at some of its terminals; the tracks diverge by easy curves 
(about 1,000 ft. radius) to tangents formir-g a Y. Along these are located the 



226 TRACK. 

station platforms, and beyond them the tracks are connected by a curve of 
90 ft. radius. Within the loop may be inspection and repair tracks, opening 
from ladder tracks parallel with the Y. At the Wilson Ave. terminal of the 
Northwestern Elevated Ry. (Chicago) there are three platforms serving four 
parallel tracks. The trains pass round a double-track loop of 1,200 ft. radius 
and enter the station headed for the return trip. Tracks for the storage of 
engines and cars should be provided contiguous to the loop. These may be 
parallel to the flaring tangents of a kite-shaped loop, parallel with the main 
track (extended), or they may form connections across the loop. One of the 
plans in Fig. 144 requires no backward movements either in passing from the 
main track to the storage tracks or in returning to the main track. 

Locomotive Terminal Facilities. 

At terminal and division points, and where engines are changed, facilities 
must be provided for inspecting, cleaning, switching, turning and housing 
engines; and also for supplying them with coal, water, sand, etc. Several of 
*these facilities have been described in Chapter 11. At the end of its trip, the 
engine is run upon a track for inspection, and then goes to the ash pit to have 
the fire cleaned; at this or other points it is supplied with coal, water and sand. 
It is then usually sent to the engine house,, being reversed on the turntable 
before entering the house. Here the boiler is washed out if necessary, light 
repairs are made, and the engine is cleaned and put in condition for another 
trip. Where the engines merely lay over for a short time before making the 
return trip, they may be put on storage tracks in the open air; a series of radial 
tracks served by a turntable may make a convenient arrangement for this. 
The engine house is usually of circular or segmental form, with tracks radiating 
from a turntable. Rectangular houses with parallel tracks served by a transfer 
table are used in a few cases. Promptness is necessary in moving locomotives 
between the yard and the engine house, and the tracks should be so arranged 
that when an incoming locomotive has placed its train on the receiving track, 
it can proceed immediately to the engine house. Where engines have to 
be changed quickly, as at division terminals in the case of the engines of 
passenger trains, a track for the new engine should be placed near the changing 
point. The coaling station, ash pits, sand house and water supply should be 
near the engine house and easily accessible. Water columns should be located 
at the engine house, at points where switch engines work, at coal pockets 
(if distant from the engine house), and at the outgoing ends of the yard. 

Freight Yards. 

At division and terminal points provision must be made to receive incoming 
freight trains, to separate and classify the cars, according to contents or des- 
tination, and to put cars together to form outgoing trains. At division points 
through trains require only to have the engines and cabooses changed; and 
the cars, brakes, wheels, etc., inspected to insure that the trains are in safe 
and proper condition. General freight trains, however, are composed of cars 
of various commodities, and for various destinations. They have, therefore, 
to undergo a series of switching movements to separate and classify the cars. 
Some of the' cars have to be set out for unloading at the division point; others 
have to be forwarded to local points on the next division, or sent through to 
the next division point; and still others have to be transferred to connecting 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 227 

roads, or to be held for further orders. In the same way outgoing trains may 
be made up of through cars brought in over the previous division, local cars 
gathered up at points along that division, cars loaded at the division point, and 
cars received from connecting roads. Outbound local trains must be made up 
with cars in station order for distribution along the next division. At large 
terminals, cars may have to be distributed to freight houses, warehouses, team 
tracks, factories and industrial establishments, coal and ore docks or piers, 
grain elevators, local or district yards, etc. Cars loaded at these places must 
be collected at the main yard to be made up in through or local outbound trains, 
and empty cars must be distributed to points where loads await them. Upon 
the efficiency of handling cars in these complicated movements at freight yards 
will largely depend the efficiency and economy of the transportation service, as 
already noted. Items which enter into the cost of yard operation (exclusive 
of interest on capital invested and depreciation) include the following: the cost 
of yard engine repairs and supplies, wages of yard enginemen and firemen, 
switchmen, yardmasters, trackmen, signalmen, telegraph operators and way 
bill clerks; a percentage of general office expenses and of wages of train dis- 
patchers; the cost of material used in track repairs, and the cost of labor and 
material used in the repairs of cars damaged in the yard. The investment in 
extra equipment made necessary by failure to handle cars promptly may also 
be a consideration. 

On many railways the improvement of yards and yard service has been taken 
up very thoroughly. It may safely be said that on nearly every railway it 
would pay to make an extended and systematic investigation as to the design 
and operation of each important yard, and the means by which increased 
efficiency and economy can be secured; and then to follow this by a prompt 
and systematic undertaking of the improvements which are found to be desir- 
able and practicable. One of the notable features of the railway improvement 
work of the past few years is the reconstruction and improvement of yards 
and terminals, and in fact such work is as important as the revision of grades 
and curves. The freight yards have been a defective part of the railway system 
as a whole, one reason for this being that the great expense and delay involved 
in switching and handling cars in yards has only been recognized by operating 
officers within recent years. Many yards of importance have developed grad- 
ually from smaller yards, and tracks have been lengthened, new switches and 
tracks put in, and alterations made from time to time as immediate require- 
ments seemed to demand. Such a yard becomes eventually a mere patchwork 
of tracks and switches, the operation of which involves much unnecessary work 
and delay in handling the traffic, with heavy maintenance work. In large 
yards the traffic may not permit of entire reconstruction at one time, but a 
good and comprehensive design should be planned and gradually introduced. 

Defects in yard design are frequently due to lack of co-operation between 
the constructing and operating officers. In some cases a yard is enlarged with- 
out the assistance of the engineer, the result being an awkward arrangement 
of curves and switches, which increases the difficulty of handling cars and 
increases the wear on wheels and rails. In other cases a yard may be planned 
without due enquiry into the local conditions and traffic requirements, with 
the result that the yard, while appearing very convenient on paper, is a source 
of much trouble to the operating department. Thus the switches may be badly 
located, or the track scales, repair tracks, or other special points may be incon- 



228 TRACK. 

veniently arranged or so located that they can only be reached by crossing or 
fouling other tracks which are in constant use. Railway engineers have 
generally given too little study to the operating side of railway service, and in 
consequence do not realize the importance of many smaller items and details 
in economizing work, or realize their relation to the general operating expenses 
of the railway. In the interests of efficient service it is imperative that the 
officers of the constructing and operating departments should consult together 
as to the best arrangement for any yard. Information should be sought from 
the yardmaster or other local officer as to any special or local service to be 
provided for, or any special difficulties resulting from the existing arrangement. 

In enlarging a yard the idea often is to provide more tracks or trackage for 
cars, but a yard is intended for sorting and distributing cars, rather than for 
storing them. The quicker the car is passed through the yard from the time 
of its arrival off the road until it is delivered at its unloading point or sent out 
again to continue its journey, the greater will be the operating efficiency and 
economy of the yard service. This economy and efficiency will also extend 
through the whole freight service, for if the cars are handled promptly there 
will be less delay in providing empty cars as called for, and consequently the 
capacity of the equipment will be increased, thus avoiding the necessity of 
purchasing new cars. If a yard is too large, or its tracks too long, there is likely 
to be a lack of promptness in clearing it and getting the cars moving over the 
road. For this reason they are sometimes duplicated at important points; 
thus heavy freight (coal, etc.) may be handled at one yard, and general freight 
at an entirely independent yard in the same neighborhood. If a yard is too 
small, blockades will almost certainly occur, interfering with the movement of 
freight trains on the road, while the hurried and complicated switching in an 
overcrowded yard will tend to greatly increase the damage to rolling stock. 
In all yards there is more or less of a tendency to rough handling of cars, which 
can be kept in check only by strict enforcement of discipline, and a full enquiry 
as to the cause of and responsibility for each case of damage. 

A main or general yard is subdivided into separate groups of tracks, each 
termed a yard, such as receiving yards, separating or distributing yards, 
classification yards and advance or departure yards; these are all inter- 
connected and form the general yard. There will also be two general yards 
for traffic in opposite directions. The yards and tracks which make up the 
general yard must be so arranged in series that the cars will move steadily 
forward in the several switching movements, as all backward or reverse 
movements detract from the efficiency of operation. The location of the yard 
with reference to the main line is an important matter. It may be placed on 
one or both sides of the main tracks or between them. The first plan is object- 
tionable on account of the traffic in one direction crossing the other main track 
to get into the yard. The second is objectionable from the necessity of cross- 
ing the main tracks in passing from one yard to another. The third plan is 
not open to these objections, and as it usually provides for a sufficient separa- 
tion of the main tracks to make room for the engine house and other facilities, 
the yard movements will not foul the main tracks from the time the incoming 
trains enter the yard until outgoing trains again leave the yard. Main tracks 
so located should, when practicable, be placed far enough from the yard tracks 
to admit of additional tracks being built in the space as required. At points 
where there are connections with the main track, these should be so arranged 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 229 

that ordinary switching movements will not cause the main track to be fouled 
when the switch is set for main-track movements. This may be effected by 
connecting the main track and the lead or first yard track with a crossover, 
and extending the lead track beyond the crossover so as to form a "run-by." 
The connections with the main track should be as few as possible, and all equipped 
with interlocking plants to insure both safety and facility in handling the traffic. 

A "lead" track connects either end of the yard with the main track. The 
"body" tracks are the parallel tracks (in groups) upon which cars are switched 
or stored, and these are connected with or open from a diagonal "ladder" track. 
The ladder track is generally at an angle to the parallel tracks equal to the angle 
of the frogs. When it is necessary to divide a series of parallel tracks without 
breaking their continuity, a straight "ladder" track is run diagonally across 
them, the crossing of the tracks being effected by means of crossing frogs and 
the connection by slip switches, as in Fig. 54. Where there is a large number 
of tracks, as for a classification yard, it may be advisable to make the entering 
end wedge-shaped with two diverging ladder tracks, in order to concentrate the 
switches and also to lessen the wear of the frogs and switches by trains crossing 
them. One of the body tracks of each group is kept open or clear of cars, to 
allow of movements through the yard from one group to another. A "drill" 
track connects with the ladder track. It is generally parallel with but beyond 
the body tracks, and is for yard switching movements. Running tracks should 
be provided to enable the yard engines to pass from place to place in the general 
yard, and to enable both yard and road engines to go to and from the engine 
house, coaling and water stations, etc. A "house" track is laid alongside or 
inside a freight house, for cars loading or unloading. The body tracks should 
be 11 \ to 13 ft. c. to c. The first yard track may be 15 or 20 ft. from the 
main track, to allow room for water columns, etc. Tracks for cars to be 
unloaded by teams may be in pairs 12 ft. c. to c, with driveways 25 to 30 ft. 
wide between the pairs. A ladder track should be 15 ft. from any parallel track. 
Repair tracks should hold not more than 15 cars each, and may be 18 ft. apart 
or alternately 16 ft. and 24 to 30 ft. c. to c, with a narrow gage track for 
material in each wider space. Part of these tracks should have air pipes for 
testing the brake apparatus. 

In rating the car capacity of tracks, 40 ft. per car is usually allowed; or 50 
ft. on repair tracks, to allow of work on the ends of the cars. The yard must 
include facilities for changing engines and cabooses, inspecting and repairing 
cars, supplying ice to the refrigerator cars, and water to the stock cars. Cattle 
pens, spur tracks to factories, docks, elevators, etc., may also be required at 
certain points. There should be ample crane equipment for handling heavy 
freight, so arranged as to serve both wagons and cars. Water pipes with 
hydrants 300 ft. apart may be provided in receiving yards for the use of car 
inspectors in cooling hot boxes. Air pipes may be provided at departure 
yards for testing the train brakes before the road engine is attached. Hydrants 
for fire protection should also be provided throughout the yard and in freight 
houses. 

The discussion in detail of the design of individual yards is of little value 
since the conditions and requirements, the nature and extent of the traffic, and 
the size and shape of available land are so diverse. What may be a desirable 
and economical plan at one yard may be entirely inapplicable at another. A 
typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 145. An inbound train comes from the 



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SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 231 

main track to a receiving yard. In the separating yard the cars are arranged 
on separate tracks in regard to destination, commodity, etc. In the classifica- 
tion yard, cars are classified or grouped as required for making up trains, and 
in the departure or advance yard, the outbound trains wait for the road engines. 
Cars held for further orders go to the "hold" tracks or storage yard, and those 
needing repairs go to the repair or "cripple" track, whence they are shifted to 
the repair yard. Empty cars may be stored on separate tracks to keep them 
clear of yard movements. Cars with fast freight may also be set on separate 
tracks at the departure end of the yard; this facilitates making up and for- 
warding fast-freight trains ahead of the ordinary trains. The yard should be 
developed from one or two principal sidetracks so that the only switch in the 
main track will be that of the lead track. The receiving tracks should be long 
enough to take trains of maximum length, and the receiving yard should be of 
sufficient capacity to avoid blocking the main track by holding a second train 
until the first one is inspected, marked and distributed. The length of track 
should be approximately the same in all the groups. If the length is too great, 
it will necessitate switching the cars at high speed, making it dangerous for the 
men to jump on and off, and inducing a liability of injury to cars by colliding 
with each other. The aggregate length of the yard will also be excessive, 
causing considerable trouble in the movements of the switchmen and yardmen. 
The shortest classification track should be long enough to hold the cars of that 
classification for several hours' work, so that switching may be continued during 
a temporary blockade of the main line beyond the yard. The length need not 
generally be sufficient for a maximum train (except where these tracks serve 
also as departure tracks), but will depend upon local conditions and the number 
of classifications required. As a rule half a train length is sufficient, if an ample 
number of tracks' is provided for the several classifications and for bad-order 
or "hold" cars. Where there are advance or departure tracks, the classifica- 
tion tracks may be somewhat shortened, but it must be borne in mind that the 
filling of one classification track blocks the classification of cars on all the others 
until the filled track is relieved. Spare tracks should, therefore, be provided 
near the classification tracks. The "hold" or storage tracks should be double- 
ended, or else there is a tendency to neglect the cars at the dead end. They 
should also be so connected with the classification tracks that in making up 
trains the cars can be taken from the classification or storage tracks, as required. 
The tracks for cabooses should be so located that the cabooses can be got out 
of the way quickly on the arrival of the trains, and can be readily delivered to 
outgoing trains. The outbound caboose track may have a 1 \% grade to facili- 
tate running the cars to trains in the departure yard. When there is room, a 
loop caboose track from the receiving tracks to the advance or departure tracks 
may be a convenient arrangement. When certain trains are run regularly by 
one set of crews, and others by another set, it will facilitate matters to keep 
the two sets of cabooses separate by providing two caboose tracks. 

In team yards, where cars are unloaded by wagons, the tracks may be alter- 
nately \2\ ft. and 40 to 50 ft. c. to c, with driveways for teams in the wider 
spaces. The tracks may be parallel with the main track, or may turn off at 
an angle, according to the site. In some they are at an angle of about 45° 
with the ladder track, and have turnout curves of 20° or even 30°. For con- 
venience in shifting cars, the tracks should hold not more than 20 cars each. 
The yard should have wagon scales, and a track scale should be located near 



232 TRACK. 

it. There should also be cranes for handling heavy articles; this may be some 
form of jib crane, or a bridge crane having a hoisting trolley which travels on 
a bridge spanning two tracks and half the driveway. The driveways should 
be paved with brick or stone where the team traffic is heavy; and should in 
any case be well paved with macadam or gravel to prevent mud and to enable 
the wagons to be hauled easily. The surface is generally about 1 ft. above 
the rails. The New York Central Ry. paves the approaches with stone on 2 ins. 
of sand and a base of 3 ins. of cinders or 6 ins. of concrete. The driveways 
between the tracks are macadamized; the base is 3 ins. of cinders or 8 ins. of 
slag or telford stone, covered with 3 ins. of 2J-in. stone and 1 in. of stone or 
slag screenings. This is crowned 2 ins. in 10 ft., and has paved gutters. 

Yard Tracks. — One defect resulting from the general failure to recognize the 
important relation of yard service to the general operation of a railway is the 
poor quality of the yard tracks. Not only are the tracks very often of light 
and poor construction, but their maintenance is more or less neglected. Low 
joints, missing bolts, loose spikes, worn ties, poor ballast, and switches and 
frogs in bad repair, are common conditions in the average yard. The section- 
men in charge of the yard, finding it impossible to keep all these tracks in proper 
condition under the traffic which they sustain, naturally become more or less 
careless and discouraged. The switching engines (especially in smaller yards) 
are sometimes in corresponding condition, with tires worn hollow to an extent 
which is most destructive to the track. The heavy engines now being used at 
important yards call for heavy and substantial track to insure economy in 
operation and maintenance of the yard service. 

The use of good rails in yards has been assumed to be unnecessary and uneco- 
nomical in view of the severity of the service and wear, and this is one reason 
for dilapidated yard tracks. But good heavy rails will reduce the wear of both 
tires and rails in yards as well as on the open road, and the expenses of main- 
tenance of track and equipment will be correspondingly reduced. The cars will 
also run better. The New York Central Ry. introduced 100-lb. rails in the 
passenger yards of its New York terminal station, and obtained a decided 
economy in track work, in conjunction with other advantages. The tracks 
carried the heavy traffic between the station tracks and the four-track main- 
line approach, and were equipped with split switches, slip switches, turnout 
frogs and crossing frogs, all of the 100-lb. rails. The levermen in the inter- 
locking tower at first claimed that it would be hard work to throw the heavy 
switch rails. As a matter of fact, these switches were found to work more 
easily than those with lighter rails, as the latter become bent vertically, causing 
them to bind on the slide plates, whereas the former were stiff enough to hold 
their shape. Concrete ties appear to be particularly adapted to yards, where 
renewals are difficult and costly, and apt to be neglected. An ample supply of 
ties, slide plates, etc., should be provided for yard switches, and the whole 
yard should be well ballasted, and well drained. It should be kept in good 
condition, one or more men being detailed to clear up scrap iron, paper, refuse, 
etc. It is often difficult to keep the yard neat and free from weeds, as the yard 
gangs usually have little time for this incidental work. 

Split switches should be used, of a uniform pattern, and the frogs should be 
of one number, as far as possible. No. 7 and No. 9 frogs are largely used. The 
former (corresponding to 12° curves) should be used only where necessary, and 
not where road engines are operated. They cause more wear of the lead rails, 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 233 

due to the increased curvature, but they bring the switches closer together. Where 
the yard property is rectangular, the sharper the angle between body and ladder 
tracks, the more economically will the ground be used, which is of importance for 
city yards. Sometimes No. 8 frogs are used, with the angle of a No. 7. Where 
practicable, No. 8 or No. 9 should be used, especially for the large engines used 
in modern yards. The diverging angle of the body track may be made as large 
as possible and the curve continued beyond the frog to make up the total central 
angle. In staking out tracks in a large yard, stakes of different colors for different 
classes of tracks may be used to avoid confusion, and the stakes of the mouth of 
switch and point of frog may be marked M.S. and P.F. respectively. (See also the 
chapter on Switch Work.) Complicated arrangements of switches, crossovers, 
etc., should be avoided. Slip switches, though valuable and often necessary, 
are expensive in first cost and maintenance. The switchstands should be of 
good make and kept in good order, and if the numbers of the tracks are painted 
on the switchstands or targets, the work of the yardmen will be much facilitated. 
Usually the yard switches are worked independently, but in a few large yards 
with heavy traffic all the switches of a ladder track, etc., are operated by levers 
concentrated in a tower. These need not be interlocked, and the entire inter- 
locking of yard switching is impracticable on account of the complication. In 
some large yards the switches on the ladders of the classification tracks are 
worked by compressed air, on the Westinghouse electro-pneumatic system. All 
movements are controlled by push-buttons in a switchboard in front of the 
operator, and an indicator shows him when each car has cleared its switch. 

Yard Switching. 

The switching movements in separating or classifying the cars may be made 
in different ways: -(1) Drilling. The train is pushed and pulled to and fro by 
a switch engine. Each car or "cut" (group) of cars is uncoupled in turn from 
the rear end; the train is pushed down the drill track and the uncoupled car 
runs by its momentum onto the desired track. This is not adapted for econom- 
ical or efficient work in large yards. (2) Poling. The engine runs on a track 
parallel with that on which the train stands, and by means of a pole pushes 
each car (or cut), giving it sufficient impetus to run down the ladder track and 
through the switch of the body track for which it is intended. This avoids 
pulling and pushing the whole train to switch one car. The poling track should 
extend as close as possible to the ladder track, and may even be continued 
parallel with it, so that heavy cars or those which fail to reach their proper 
switches may readily be handled. A light grade (0.3 to 0.5%) on the ladder 
track will facilitate the car movements. The pole may be attached to the 
engine or to a special poling car. (3) Gravity. The cars are started on a 
descending grade which carries the cars to the classification ladder, along which 
they run by momentum to and along the desired tracks. This method has been 
largely adopted within recent years in this country, owing to the rapidity, 
facility and economy of working. If properly operated there will be less 
damage to cars and their contents than by other methods. It is specially adapted 
to large yards where large numbers of cars have to be handled. In a few places 
the natural slope of the ground provides the necessary grades, but as a rule a 
switching "hump" is built. The train is pushed up an incline to the summit 
of the hump, and as each car (or "cut") passes over it is uncoupled and acquires 
an impetus on the first or accelerating grade. 



234 



TRACK. 



The grades in any yard vary with traffic and climatic conditions, and it may 
be necessary to use a steeper accelerating grade in winter. The summit of the 
hump should be a vertical curve of about 1,500 ft. radius. The ascending or 
approach grade is usually about 0.6 to 0.85%, increased to 1 \% for 75 ft. at the 
summit to close the cars together. From the summit the grade is 2% to 4% 
(the latter where the grade must be short), followed by 0.75 to 1.50% along the 
ladder track, and 0.3 to 0.5% through the classification yard. Some examples 
of switching grades, with the recommendations of the Yards and Terminals Com- 
mittee of the American Railway Engineering Association, are given in Table No. 
16. The operation of freight yards is described in Engineering News, April 4 
and June 13, 1907. 



TABLE NO. 16.— GRADES FOR GRAVITY SWITCHING. 



From summit. 



Ladder tracks. 



Classification 
tracks. 



Am. Ry. Eng. Assoc; empty cars . .. 
loaded cars. . . 

Pennsylvania Lines; empty ( 

" loaded t 

N. Y. Central Ry.; DeWitt; loaded * 

empty t ■ 
L. S. & M. S. Ry.; Elkhart 



2.5% for 300 ft. 

2.0% for 300 ft. 

3.5% for 100 ft., or 

1 .5 to 3% if longer 

4% for 150 ft. 

2.5% for 150 ft. 

4.0% 



1.0% 

0.7% 

0.75 to 1.25 % 

1 . 25 to 1 . 50 % 

1.0% for 1200 ft. 

1.0% for 1200 ft. 

2 and 1% 



0.5% 

0.3% 

0.4% 

0.4% 

0.25% 

Level 



* Eastbound; mainly loaded. 



t Westbound; largely empty. 



As each car starts from the summit, a brakeman mounts it and stops it at the 
proper point on the classification track. An engine or motor car running to 
and fro brings the men back to the summit. In making up outbound trains, 
all the movements are usually made by switch engines, although a second grav- 
ity movement may sometimes be introduced for this purpose. 

The weighing of cars is a necessary and important item in yard work, both 
for commercial purposes and for making up trains on the tonnage-rating system, 
by which each engine is given a predetermined load to haul. The weighing is 
frequently done by track scales on the gravity track, the grade being so adjusted 
that cars will not pass too rapidly over the scales, which are 45 to 60 ft. long. 
Where a considerable proportion of the cars has to be weighed, the scale may 
be near the upper end of the accelerating grade. The grade over the scale should 
not exceed 2%, as a rule. When the scale is on a level track, a train may be 
pushed slowly over, stopping with each car on the scale or moving continuously, 
if the scale has automatic recording apparatus. (See Track Scales.) 

The lighting of yards is rarely given much consideration, night work being 
done under adverse conditions by the aid of hand lamps. It must be 
admitted that the proper lighting of a yard is not an easy matter, owing to the 
interference of cars, whose black shadows alternating with lighted spaces, and 
moving from place to place, may be more dangerous than a uniform darkness 
to which a man's eyes become more or less accustomed. The matter is being 
given serious attention, and some few yards are now efficiently lighted. Electric 
lighting is the best for yard illumination, provided the lights are located with 
care. They cast a deep shadow, and unless they are located high over the 
tracks the shadows of cars and buildings near by will be troublesome. Lamps of 
2,000 c.p. are recommended, spaced about 150 ft. along gravity or ladder tracks, 
and to give a clear view for about 300 ft. on classification or body tracks. They 
should be about 30 ft. above the rails. For gravity tracks the lights may be 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 235 

placed on poles or on bridges, and fitted with reflectors to screen the light from 
the men descending the grade, and to direct the light forward along the tracks. 
Towers 100 to 150 ft. high, with clusters of lamps, may also be used for general 
yard lighting. 

Freight Houses and Piers. 

City freight houses are usually long and narrow, to accommodate a number 
of cars. Trucks can be run through one row of cars into the next, but if there 
are more than two rows of cars, there should be an 8-ft. trucking platform 
between the pairs. Widths of 25 and 40 ft. for the inbound and outbound 
freight houses, respectively, are very generally used. There may be a platform 
(with shed roof) on the track side of each house, but it is generally better to 
put the track close to the house. Shed roofs should be put on the driveway 
side to protect freight while being handled to and from wagons. For city freight 
terminals a problem of increasing importance is that of not only attaining 
efficiency and economy in the handling of cars and freight, but of attaining 
these ends on a minimum area of ground. In many cases it may be economical 
to abandon large city yards, selling the land or utilizing it for more remunerative 
purposes, and then to establish outlying yards on less valuable ground. Tracks 
would then lead to small local yards and central freight houses. To fully 
develop the area of these latter, the double-deck system may be introduced. 
Cars are successfully handled on grades of 6 to 25% at coaling stations and 
coal piers, and are also very generally handled on curves of 50 to 100 ft. radius 
in yards. Thus curves, inclines and elevators will enable tracks to be operated 
on at least two stories, with several floors above for warehouse or freight storage 
purposes. Such an arrangement is rarely used, but in a number of cases city 
freight houses are now combined with railway or commercial warehouses. These 
buildings have tracks on one floor, and the freight platforms are connected with 
the warehouse floors and the team platforms (on the street level) by elevators 
and freight-handling devices. 

Freight piers at deep-water terminals are 50 to 150 ft. wide, and parallel piers 
should be 150 to 250 ft. apart. In freight houses on piers, with a dock on each 
side, from one to three tracks are required down the middle of the pier, the floor 
on each side being level with the floors of the cars. The tracks should have 
crossovers at intervals. Where warehouses are parallel with the wharf front, 
space can be economized by having spur tracks enter at the side, and run across 
the building. This will give more loading room than where the track is parallel 
with the building. This is especially the case where the tracks are in pairs, 
say 12 ft. c. to c, with trucking space of 15 to 20 ft. between pairs. The ends of 
tracks should be within reasonable distance of the wharf front to save as much 
trucking as possible. Conveyors or traveling platforms may be used to handle 
freight or trucks between vessels and piers. Freight-handling machinery Is 
largely used in commercial warehouses, but not to any extent in railway freight 
houses, owing partly to the variety of sizes, shapes and weights of materials to 
be handled. There are important possibilities in this direction, however. 
Hydraulic and electric power is largely used at terminals in Europe, for operating 
cranes, capstans, car and freight elevators, turntables, etc. 

Special siding and yard arrangements are required for coal and ore. At coal 
mines on the Southern Indiana Ry., the railway company sets empty cars on 
storage tracks having a grade of 1.25% to a ladder which feeds to the ladder of 



236 



TRACK. 



four parallel loading tracks at the tipple. These are on a grade of 1.25% to 
1.40%, and their lower ladder feeds to two or three tracks (0.75% grade) for 
loaded cars, ready to be taken away by the railway. The coal company's men 
handle the cars by gravity from the empty to the loaded car tracks. No. 8 
frogs are used. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 146. Coal and ore storage 
and shipping piers are usually high enough to deliver the material by gravity 
from pockets beneath the tracks. Where the land is low, the trains or cars may 
be pushed up a grade by locomotives or hauled up a steep incline by a cable 
and dummy car to the floor of the pier; here an easy grade will carry the cars 
along the unloading tracks, and a steeper grade will return the empty cars to 
the storage yard below. The ascending grade may be at either end of the 
pier. Three arrangements are shown in Fig. 146. Machines for tilting and 
dumping the cars are used in some cases. 

Car Transfers. — Where cars have to be transferred to barges or floats, transfer 
bridges are necessary to allow for varying stages of water and height of floats. 
The Pennsylvania Ry. terminal at Greenville, N. J., has three of these transfers. 
Each has a 41-ft. three-truss double-track wooden through bridge, with a rock- 
ing bolster at the inner end, while the outer end is suspended by heavy bars 
attached to 5-in. rods whose threaded ends pass through nuts on an overhead 
girder or gallows frame. The nuts can be revolved by bevel gearing driven from 
electric motors. Part of the weight is balanced by four 25-ton counterweights 
on cables attached to the trusses and passing over sheaves on the overhead 
structure, the counterweights being on either side. At the end of the bridge 
is hinged a trussed deck apron 32 ft. long, with its outer end suspended from 



Loading Tracks 
Loaded Cars ,/£_ l4 ^ t °5> 



26- ■ 



Z7~ 



Main % '■'• Line 



Sharr House ^.... 600 :....^ 
^gnd Tipple \ 




Empty Cars 



Plan of Tracks at Coal Mine 




g^s^L— SSPfeSK" 



Incline. 



Coal Pier 



Coal Pier 
Arrangements of Tracks at Coal Piers 



A x Track from Loaded Coal 

Car Yard 



Fig. 146. — Arrangements of Tracks at Coal Mines and Coal Piers. 

four pairs of cables which pass over fixed sheaves and sheaves on suspended 
counterweights. This apron is for adjusting the track level to that of the float. 
The range of adjustment is 11 ft. Electric hoists operate the mooring cables, and 
locking bolts secure the floats to the aprons. In other cases pontoons are 
placed beneath the outer ends of transfer bridges. The Missouri Pacific Ry. 
has a car-transfer ferry on the Mississippi River at Ivory, 111., about 6 miles 
south of St. Louis. A double-track trestle with a grade of 4% extends about 
900 ft. from high-water line, the lower end being about 10 ft. below low water. 
On the two tracks rides a single transfer car or cradle 180 ft. long, the top of 
which has a track with an ascending grade of 3% towards the river. Feather 
or tapered rails 12 ft. long connect with the rails of the trestle. The track 
stringers of the cradle are supported on crib bents 12 ft. apart, on stringers 
parallel with the trestle grade. These latter are carried by 20 pairs of 33-in. 



SIDINGS, YARDS AND TERMINALS. 



237 



wheels, with 20-in. and 12-in. wheels near the shallow end, and two pairs of 
sliding shoes where there is not room for the wheels. The outer 30 ft. of the 
cradle is formed by an apron of deck-plate girders, hinged on the second bent 
and supported by blocking on the end bent, beyond which it projects 12 ft. 
Each apron has three girders, the outer one being inclined away from the 
others to carry the outer rail of a switch to. the outer track of a four-track 
barge. No. 6^ frogs are used on the aprons, with switches 62 ft. from the end. 
The tracks on the barge are 12 ft. c. to c, converging at the bow. 

Sand Track. 

A sand track for stopping runaway cars and trains has its rails covered with 
sand, which rapidly absorbs the momentum as the treads and flanges of the 
wheels run into it. This system is used instead of derails at two junction points 
on the Chicago loop elevated electric railway, the length of track covered being 
about 100 ft. This will receive and stop trains which may pass a home signal 
indicating "stop." The faces of the outside and inside guard timbers are 6 ins. 
from the gage side of the rail head, and a trough is formed by 2-in. planks wedged 
between the timbers and the bottom of the rail web, the joints being tarred. 
The sand just covers the rail head. The New Jersey & Hudson River Electric 
Ry. uses a sand track as a safety siding near the foot of a 7% grade. The track 
is 180 ft. long, with the switch normally set for the siding so as to catch runaway 
cars; a switch at the lower end allows of putting a car on the main track again 
without reversing. The 5-in. trough is formed by timbers 6X6 ins., and the 
sand is filled 2\ ins. over the rails. 

In the Friedrichstadt gravity switching yard at Dresden, Germany, sand 
tracks were installed for stopping cars in ordinary switching work, few cars 
having hand brakes; They can take care of cars at a velocity of 14 miles per 
hour. The cars on the two gravity tracks of 1.8%, leading from the classifica- 
tion yards (1% grade) to the departure tracks, are controlled by portable stop 
blocks (Fig. 135). These are placed upon the rails by men stationed for the 
purpose. It was desired, however, to provide some means of stopping cars or 
trains which might get beyond control on the grade, so as to prevent damage 
to the cars or freight, and to prevent collision with trains in the yard at the 
foot of the grade. For this purpose a sand track was gantletted with the running 
track, as shown in Fig. 147. The latter track has main-line rails laid on thick 




i I 

,k— I4°7 — ■ H 
Enlarged Cross Section . 
Fig. 147. — Sand Track for Stopping Runaway Cars. 

tie-plates, while the former has lighter rails, giving a difference of about 1.05 
ins. in height. Guard timbers are placed on each side of the lighter rail, and 
the space between them is filled with sand, covering the head of the rail by 



23S TRACK. 

about 2 ins. for a distance of about 1,150 ft. If a car gets away, a yardman 
throws the switch of the sand track and the car is promptly stopped. It is easily 
hauled back. On one occasion a freight train of 27 cars (with 55 axles), weigh- 
ing 417 tons with engine and tender, got beyond control on the 1.8% grade. 
It was diverted onto the sand track while running at about 30 miles an hour, 
and ran for 328 ft. over a thin layer of sand and 738 ft. over a 2-in. layer. After 
the train was stopped, the sand was cleared away and the train then ran on 
through the lower switch to the running track. The ends of the tracks in the 
Dresden passenger station are covered with sand, as an auxiliary to the buffer 
stops or bumpers, but this involves a loss of track room, as trains must nor- 
mally stop before reaching the sand track. 



CHAPTER 14.— TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 

The tools used in track work are an important item in the proper mainte- 
nance of way, and they should be of first-class quality, as these need cost but 
little more than inferior tools, while they do better work and have greater dur- 
ability. It is bad practice and false economy to purchase the cheapest tools 
obtainable, and to neglect to see that the tools are properly and carefully used. 
The use of steel instead of iron enables the weight to be reduced in many cases, 
without reducing the strength or efficiency of the tools. This increases the 
facility with which they can be handled. Tools with parts subject to wear 
should be bought under a guarantee that these parts are interchangeable. 

Each track section should have a complete, equipment of the necessary tools 
and supplies. Special tools, of which only a few are required, such as rail saws, 
rail benders, etc. (averaging one to 50 miles of track), should be kept at road- 
masters' headquarters or other convenient points. Some roads also keep such 
tools as the following at these points, to be sent out to the section gangs for use 
as required: power rail saw, drill and bender; track wheelbarrows for ditching 
(6 to 12), scoop shovels (12), long-handled shovels (12), ditching spades (12), 
post-hole diggers (4), lawn mower, lights and torches. A few spare frogs and 
switch rails are usually kept at such points for emergency use, and the Southern 
Pacific Ry. requires each roadmaster's division to have at least 1,000 ft. of rail 
of fair quality for temporary tracks at washouts, etc. The distribution of spare 
rails along the line has already been mentioned. Two extra jacks on a division 
will usually be sufficient, but the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. at one 
time had a special gang to do all work requiring the use of jacks. On each 
division there will be a velocipede or inspection car for the roadmaster, and 
one for the engineer. There may also be the following for each division or a 
certain number of divisions: (1) A ditching car, with blades and mold boards 
for cleaning ditches and trimming ballast to the standard cross section; (2) A 
spreader car for leveling earth and ballast in widening banks, double tracking, 
etc.; (3) A steam-derrick car of 8 to 15 tons capacity for handling stone, lumber, 
etc., in emergency work or repairs; (4) A pile-driver car; (5) A flanging car; 
(6) A snow plow; (7) A wrecking train. At division headquarters there is often 
a repair shop for repairing tools, frogs, and switches; for making guard rails, 
and for sawing and drilling rails for switch repairs or other work. 

There should be a good supply of tools maintained constantly in the store- 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 239 

keeper's charge, so as to be ready to equip an increase of force in case of emer- 
gency, such as a flood, washout, snowstorm, landslide, wreck, etc. An accumu- 
lation of odds and ends of old articles and tools in the storeroom or the section 
tool house should be vigorously fought against. Extra gangs may be equipped 
on the requisition of the division roadmaster, who will be held responsible for 
the return of the tools to the storekeeper. Roadmasters and foremen should 
see that no unserviceable tools are kept on hand, but that when damaged or 
broken they are sent at once for repair, or requisitions made for new ones. 
Defective tools must be rejected, and the fact reported. The section foreman 
is held responsible for all the tools issued for the use of his gang, and it is a good 
plan to have the tools of each gang plainly stamped with the number of the 
section. A close check should be kept on all tools issued, and not more issued 
than are properly required by the section. Except for an increase of force, 
new tools should not be issued until those worn out or broken are returned, 
their disposal properly accounted for, or a satisfactory reason given for requir- 
ing the additional tools. A car should be sent over the division every month 
to pick up broken and surplus tools to be sent to the storekeeper, and the same 
car may collect the scrap from the section houses. 

There should be some organized system for sending tools by train between 
the section and the shop or store. The ordinary tag on a bundle of tools is 
likely to be torn off or to have the address obliterated, and if this occurs on a 
bundle sent to the shop, the tools are either held or are sent out to some other 
gang, while the section to which they belong suffers from the delay. A good 
plan is to have brass disks or checks, like baggage checks, with the number of 
the section and name of station for that section stamped on one side, and the 
address of the shop on the other side. Two slots are cut at opposite edges for 
a leather strap, so that the strap can be slipped through to cover one side of the 
check, leaving the other side exposed to show the address to which the tools 
are to be sent. The checks for different divisions can be made of different 
shapes. The foreman should take a receipt in duplicate from the station agent 
for tools shipped; he retains one and sends the other to the shop. The carrying 
out of these check systems, and the enforcement of the rules above mentioned, 
will check carelessness, and result in a greater efficiency and economy as com- 
pared with the haphazard systems in force on some roads. Gages and levels 
should be periodically tested for accuracy. On some roads they are required 
to be sent in October to the division engineer to be compared with the standard 
in his office. They are then painted a distinctive color, so that roadmasters 
can see if the foremen have had these tools tested. 

Each section should have a full equipment of good tools to supply every man, 
and some extra of such tools as have occasionally to be sent to the shop for 
dressing or repair. The number of these extra tools will depend upon the 
method of handling tool repairs and the frequency of the repairs required. 
The number of tools should be specified by the roadmaster, and the extra tools 
should not be put in use until the regular ones have to be repaired or renewed. 
For sections having stone ballast it is recommended that there should be two 
tamping picks at the repair shop (or on their way there) for every pick in 
service. There should be a shovel for each man and the foreman, and two extra 
shovels. Proper supplies and appliances, oil, lamps, etc., should also be fur- 
nished, and all appliances not in regular use should be kept ready for service. 
The section house, lockers, etc., should be kept locked when not in use. 



240 TRACK. 

The foreman should see that the tools are taken care of, and properly used. 
They must not be left on or between the rails, and not used for other purposes 
than those for which they were intended. He should also see that all tools and 
appliances are clear of the track before each train, and that the men do not 
wait until the last moment before quitting work in front of a train. Bars should 
not be thrown aside into the grass, where they are difficult to find, but should 
be stuck in the ground. Tools having bearings or cutting edges should not 
be thrown about on the ballast, where they are liable to damage by striking 
stones or other tools. The tools should always be taken to the section house 
at night, and not left out on the roadway. At the section house the tools should 
be placed on racks and shelves, or in tool boxes, and the sharp-edged tools kept 
carefully separated from the others. A little firm exercise of authority in dis- 
ciplining the men as to the care and use of tools will result beneficially to the 
company. 

Such tools as picks, bars, mauls, etc., are frequently made at the company's 
blacksmith shops, although they can usually be purchased ready-made almost 
as cheaply. The cost, however, varies with the skill of the men and the shop 
facilities, and whether the tools are made from new material or from the scrap 
heap of bridge rods, old tools, etc., always collected around a railway black- 
smith shop. As a rule it is best to keep the scrap pile small and to purchase 
tools from reliable makers. The best design of tool should be aimed at, to secure 
the best service, and it is well to have as few different styles or makes of the 
same tool as possible. Claw bars and other heavy tools are often unnecessarily 
heavy, and of defective shape, while shovels are often too heavy and awkward 
to enable the men to do their best work with them. The desirability of adopt- 
ing standard designs of track tools has been recognized by the roadmasters' 
associations, and some standard designs have been officially adopted. The 
actual adoption of these standards in service makes but slow progress, as 
individual roadmasters apparently still prefer their own familiar styles of tools, 
although they may have voted in favor of standard designs on general prin- 
ciples. Tamping machines have been tried experimentally, as well as machines 
for boring ties and putting in screw spikes. 

The equipment given in Table No. 17 will be sufficient for ordinary section 
gangs. It varies on different roads and divisions, according to the ballast and 
other conditions of the track, the number of men, and the character and amount 
of the traffic. Ballast hammers and forks are not needed with gravel or soft 
ballast. Besides the tools, each section will usually have a supply of splice 
bars, bolts, nut locks, spikes, 5 lbs. of nails, 5 lbs. of fence staples, and a few 
extra pick or hammer handles. On a section where rocks are liable to fall, the 
equipment should include tools to facilitate their removal, such as rock drills 
or jumpers, stone wedges, blasting powder and fuse. When a special watchman 
is detailed to look after a dangerous rock cut, sliding bank, etc., he should be 
provided with a wheelbarrow, pick, shovel, and hammer; also two flags (or 
lamps) and torpedoes (or fusees). The following notes are explanatory of 
the lists in Table No. 17. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. — This list is for a four-mile 
double-track section with stone ballast: 10 laborers in summer and 4 in winter. 
In addition to the material on the list there are 2 pick handles, 2 adze handles 
and 3 maul handles. If a tool is broken or worn out it must be returned to 
the storekeeper before another is furnished. This is found to be an economical 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



241 



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242 TRACK. 

plan. The tools listed include 10-lb. striking hammers, 16 to 20-lb. sledges, 
6-ft. pinch bars, 7^-ft. raising bar, 15-in. monkey wrench, 16-in. files, and a 
1-gal. oil can. There are six points for the drill. The list for a six-mile section 
of single track, with gravel and sand ballast, and 7 or 8 men, is practically the 
same, the principal exceptions being as follows: 4 spiking mauls, 12 tamping 
bars, 4 lining bars, 3 claw bars, 4 scoops, 15 snow shovels, 8 scythes and snaths, 
2 bush hooks, 1 rake, 4 brooms, 8 scythestones, and 12 torpedoes. 

Louisville & Nashville Ry. — This is for a stone-ballasted section with 6 
miles of single track, and 8 laborers. In addition to the materials given in the 
list, the gang has the following supplies: 6 pick handles, 6 spike maul handles, 

2 switch locks, two fillers for gage to widen curves (|-in. and |-in.), 2 ditching 
trays with aprons, 1 pair wire pliers, 6 stone crackers, 6 spalling hammers, 25 
lbs. of 8-in. boat spikes. This road uses a mattock (with blade each side of 
handle) instead of the single-bladed grub hoe. 

Michigan Central Ry. — This is for a section with 4 miles of single track, and 

3 laborers to the gang. Both stone and gravel ballast. 

Chicago & Northwestern Ry. — This is an average equipment for a section 
having 3 miles of single track and 3 of double track, all with gravel ballast, 
and with an average of 8 laborers to the gang. 

Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry. — This is for a section with 5| miles of single 
iaain track, and 4 laborers to the gang. Slag, gravel and sand ballast. 

Description of Tools. 

Hammers. — The spiking maul, Fig. 148, has a head 13 ins. long, 2X2 ins. 
square at the middle and tapering to If ins. diameter at the ends. The weight 
is 8 to 11 lbs. Another form is shown in Fig. 149. The head is fitted to a straight 
wooden handle about 3 ft. long. The ballast or napping hammer, Fig. 150, is 
for breaking stone ballast; it is 7 ins. long, If ins. diameter at the ends, and 
weighs 4 lbs. 3 oz. A lighter one, 6| ins. long, weighs 3 lbs. The trackwalker's 
hammer, Fig. 151, has a long head with a short handle. One end is curved 
and either finished to a point or to a l£-in. chisel edge. The weight is about 
14 lbs. The sledge has a short heavy head, set on a long, straight handle. It 
is used for knocking out ties and for striking track chisels. Foremen should 
see that spike mauls are not used for such purposes, and that the sledge has a 
smooth face, or pieces may chip off and strike the man holding the chisel. The 
head, Fig. 152, is octagonal, with circular ends 21 ins. diameter; it weighs 10 
to 15 lbs. 

Tamping Bar. — For tamping ballast (except stone or slag) a bar is used 
about b\ ft. long, weighing about 12 lbs. Two forms are shown in Figs. 153 
and 154, the latter being the form adopted as standard by the Roadmasters' 
Association. The bar is generally of f-in. round iron, straight, with a flat piece 
6 ins. long and 4 ins. wide, £-in. thick at the edge, welded on at an angle of 
24°, so as to strike well under the tie. The upper end should be flattened to 
a chisel edge 2 ins. wide. Some bars have the lower end bent, made f-in. 
square, and having a tamping head 3^ ins. wide and f-in. thick. A larger 
diameter gives a better grasp for the hand, and in some cases a gas-pipe handle 
is used to increase the diameter without increasing the weight. 

Lining Bar. — For lining and throwing track, a straight bar is used, Fig. 155, 
generally about 5J ft. long, weighing 22 to 30 lbs., and tapering from \\ ins. 
square at the lower end to f-in. diameter at the top.. A weight of about 24 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



243 



lbs. is sufficient in a well-made bar. The smaller end should be formed with 
a sharp diamond point, and the square (or lower) end should have a H-in, 
chisel edge for about 3 ins. In throwing track, the flat end of the bar is driven 
into the ballast, and two men can take hold of it. In some cases the pinch bar 
serves as a lining bar, as it answers very well for the purpose and thus saves 
the expense and trouble of extra bars. 

Pinch or Raising Bar. — This is used for heavy lifting and prying up, and for 
raising and holding a tie for spiking; also for slight raising of track, raising low 
joints, etc., although on some roads the track jack is used even for raising track 
very slight amounts. The bar, Fig. 156, is 5 ft: to 8 ft. long, weighing 26 to 
40 lbs., and tapering from 1| or If ins. square at the lower end to |-in. or 1-in. 
diameter at the top. The lower end is chisel-shaped for about 3 ins., but some- 
times the front face is vertical, only the back face of the chisel edge being 
inclined, while in the lining bar, Fig. 155, both faces are inclined. The end of 
the pinch bar is sometimes straight, but is more useful when slightly curved 
outward so as to get a good hold, and form a fulcrum when prying. 





Fig 168 




ZTT^Z 



A 



r 



-7f 



Weight ! IS \lts. 

~>1 \r 



Weight 10 lbs. 



Fig. 150. 



Fig. 152. 




Fig. 14-9. 



Fig. 148. 



Track Tools. 



Holding-Up Bar. — In spiking rails it is customary to hold the tie up to the 
rail by a bar (or two bars) placed under the end of the tie. The holder-up either 
pulls up on the bar, or uses a block for bait and bears down on the bar. This 
is usually very ineffective, as in the former case the bar will sink in the ballast, 
and in the latter case much time is wasted in getting and setting the "bait" 
block; while the man will allow the bar to "give" every time a blow is struck 
on the spike. A handy tool for this work is a holding-up bar, Fig. 157. This 
is a pinch-bar with an inclined sharp, chisel-edged lower end to fit under the 
tie, or to bite into its side. To one side of the bar is pivoted an angle-shaped 
piece, the horizontal part of which bears on the top of the rail, the bar being 
parallel with the rail. When the holder-up bears down on the end of the bar 
(which is parallel with the rail), he presses the tie up and the rail down, thus 
holding them firmly for the spiker. A shovel should never be used for holding 
up ties. 



244 



TRACK. 



Bridge Bars. — Special bars are used for bridge work and two of these are 
shown in Figs. 158 and 159. The former is for sounding and moving timber. 
The latter is for pulling out headless drift bolts, the shackle being slipped over 
the bolt and a bait block put under the heel of the bar to act as a fulcrum. 

Claw Bars. — For pulling spikes a claw bar is generally used, ranging from 4£ 
ft. to 6 ft. in length, and weighing from 22 to 30 lbs. It is made in a variety 
of patterns. The body of the bar is usually about If ins. square at the ends, 




Fid. 166. 



Fig. 165. 
Track Tools. 



then 1| ins. octagonal and then of circular section, tapering to 1-in. diameter 
at the top. Three forms of claw bar are shown in Figs. 160, 161 and 162. The 
lower end is curved outward at an angle of about 45°, and has a broad chisel 
edge with a notch to take the neck of the spike, the edge being struck under 
the back of the spike head. The distance from the point of the claw to the 
back of the bar is about 4 ins., and a block or "bait" is put at the back to serve 
as a fulcrum. Sometimes the back of the bar has a curved projection or heel 
to avoid the use of "bait," the distance from point of claw to back of heel being 
about 5 ins. Another form of bar, known as the "bull-nose" bar, has the 



TxiACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



245 



lower end curved outward for a height of 6 or 8 ins., the radius being 5 or 6 
ins. and the distance from edge of claw to back of bar being 4 to 6£ ins. The 
"gooseneck" claw bar has the lower end bent backward and then forward again 
in a curve so as to give a long leverage in pulling, but as the claw is then nearly- 
flat or at right angles with the bar, it cannot be struck under the spike head 
so well as a claw of 45°. For this reason both kinds may be used if much spike 
pulling is to be done, using the straight bar to start the spikes and the " goose- 
neck" bar to pull them out. In this way two men with bars can do more work 
and injure fewer spikes than one man with a straight bar, and another man 
to hold "bait." The claw bar adopted by the Roadmasters' Association, Fig. 
162, is 5 ft. long, weighs 30 lbs. and has a curved chisel point at the upper end. 
The claw end has a spread of 5f ins. from point to back of heel, 6 ins. above the 
point. In using these bars care should be taken not to bend the spikes, a matter 




!•£ 



Diamond Point 



Fig.i58. 



GrowBarEnd 




3 C 



Fig. 159. 
Track Tools. 

which is very often neglected. If the spike is so driven that it is difficult to get 
hold of the head with the claw bar, it is better to chop away the wood with the 
sharp end of the bar than to hammer the back of the claw to force it onto the 
spike. 

Spike Pullers. — For pulling spikes in such places as on elevated railways, 
where the guard rails prevent the use of the ordinary claw bar, or at frogs and 
switches, on bridges and at stations, where these bars cannot well be used, a 
special form of bar or a spike puller must be used. Fig. 163 shows a bar used 
on the South Side Elevated Ry., Chicago. It has a loose hinged tongue and 
is worked parallel with the rails. Two forms of bars used by the New York 
elevated railways are shown in Figs. 164 and 165. The Verona spike puller, 
Fig. 166, has a rigid jaw which is slipped under the sides of the spike head, 
and a vertical stem with two projections to give a grip for a heeled claw bar, 
the heel of which rests upon the rail. This weighs about 1 lb. The Justice 
spike puller has a hinged heel or "bait" which is swung down to give a high 
bearing or fulcrum when the spike has been started. The Welsh spike and bolt 
puller has pivoted claws whose rear ends form a toggle engaging with a wedge 



246 



TRACK. 



in the heel of the bar, so that as the weight comes upon the heel the claws are 
forced to grip the spike. The movable jaws enable various sizes of spikes or 
drift bolts to be pulled. 

Chisel and Punch. — Cold chisels used for cutting steel rails must be of good 
material, well made and well tempered, if they are to do much work. If too 
hard, they will break in use, especially in cold weather; while if too soft, they 
soon become dull and blunt. In winter it is well to warm them before using, 
and to strike the first few blows lightly. When only slightly dulled, and retain- 
ing their temper, they may be sharpened on the grindstone, but otherwise they 
must be sent to the shop. A good chisel should cut three or four rails, and 
the work should be done carefully, so as to damage the rail as little as possible. 
With good steel the chisel head will not chip under the blows. One chisel may 




Fig. 154. — Tamping Bar. 



Fig. 174. — Tamping Pick. 




Fig. 175.— Tamping Puddle. 



Fig. 162.— Clawbar. 



Standard Forms of Tools Recommended by the Roadmasters' Association of America. 



cut several rails, while another may lose its edge in cutting one rail. The 
striking hammer should have a smooth face and edges, or pieces may fly off 
and strike the chiselman. It is very bad practice to notch the rail with a 
chisel and then drop it on a block to break it, but sometimes the head is cut 
with a portable saw and the work finished with the chisel. Two forms of 
chisels are shown in Figs. 167 and 168, the latter being that adopted by the 
Roadmasters' Association. The handle should be about 18 ins. long, so that 
the man holding it will be out of the way of the hammer. A properly made 
and fitted handle should be used, and not any rough stick that is handy. The 
steel track or rail punch for hand use, Fig. 169, weighs about 4| lbs. The head 
is ii-in. square at the cutting end, which has a beveled face; round punches 
are also used. Chisels and punches weigh about 5 lbs. each. 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 247 

Wrench. — The ordinary track wrench is usually a steel-die forging, about 15 
to 24 ins. long, weighing 5 lbs. The handle is of 1-in. diameter, having one 
end flattened out for the jaw, and the other end shaped to a chisel edge or 
tapered to J-in. diameter to put through the holes of rails and splice bars to 
bring them together. The jaws should have four sides, to conform in shape 
to a hexagon nut, and to fit a square nut. Figs. 170 and 171 show an ordinary 
and a double-end or S wrench. Long-handled wrenches are sometimes used, 
but with a handle more than 26 ins. long a careless man can apply such force 
as to strip the threads of the nut or bolt. 

Rail Fork and Rail Tongs. — These are used for carrying and handling rails. 
The fork, Fig. 172, resembles a long wrench, but with a slot |X4 ins. to receive 
the rail web or flange. The tongs are shown in Fig. 173, and are usually held 
by two men. The fork weighs from 12 to 15 lbs., and the tongs about 20 lbs. 

Picks. — Ordinary picks have heads about 26 ins. to 30 ins. long, weighing 
5 to 10 lbs., and are fitted with straight wooden handles about 3 ft. long. The 
best picks have heads of solid cast steel, which will not split in the eye, but 
those made in railway shops are usually of iron, with cast-steel ends welded on. 
The best refined iron should be used. A clay pick is about 1X1J ins. at the 
eye. Both ends may have diamond points, or one end may have a chisel edge 
1J ins. wide. The "eyeless" pick is made of a steel bar, having a malleable- 
iron socket at the middle to which the handle is attached by a bolt. There 
should be three picks to every two men in the gang, to allow of their being 
sent to the shops for repair. 

Tamping Pick. — This is used for tamping stone, slag and gravel ballast. It 
resembles the ordinary clay pick, except that one end has a flat tamping head. 
Fig. 174 shows the form adopted by the Roadmasters' Association. In another 
form the tamping end has the head gradually widening to shape from the eye, 
instead of having the plain shank with tamping head. The New York Central 
Ry. tamping pick for gravel is 24^ ins. long, with a ^-in. tamping head at one 
end, 4 ins. wide on the edge and 2\ ins. deep. The shank is fXl in., and the 
eye 2X3 ins. It is of cast steel, and weighs 7 lbe. The tamping pick for 
stone is similar but with a head f— in. thick and 3 ins. wide. 

Tamping Puddle. — This is for tamping gravel, cinders, sand and dirt ballast, 
and resembles the half of a tamping pick. The weight is about 5 lbe. Fig. 
175 shows the form adopted by the Roadmasters' Association. 

Shovels and Forks. — Shovels of various forms are used for tamping and 
ditching, and for handling gravel, cinders, snow, etc. A good shovel is made 
from one piece of crucible cast steel, No. 12 gage, properly tempered, and 
having the straps strengthened by a taper socket for the handle, extending 
about 2 ins. above the blade. The top should also be strengthened to prevent 
the breaking or splitting of the blade. The blade may be about 11|X9| ins. 
Tamping shovels have blades approximately square and flat, about 10X12 ins. 
The handle is about 30 ins. long. The shovel is about 3 ft. long and weighs 
about 7 lbs. In sand and gravel ballast the men will often tamp with the 
handles of their shovels instead of with the tamping bars, thus wearing and 
breaking the handles. A combined shovel and tamping bar, to provide for this 
practice, has an iron shield over the wooden handle, or a malleable iron head 
on the handle. Worn shovels may have the edges sharpened and be used 
for cutting weeds. Scoops are large full shovels, from 11X15 to 13X17 ins., 
for handling coal, cinders, snow, etc. For digging post holes, long-handled 



248 TRACK. 

shovels are used, having straight handles 4 ft. to 4^ ft. long. Post-hole augers 
may also be used by a fencing gang. Special forms of long-handled shovels 
are used for deep holes for telegraph poles, and various forms of ditching spades 
are also supplied where there is much tile ditching work. Large flat wooden 
shovels are convenient for handling snow in yards. For handling stone or slag 
ballast it is well to use forks (like stable forks), having eight to ten tines or 
prongs. These will eliminate the dirt or fine material which would be put into 
the track if shovels were used. The New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. 
uses eight-pronged forks for handling stone ballast. There is one to each man, 
an ordinary shovel being also furnished to each man for handling the finer stone 
and for ditching, etc. The New York Central Ry. uses forks with 12 tines 13f 
ins. long; they are closely spaced, to handle fine stone, and the width is 11^ 
ins. The tines are curved to an ordinate of 3-|- ins. 

Post-Hole Digger. — This is a vertical bar with a wooden cross handle (or 
a tee-socket for the handle), and having at the bottom a set of vertical cutting 
blades which in some cases can be adjusted to diameters of 6 to 8 ins. The 
tool is worked with a combined vertical and rotary motion. Another form 
has two vertical arms pivoted at the bottom like a pair of shears, and each 
carrying a curved cutting blade like a large trowel. In ordinary soil one man 
in a ten-hour day can make from 100 to 200 holes 3 ft. deep. A post-hole 
auger has a spiral blade 4 to 10 ins. diameter (10 to 14 ins. for telegraph or 
other poles). 

Scythes and Hoes. — For clearing the right of way, etc., scythes and special 
tools are necessary, according to the material to be dealt with. The railway 
scythe for cutting coarse grass and light weeds is slightly heavier than the 
common grass scythe. The bramble scythe is still heavier, and the brush scythe 
is shorter and stouter. The bush hook is a stout straight blade with a curved 
end, used for cutting bushes, and is fitted to a straight axe handle. The grub 
hoe is useful in cutting roots, grubbing heavy soil, etc., preparatory to new 
work, and is also handy in ditching and for removing tough grass and weeds 
from the side of the track. It has a single broad blade, like an adze, with an 
eye at the end for the handle; it weighs 3 to 6 lbs. The mattock is about 16 
ins. long, with two 3|-in. cutting edges, one horizontal like an adze, the other 
vertical like an axe. The head weighs about 5 to 6 lbs., and has an eye to which 
is fitted a pick handle. The pick mattock has one end like a clay pick instead 
of an axe. Long-handled weed hoes are advisable where much weed cutting 
has to be done; they are operated much more easily than shovels and save much 
backache, thus enabling the work to be done quicker and to better advantage. 
This tool resembles a garden hoe, with a rather long blade set at about 150° 
from the handle. (Weed burners are described under " Maintenance. ") 

Track Gage. — This tool is to give the required distance between rail heads 
in tracklaying, and to test the accuracy of the gage on existing track. Gages 
with bars of seasoned oak or ash are used on nearly every road, and have an 
advantage over iron gages in that they are not appreciably affected by tem- 
perature and are not liable to become bent (and consequently inaccurate). 
On the whole, however, an iron gage is probably preferable, but unless the ends 
are insulated from the bar it cannot be used on roads having a track circuit for 
a block-signal system, as it short-circuits the current and affects the signals in 
the same way as the wheels and axles of a train. This has led to a more extended 
use of gages with wooden bars, but of better construction than the old styles. 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 249 

In Fig. 173 are shown gages having steel ends riveted to a white-oak bar, and 
similar ends shrunk upon and riveted to a gas-pipe bar. To insure rapidity 
and accuracy in testing the gage of the track, one end of the tool has a steel 
fork with two lugs, so that when both lugs are in contact with the gage or line 
rail the bar will be truly at right angles to this rail and the other lug will give 
the accurate position for the other rail. This is a similar arrangement to that 



Weight, 82/bs. 




^ 



^5 



White Oak. 



/' 'fas Pipe Weight, 12 lbs. 

mmmmH •■■■imnmilUHIffl ) §Ut|i»ii|i|n[Hnn- mtuitllUimitw 

Shrunk on Ends and Riveted. 



Fig. 176.— Track Gages. 



of the Huntington gage. The "Circular" gage has at one or both ends an iron 
bracket curved to the radius of half the gage of track, so that it gives the correct 
width of gage even if the bar is not at right angles to the rails. The McHenry 
tool provides for widening the gage on curves. At one end are pivoted five 
plates of £-in. steel, which are normally held up by a clamp. One plate is 
turned down for each 3° of curvature, giving a maximum gage of 4 ft. 9| ins. 
for a 15° curve. On transition curves two plates are turned down for each 3°. 
The Louisville & Nashville Ry. uses fillers on the lugs to widen the gage of 
track |-in. and |-in. In some cases the lug at one end is made of the width 
for guard-rail flangeway, so as to test and adjust the width. In the gage used 
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry., the lugs are inclined to fit the heads 
of rails having inclined sides, measuring the gage at J-in. below the top of the 
rail. The lugs are formed on malleable castings of L shape, j-in. thick, fitting 
the end and bottom of an ash bar 3 ins. deep and 1^ ins. thick. Each is secured 
by three |-in. rivets which pass through a wrought-iron plate on top of each 
end of the bar. There is also a screw in the end of the bar. Track gages 
weigh about 15 lbs. On double track, a gage about 7 ft. long is used to test 
the gage relative to the center stakes. 

Track Level. — This tool is for ascertaining whether the rails are in the same 
horizontal plane on tangents, or whether the outer rail has the proper elevation 



s's' ■ 



K' 5- 6" > 

Fig. 177. — Track Level and Gage. 

on curves. One form of the track level is a \\ or li-in. board, 5% to 8£ ft. long, 
with a handle or hand-hole, and having a spirit level let into the top or side. 
One end is made with steps or offsets whose depth is equal to the elevation 
of outer rail for curves of different degrees, so that on a curve the spirit bubble 
is level when the bottom edge of the board is on the inner rail and the proper 
offset is on the outer rail. The board shown in Fig. 177 is of maple or white 
pine, 9 ins. deep for a length of 5| ft., and then stepped in offsets £-in. high 
and 2\ ins. long. This gives an elevation of 1 in. per degree up to and including 



250 



TRACK. 



5°, and then A-in. per degree up to a maximum of 7 ins. The offsets and the 
opposite edge of the board are shod with brass. The board is lightened by three 
openings about 5X12 ins., and has a spirit level at each end. The McHenry 
track level has at one end a steel blade moving in a vertical slot in the wooden 
bar. The edge of this is ground to an involute curve, and each face is graduated, 
the plate being adjusted by a thumbscrew. The level can be raised to give the 
full superelevation of 6 ins. while keeping the contact point of the plate constantly 
at the same relative position on the rail. The Sheffield duplex level has an 
arm pivoted at the center of the bar or board and resting against it. This has 
a spirit level on top, and the end forms a pointer moving over a scale on the 
side of the bar. When the arm is moved to set the pointer at any part of the 
scale, the spirit bubble will be level when the outer rail is raised the corresponding 
amount. These levels weigh from 10 to 16 lbs. 

A level board or combined track gage, guard-rail gage and track level is 
often used. The one shown in Fig. 178 is a wooden board 1X4 ins., faced 
with a T^-in. iron strip. The length over all is 5 ft. 5 h ins. The gage of track 
and guard rails is measured respectively over the outside and inside of the lugs, 
as shown, the lugs being 2 ins. deep and 1|- ms - to If ins. wide. At the middle 
of the board is a hand-hole, with a spirit-level tube set in the lower seat. At 
one end of the board is a plate sliding vertically in dovetailed guides, and held 




*-r-* 


vmmmia 


Section 


fc~/4'~K 


E-F. 


*«**" 

*«-* 



Fig. 178. — Track Level and Gage. 

at any position by a nut on a f-in. bolt. A graduated scale is marked on the 
slide, and in testing the superelevation of curves the slide is lowered to the 
amount of elevation required, this end of the level being then placed on the 
inside or low rail, and the outer rail then raised or lowered until the spirit-level 
bubble is in the center of the tube. By the attachment of a straight rod 3£ ft. 
long, held in position at the gage line by a semicircular arc, this tool is of assist- 
ance in lining tangents. By making the iron strip in two pieces, the ends are 
sufficiently insulated to enable the tool to be used on roads having automatic 
signals operated by track circuits. A less elaborate form has a graduated bar 
sliding in a vertical slot in the bar and held by a thumbscrew at the side. On 
the Southern Pacific Ry., foremen having curves of 5° and over are provided 
with a combined track level and elevation gage. For leveling one track with 
another, level boards 12 to 15 ft. long are used. The Boston & Maine Ry. gage 
is 14 ft. long, |X6 ins., with strips f X2 ins. along both sides of the bottom. 
One end rests on the rail of one track and the other rests on a leveling bob like 
a small screw jack (6 ins. high when closed). A spirit level is set on top of 
the board, and the board leveled; the opposite rail is then adjusted accordingly. 
Leveling Boards. — These are used for sighting when raising or surfacing 
track or taking out sags in the grade line. In some cases three blocks of the 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 251 

same thickness are used, placed on the rail at the point to be raised and at the 
already surfaced portion on each side. It is better to use a white board 
(with a horizontal black stripe a little above its center), and two blocks, each 
as high as from the bottom of the board to the top of the black stripe. The board 
is placed across the rails at a point where the track is at proper grade. One 
block is placed on the rail at the point to be raised, and the other the foreman 
places on the rail at a point already at grade. The track is then raised until 
the middle block is sighted in line with the top of the first block and the stripe 
on the board. The use of targets for this work is described under " Maintenance." 
Tie-Plate Gage. — The general use of steel tie-plates has led to the intro- 
duction of special tools for fitting them accurately, so as to give an even bearing 
on the tie and correct gage when the rails are spiked through the holes in the 
plates. The Ware gage, used on the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry., is 
shown in Fig. 179. The bar (A) is of 1-in. gas pipe, having at one end a fixed 
head (B) and at the other end a sliding head secured by a thumbscrew clamp ; 
this head is moved so as to give the correct position for plates of different 
sizes, the plate being set against the end of head (C), and its spur (D). The 






B Yi 



Plan. 



Elevation. E- 

Fig. 179.— Gage for Setting Tie-Plates 




operations are described in Chapter 20, and machines for applying tie-plates 
are described in the chapter on Ties and Tie-Plates. The Curtis gage, used 
on the Boston & Maine Ry,, is a wrought-iron bar |X2J ins., laid flat, and 
having at each end a rectangular frame |Xlf ins. (on edge) with an opening 
8X5£ ins. to fit the tie-plate, upon which is set a steel striking block. It is 
not adjustable, like the Ware device. A wooden bar with rectangular frame 
at each end is used to test the proper surface of the tie at the seats for the plates. 
Rail Benders. — Rails should be bent to the proper curvature for all curves 
of 3° and over, using a proper rail bender to give accurate results. The ordi- 
nary jim-jcrow rail bender, Fig. ISO, has a curved frame with hooked arms to 
hook over the rail head or flange, and pressure is applied to the rail head between 
the arms by a screw which is turned by a long-handled wrench on a fixed nut 
inside the frame or by a bar fitting into the holes of a capstan-headed screw. 
When the ordinate for the required curve is reached, the screw is slackened, the 
machine shifted along the rail, and the operation repeated. For heavy girder 
or T rails, the screw should bear against the web and head, a filler block being 
placed against the web. The hooked arms may be replaced by top and bottom 
arms extending beyond the rail; to the end of the top arm is pivoted a block 
whose face is shaped to fit the rail, and at the bottom of this is a lug to engage 
with a hole in the bottom arm. In this way the pressure is taken by the full 
height of the rail. These machines weigh from 100 to 200 lbs. for rails of 50 
to 100 lbs. per yd. In other rail benders a bar or plunger takes the place of 
the screw, and the power is applied by an eccentric or cam, thrown by a long 
lever working in a vertical plane at right angles to the rail. Fig. 180 also 
shows a machine of this type; it weighs about 340 lbs. The Samson bender, 
for use on rails in the track, is a heavy cast-steel lever, having one end shaped 



252 



TRACK. 



to fit the rail head, and the other carrying a capstan-headed screw (or hydraulic 
cylinder). At the middle is a projecting arm with a lug to engage the opposite 
side of the rail head. 

The roller rail bender and straightener, Fig. 181, is very largely used, espe- 
cially for heavy rails. It weighs from 400 to 800 lbs. The grooved rollers on 

r-n-1. 




! Hinge 




Fig. 180. — Rail Benders. 

the arms fit the outside of the rail head, and a third roller on the bending bar 
fits against the inside of the rail head. The end of the rail is first bent as 
usual, by setting up the screw with a long wrench until the middle ordinate 
for the desired curve is obtained; then the inner roller is turned by a long 
lever or a cross-handled wrench, causing the machine to travel along the rail, 




Roller Rail Bender. 



thus giving a uniform curve from end to end. To straighten a rail, the machine 
is put on the outer side of the curve. It can be used on rails in the track to 
rectify curvature. The number of men required depends upon the weight 
of rail and the degree of curvature required. Where the rails are heavy or where 
a quantity of rails have to be curved at a yard for distribution over the 
division or for new track, it will be economical to fix the machine and run the 
rails through it. In this case the bending roll may be driven by power or by 



TRACK TOCLS AND SUPPLIES. 253 

a horse attached to a long sweep on the roller shaft. On the Nashville, Chatta- 
nooga & St. Louis Ry. the shaft has been driven by gearing from a gasoline 
engine, the shaft making 8.2 revs, per min. Such an arrangement could be 
mounted on a car. From 100 to 150 rails were unloaded, curved and loaded 
in a day. With the fixed machine operated by hand levers, and with a much 
larger gang, only 50 rails per day were handled. In bending rails by hand 
with 12 men and a fixed roller bender on the Franklin & Clearfield Ry. the 
rate was less than 50 per day. The plan was then adopted of pulling the rails 
through by a cable from the hoisting engine which was used in stacking the 
rails; in this way the number was increased to 175 and 225 per day. (See also 
chapter on " Maintenance. ") 

Hydraulic rail benders resemble the jim-crow in general form, but have a 
vertical hydraulic cylinder at the back of the frame to operate the ram or plunger 
which bears against the rail head. The ram may be run in and out for a few 
inches by hand, without pumping, thus allowing the machine to be readily 
placed on the rail and the ram brought up to its work, when a few strokes of 
the pump bend the rail to its desired curvature. The pressure is then reduced 
and the rail slid along for another application. The ram is graduated to show 
the extent of the bend and may have a loose head shaped to fit the rail head. 
The weight is from 200 to 275 lbs. 

Angle Bar and Joint Press. — A jack or press is sometimes used to straighten 
angle bars which have become deflected or distorted. A hydraulic press has 
also been used for forcing the splice bars into position on the rails to insure 
a tight fit and uniform bearing. The latter is more particularly for use with 
deep girder rails. 

Track Lever. — The track lever, Fig. 182, was the usual means of raising 
track until track jacks became of general application, and is still used to some 

Fig. 182. — Track Lever. 

extent. It consists of an oak pole with an iron shoe which is put under the 
rail or tie and blocking placed under the heel. Two or more men bear down 
on the free end. The method is clumsy and inefficient as compared with the 
use of jacks. It requires several men, raises the track by jerks, and makes 
it difficult to adjust the amount of rise accurately. Even when the proper rise 
is obtained, at least one man must hold the end of the lever until the ties are 
tamped, and he generally slacks up on it in spite of all care. 

Track Jacks. — There are numerous varieties of track jacks, operated by 
ratchets, screws, friction clutches, hydraulic power, etc., and different makes 
of these varieties may be found on most roads. A good jack must be able to 
sustain a heavy weight on the lifting bar, be positive in action, durable in 
design, and capable of being relieved quickly of its load and removed almost 
instantly. The lighter they are the better, as long as they are of sufficient 
strength. The Roadmasters' Association has recommended a ratchet jack of 
not over 65 lbs. for general track work and a friction jack not over 95 lbs. for 
new ballasting. 

Capacity. Height. Lift. Weight. 

Light work 5 tons 20 ins. 10 ins. 40 lbs. 

Ordinary work 10 " 24 " 13 " 60 " 

Heavy ballasting ... . 15 " 30 " 20 " 105 " 

Bridge work . 35 and 50 26 and 27 10 and 13 120 and 290 



254 



TRACK. 



As track jacks are too high to go under the ties, they lift by means of a claw 
hung from the head of the lifting bar, the claw being close to the bottom of the 
jack when lowered. The jack therefore extends above the rail, and as it may 
be a dangerous obstruction to trains it must be made so as to be released 
promptly. For this reason trip jacks are used in track work, so that the bar 
can be instantly dropped and the jack removed in case of a train approaching. 
Single-acting ratchet jacks raise the load a full notch at each down stroke only; 
double-acting or compound leverage jacks raise the load half a notch at each 
up and down stroke. Lowering jacks (without trip release) are rarely used 
in track work, except on street railways. They are used in wrecking and bridge 
work, where a sudden (perhaps accidental) release would be undesirable or 
dangerous. There are some combined trip and lowering jacks. For use in 
tunnels, or close to platforms and retaining walls, a jack may be used having 




Fig. 183. — Ratchet Track Jack. 

the claw at the side, the lever working parallel with the rail. For bridge work, 
screw jacks are largely used, the head being fitted, with roller or ball bearings 
for easy movement. The handle operates a horizontal spindle with bevel 
pinion gearing with a bevel wheel on the threaded lifting bar; this bar works 
in a nut in the frame, and on the head is a cap with ball or roller bearings. 
Hydraulic jacks may be filled with 2 parts alcohol to 3 parts water in winter 
or 4 to 1 in summer. Water or kerosene should not be used, as water will cause 
rust and may freeze, while kerosene destroys the packing. 

The ratchet jack in Fig. 183 has a frame of malleable iron, with a base 7X12 
ins., as recommended by the Roadmasters' Association. All the other parts are 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



255 



of crucible steel, with the exception of the loose pipe handle. The rack bar 
(A) has a sectional area of 1^ sq. ins., and is operated by the lever (B) and 
pawl (D), while the top catch (C) holds the bar in position at the height at which 
it is set. The load can be let down one tooth at a time when required, and 
can be dropped instantly and with certainty by the lower pawl, no independent 
trip being required. The 10-ton jack is 21 ins. high, with 14 ins. lift, and weighs 
50 lbs.; a heavier make with 18-in. lift weighs 90 lbs. In the friction jack, Fig. 
184, the link at the end of the working lever is coupled to a friction collar or 
lifting ring, which grips the lifting bar. Below this is the retaining ring. The 
rings are bored at an angle, so that when horizontal they grip the bar, but 
when lowered they release it. The 10-ton jacks for heavy ballasting, surfacing 
and general track repairs have a 15-in. lift; the height is 35 ins. when lowered, 
and the weight 90 lbs. A smaller size of the same capacity for short and heavy 




Fig. 184. — Friction Track Jack. 

lifts in surfacing has a 7-in. lift, is 22 ins. high, and weighs 55 lbs. For light 
surfacing, the jack has a capacity of 5 tons and a lift of 12 ins.; it is 31 ins. 
high and weighs 60 lbs. The load can be lowered instantly or slowly. A 
special form of jack is used for spacing ties in the track, when they have become 
shifted. Another special form is used for lining track. (See "Maintenance.") 
This has a separate base plate with ratchet, and when the track has been 
raised off its bed it can be traversed along this base plate. 

The jack is now generally used for small lifts, as in surfacing, etc., as well 
as for large lifts in raising lengths of track, and also for work at frogs and switches. 
The jack should never be set on the inside of the rail; in such a position it is 
liable to derail a train, the pilot of the engine catching the jack and throwing 
it across the rail. If set outside the rail, the man in charge is in less danger, 
and less likely to forget to release and remove the jack when a train approaches, 
while even if the jack should be in place the engine would knock it away from 
the rail. The rules of some roads require that the jack shall always be used 



256 TRACK. 

on the outside of the rail, no excuse being accepted for contrary practice. The 
New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. at one time went to the extreme of 
not issuing jacks to the section gangs, but having an extra gang to do all work 
requiring the use of jacks. Where much lifting is going on, flagmen should 
be sent out to warn trains to run cautiously. 

Track Drills. — For drilling bolt holes in rails, ratchet and geared drills with 
automatic feed are generally used. One form is shown in Fig. 185. The frame 
should be fitted to the flange and not over the head of the rail, so as not to offer 
any obstruction to trains. The drill carrier should slide on the frame, so that 
the four or six holes of a joint can be drilled at one setting of the frame. In 
some of the ratchet drills the tool revolves with the movement of the operating 
lever in each direction, instead of in one direction only, as in the ordinary drills. 
They usually have four or six 1-in. bits. In several makes, the drill is driven by 
bevel gearing from a shaft in a vertical frame with a double crank handle at 




Fig. 185.— Track Drill. 

the top. This frame is usually attached to the lower frame in such a way that 
it can be instantly lowered or swung back out of the way, without removing 
the lower frame or the drill. Work can then be resumed as soon as a train 
has passed, without the delay of adjusting the drill to an unfinished hole. In 
a drill of this pattern for small holes Q-in. to §-in.) for electric bonds, etc., the 
crank-handle shaft has sprocket wheels with chains to smaller wheels on the 
drill shaft. The New York Central Ry. has a drill car which runs on the rails 
and has the mechanism operated by a vertical engine taking steam from a 
locomotive. This can drill four l|-in. holes in a 90-lb. rail in 3 mins. On the 
machine (as on some of the crank-handle drills) is a tool grinder. 

Rail Punches. — The punch used like a chisel has been mentioned. Portable 
hydraulic punches are used to some extent, the jaw fitting over the rail and 
having at its back a vertical hydraulic cylinder operating the horizontal punch. 
An adjustable guide at the top of the jaw insures all holes being punched at 
the same height in the same size of rail. These machines weigh from 200 to 
300 lbs. A vertical hydraulic punch for punching bond holes in rail flanges 
weighs about 90 lbs. Screw punches are sometimes used, those for heavy 
work requiring 2 or 3 men. A punch of this kind operated by 3 men, and weigh- 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



257 



ing 80 lbs., has been used by the Buffalo Street Ry. for punching lf-in. holes 
in girder rails. 

Rail Saws. — Rails may be cut by means of a cold chisel and hammer, or by 
portable saws clamped to the rail. The latter do better and quicker work, 
cutting a heavy rail in from three to ten minutes. Some machines have cir- 
cular saws operated by hand cranks and gearing, the saws being 14 to 20 ins. 
diameter. They weigh 150 lbs. to 300 lbs. One is shown in Fig. 186. Another 
machine has a frame about 3 ft. high, with a reciprocating saw blade worked 
by two levers like a ditch pump or hand car. Its weight is about 120 lbs. A 
good thin oil, such as lard oil, is recommended for lubricating the circular saws, 




Fig. 186.— Portable Rail Saw. 

and soapsuds for the reciprocating saw. With these machines very clean cuts 
are made and very thin pieces can be cut when necessary. Their use is 
particularly advisable on first-class track, for heavy rails, and in fitting up 
frogs and switches. 

Hand Cars. — These are for carrying the sectionmen to and from work. Most 
roads forbid their use for carrying rails, except in case of emergency. The 
cars should be as light as possible, consistent with strength and durability, may 
have wooden wheel centers, or pressed-steel wheels, and should invariably be 
fitted with a strong brake gear, generally operated by a treadle. Steel wheels 
are best for durability. These may be insulated, but wooden centers are gener- 
ally required on lines where a track circuit is used, to prevent the cars from 
operating signals in the same way as a train. The cars will ride more easily 
if one of the wheels (not on the driving axle) runs loose on the axle. The 



258 



TRACK. 



cars should be examined for repair every week, loose bolts tightened and bear- 
ings lubricated. Oil boxes should be frequently repacked, as the packing 
soon collects grit and sand. Roller bearings on the axles make the cars easier 
to propel. The car has a platform 6 ft. to 1\ ft. long and A.\ ft. wide, with 
a floor of matched planking, and the ends of the sills are extended to form 
handles. The wheels are ordinarily 20 to 24 ins. diameter. The weight is 
from 500 to 600 lbs., or 750 lbs. for bridge gangs. The car is generally driven 
by a lever or walking beam pivoted at the middle and having a cross-handle 
at each end, so that four men can work it, the spur-wheel being worked by a 
crank with a connecting rod from an arm on the walking beam. The spur- 
wheel gears with a pinion on the axle, the gearing being usually about 3| to 1. 
These cars will carry 10 or 12 men. There may be a tool box underneath, 
and for carrying large gangs there may be a plank seat along each side. A 
tool-grinder for sharpening drills, adzes, etc., may be clamped to the car. 

The car in Fig. 1S7 weighs about 550 lbs., and has 20-in. steel-plate wheels 
on l?-in. steel axles, with a 4-in. bearing roller secured to the under side of each 




Fig. 187.— Hand Car. 



sill. The gears a:o 2|, 3^ and 4 to 1. The first is used where much power is 
required on account of steep grades, and the last where high speed is desired 
on level roads. The second is generally employed for ordinary work. When 
not in use the cars should be placed clear of the track. It is best not to leave 
them near road crossings; if left there, or at any distance from where the 
men are working, the wheel should be secured with a chain and padlock. 

A track velocipede is a light three-wheel or four-wheel hand car, weighing 
150 to 200 lbs. The operator propels it by a hand lever, treadle or both. In 
three-wheel cars, Fig. 188, the third wheel is carried at the end of an arm which 
is hinged, so that it can be folded back against the other wheels for convenience 
of shipment in a baggage car. These cars are used by roadmasters, inspectors, 
foremen, signal repairmen, etc., and on some roads by a man who rides over 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 



259 



the track daily instead of trackwalking. On the arm may be carried a tray 
for lamps or tools. The car may carry 1 to 3 persons and can be fitted with 
an odometer for measuring distances. Some velocipedes have frames of bicycle 
tubing, with wire-spoke wheels, and the bicycle style of saddle, handle bar 
and driving gear. These weigh only 70 to 100 lbs. 

In order to facilitate the work of the sectionmen by eliminating the work 
of driving the hand car and giving greater speed, several roads are introducing 
cars propelled by gasoline engines. Such a car with a 7-HP. engine will weigh 
1,000 to 1,200 lbs., and can be run at 12 or 15 miles per hour. Similar cars 
for the use of roadmasters, signal inspectors, or other division officers, weigh 




Fig. 188.— Track Velocipede. 



from 800 to 1,600 lbs., and have engines of 6 to 15 HP. Specially light machines 
with 4-HP. engines weigh only about 500 lbs. Ordinarily a 5-gal. tank of gaso- 
line is used, with a 25-gal. storage tank for very long runs. These cars can 
be run at 25 to 35 miles per hour. (See Track Inspection.) Section cars and 
velocipedes have been operated by sails on some western roads, but great care 
is required in operating them. 

Push Car and Rail Car. — The push car is a platform car not fitted with pro- 
pelling gear, and is used for carrying rails, ties, gravel, earth, supplies, tools, 
etc. The car in Fig. 189, with a platform 7X5-| ft., and four 20-in. wheels, 
will weigh 450 to 500 lbs. The rail car (see Tracklaying) has no platform; 
there are two side sills (to which the journal boxes are attached) and three or 
four cross timbers faced with iron. At each end are two rollers to facilitate 
unloading rails. A rail car 8X6 ft., with sills 4X8 ins., wheels 16 to 20 ins. 
diameter, 2|-in. axles, and a carrying capacity of 10 to 12 tons, will weigh about 
1,200 to 1.600 lbs. The wheels are about 5J ins. wide on the tread, and the 
wheel base is 4h ft. Sometimes two diagonally opposite wheels run loose on 



260 TRACK. 

the axles. A plank bottom may be nailed to the under side of the middle 
cross sills to form a box for tools or supplies. 

Wheelbarrows. — These may be of wood or iron, the former being more readily 
repaired on the section. They should be substantially built, with strong axles 
and bearings, and will require occasional oiling. In ditching work, a wheel- 
barrow with grooved wheel to run on the rail is sometimes used. The "track- 
barrow" has a wide grooved wheel with the axle set somewhat diagonally so 
that the man can walk at one side of the rail instead of astride of it, the center 
line of the barrow being at a slight angle with the rail. It can be used on or 
off the rail. 

Flags. — The ordinary flag is not reliable as a signal when the staff is stuck in 
the ground; if the weather is calm it hangs limp, while the wind may blow it 
parallel with the track or wrap it round the staff. This may be remedied by 
having it attached to a staff at each end, or the staff may be fastened horizon- 
tally to a post 4 ft. high, 8 ft. from the rail. In the Tallman device the flag is 




Fig. 189.— Push Car. 

wound on a roller in a cylindrical case having a slot for the flag. This case is 
hinged at one end to the staff and when not in use folds against it (with the 
flag inside). When in use the case is horizontal and the flag displayed. Some 
roads require a flagman to hold the flag always in his hand, but where a flagman 
is not stationed, a flag with two staves, or with some means of keeping it dis- 
played, should be used. Iron flags or targets have been used. Flags should 
be kept as clean as possible, and replaced when so torn or dirty as to be unre- 
liable as signals. When not in use they should be rolled up and tied with string. 
Red and green are the usual colors, but on the Southern PacifiVRy. the section- 
men and bridgemen use red and yellow flags. 

Lamps. — The ordinary railway lamps or lanterns are of use as signals, but 
not of much use for lighting work on the track. They should be kept well 
trimmed and filled, and placed on a shelf out of the way so as not to be broken 
in handling the tools. A few spare globes should be kept on hand. The oil 
cans (usually of 2 gallons capacity) should be set in a wooden box or tray filled 
with sand, and some oil should be kept on hand when the cans are sent to be 
refilled. Red and green (or yellow) lamps must be provided for signaling pur- 
poses. The night trackwalker may carry a lamp having red and green glasses 
mounted in an interior revolving cylinder; this is operated by the lamp handle 
or bail and enables the man to use one lamp for signaling. Large hand lamps 
or oil torches for work at night or in tunnels will be provided as required. 

Miscellaneous. — Heavy garden or farm rakes are used for clearing up brush, 
trimming station grounds, etc., and wooden rakes may be used if hay is made 
from the grass cut on the right of way. Ordinary flat corn brooms are used 
for clearing snow from switches and frogs, cleaning ties after adzing for new 
rails, and also for sweeping out the section house. There are also special tools 



TRACK TOOLS AND SUPPLIES. 261 

for lining curves, setting out switches, etc. These are usually purchased by 
roadmasters for their own use, and are not supplied by the railways. A 
portable emery-wheel tool grinder may be clamped to a bench or to the hand 
car, and will do better work than grindstones for sharpening drills, chisels, 
scythes, adzes, etc. Being portable, it can be used on the work. 



CHAPTER 15.— SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 

The installation and maintenance of the signal equipment is frequently under 
the charge of the maintenance-of-way department to a greater or less extent, 
and the general principles and practice may be appropriately considered. The 
details of the mechanism, apparatus and operations controlling the various 
movements of trains, however, would occupy far more space than is now avail- 
able. The fixed signals governing train movements, independent of the switch- 
stand targets, may be classed as route signals, train-order signals and block 
signals. The first are used at turnouts, junctions, crossings, etc., to indicate 
for which track or route the switches are set. Train-order signals are located 
at stations, to indicate whether a train is required to stop for orders as to its 
movements. Block signals take the place of train orders, and indicate whether 
the block sections into which the line is divided are clear or occupied by other 
trains. Train-order signals may be used at stations as supplementary to the 
block signals. Interlocking signals comprise both switch and block signals, 
and, properly, they should not be separately classed. In this country, how- 
ever, many interlocking plants are installed at crossings, etc., on lines where the 
block system is not in force, and this has resulted in creating a distinction between 
block and interlocking signals. In effect the limits of the interlocking plant 
enclose an isolated block. 

Train Dispatching. — Under the train-order or train-dispatching system of 
operation, the dispatcher on the division issues telegraphic orders to the train 
crews to run between certain points, stopping at specified places for further 
orders or to allow other trains to pass in the same or opposite direction. He 
can stop the train for orders at any station by notifying the telegraph operator 
or station agent to display his train-order signal at the "stop" position. Follow- 
ing trains are required to be held a certain number of minutes apart, forming 
a time interval. This cannot always be maintained, as the first train may 
break down or run more slowly than was intended, while the second train may 
run faster and overtake the former. The former would send back a man with 
a lamp or flag in case of stopping or losing time, but this is very ineffective 
protection. There is also liability for confusion and misunderstanding in giving 
or receiving the numerous orders. The system is inadequate and unsafe for the 
handling of fast trains and heavy traffic under modern conditions. 

Block System. — Under this system, which is the only one insuring safety to 
railway traffic, the line is divided into sections or blocks, and only one train is 
allowed in a block section. The limits of these are marked by signals, so that 
the trains are periodically advised as to the safety of the line ahead. The great 
advantages are facility and safety of operation, for as no two trains are normally 
admitted to the same block, a "space interval" is maintained between all trains, 
so that collisions are impossible. On single-track roads it must, of course, 



262 TRACK. 

protect a train from other trains running in either direction. With the "abso- 
lute" block system no train must be admitted to a block section until that sec- 
tion is clear or empty. The "permissive" block is a modification under which 
a second following train may be admitted after a certain " time interval," a 
caution being given to proceed carefully as the block is not clear. While this 
may be necessary in an emergency, it is dangerous for regular work, as it at once 
eliminates the great element of safety due to the "space interval." It has been 
adopted in some cases for freight trains only, with a view to facilitating traffic, 
but in some of these cases it has been abandoned eventually, since ample facili- 
ties and much greater safety can be afforded by the "absolute" block system. 
The block system is extensively adopted on both single-track and double- 
track lines. 

The length of the block sections varies greatly, depending upon the amount 
of traffic, the curvature, switches, stations, passing places, etc. The block 
signals may be operated under three different systems: 1, Manual, without lock- 
ing; 2, Controlled-manual, or lock-and-block; 3, Automatic. In the manual 
or telegraph-block system, a tower or cabin is erected at the end of each section 
and is occupied by a signalman, except that at stations the telegraph operators 
operate the signals. There is telegraph or telephone connection between adjacent 
towers or stations, and each signal is operated by the signalman in accordance 
with instructions given by the next man in the rear and in advance; or by the 
dispatcher. In the controlled-manual system, each signal is controlled from 
the tower in advance, so that a man at one tower cannot show a "proceed" 
signal until the signal is released by the man at the next tower. The "proceed" 
signal is automatically returned to and locked at "stop" by the entrance of 
a train into the block section, and cannot be released until the train has passed 
out of the section. In the automatic system the block signals are operated 
automatically by the trains, by means of electrical connections or track instru- 
ments. A wire circuit or rail circuit may be used. The latter is general and 
has the advantage that a broken rail, open switch, etc., will cause the signals 
to indicate "stop." Where a rail circuit is used, the rails of each section are 
connected by bond wires at the joints, and insulated joints separate the rails 
of adjoining sections. (See "Rail Joints.") Sectionmen must be careful not 
to bend or cut the wires in doing their work. 

Manual and Controlled-Manual Systems. — To illustrate the operation of 
these systems, we may consider two adjoining sections A-B and B-C. In the 
plain-manual or telegraph-block system, the man at B is advised from the block 
station A that a train has passed into the section A-B. If advised by the man 
at C that section B-C is clear, B lowers his signal to admit the train into that 
section. When the train has passed he puts the signal in position to stop a 
following train, and does not lower it until informed that the previous train has 
passed out of the section at C. With permissive blocking, or in the emergency 
of the first train not reaching C in proper time, a second train may be allowed 
to enter, with instructions to proceed cautiously. This system lacks the safe- 
guards which are essential to the operation of heavy traffic, especially in view 
of the liability to carelessness, mistakes, etc., in transmitting or obeying instruc- 
tions. Where the blocks are the full distance between stations, intermediate 
automatic signals may be used to avoid a long spacing between trains, as noted 
below. The plain-manual system is often used without distant signals, which 
is a defective feature. 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 263 

In the controlled-manual system, operation of the signal at the entrance to a 
block is controlled electrically by the signalman at the next block station. At 
each block station there is a track circuit of 60 ft. or more, which is used to 
operate an electric slot and automatically return the home signal to the "stop" 
position when the first pair of wheels has entered the track-circuit section. 
Each block station has two instruments for each track, one for the block sec- 
tion in the rear and the other for the section in advance. In other words, each 
block section has an instrument in the tower at each end, and these are con- 
nected electrically with each other and with the operating levers. The operator 
at the outgoing end, B, controls the lever by which the operator at the incoming 
end, A, lowers his signal to admit a train to the section A-B. When the 
train is in the section, this signal at A is automatically returned to the "stop" 
position, and it can neither be unlocked nor lowered until the train has passed 
out of the section. If a following train arrives it must wait at the "stop" 
signal, but if the preceding train fails to pass out of the block within a 
specified time, the second train may be given a "caution" card authorizing 
it to proceed slowly. On some roads, one freight train may follow another 
after waiting five or ten minutes (if the signal is not cleared in the mean- 
time). This is permissive blocking, however, and it is never safe and rarely 
necessary. 

Automatic System. — In this system the train sets each signal at "stop" as 
it passes. It releases the signal behind, which then automatically returns to 
the "proceed" position. The system is adapted for all kinds of service. It is 
economical for lines with light traffic where the expense of the manual system 
and operators would not be warranted, but where some protection is desired. 
It is also specially economical where the traffic is very heavy and the blocks 
are so short that the^expense for complete manual plant and operators would 
be very heavy. The liability to get out of order is very remote. The signals 
are necessarily permissive, as in case of a signal failure a train must pass the 
"stop" signal, or the traffic would be blocked indefinitely. The rule is that 
a train may pass the "stop" signal after waiting a specified time, proceeding 
cautiously to the next signal. Automatic signals may be operated by electricity 
alone or by a combination of compressed air and electricity. In the former 
case, each signal has motors or electro-magnets operated from batteries which 
are charged by a line wire or are renewed at intervals. In the latter case, 
the valves of air cylinders attached to the posts are operated by the electrical 
connections, the actual movement of the signal (and of the switch, in inter- 
locking plants) being effected by the air, which is carried in a line of 3-in. or 
4-in. pipe laid along the side of the roadbed or buried between the tracks. The 
pressure is usually 80 to 90 lbs. The automatic system is extensively used, 
not only for light traffic, but also for lines with very heavy and fast traffic. 
The ideal system for controlling trains on lines with heavy traffic and high 
speeds was suggested as follows by Mr. E. C. Carter, Chief Engineer of the 
Chicago & Northwestern Ry., in a report prepared for the International Rail- 
way Congress of 1900: "(1) Interlocking plants at all points where there are 
switches on the main tracks, the home or advance signals being electrically 
slotted with a track circuit through the succeeding block, the towers to be 
supplied with indicators to give information regarding trains in the adjoining 
blocks. (2) Automatic block signals placed as required to properly space 
trains moving between the interlocking plants. Such a system will admit of 



264 TRACK. 

the heaviest traffic movement, with the greatest safety, with the least deten- 
tion, and at least cost for protection." 

With blocks less than a mile in length, indications for two blocks may be 
given at each block station. In one arrangement there are two distinctive 
signals at each block station. As a train passes into a block, B-C, it throws 
both signals at B to "stop," protecting its rear. At the same time it releases 
one of the signals of the section behind, at A. In another arrangement one 
signal gives three indications: "stop," "clear to next signal," "clear to second 
signal." With the overlap system the train entering a block does not set the 
signal until it has proceeded a certain distance. Thus a man who had failed 
to see or obey a distant signal would have a chance to stop between the home 
"stop" signal and the train ahead. In the automatic-signal system on the 
Boston & Maine Ry., the blocks are about 4,000 ft. long (less for dense traffic 
and more beyond suburban districts). At large yards they cease at the out- 
lying home signal of the interlocking plant, and commence again at the advance 
starting signal of that plant. On single track the signals are staggered and 
overlapped a distance sufficient to provide ample room for stopping a train. 
The double indication is used, each signal having two arms on the same post. 
The upper (home) arm is red with a white stripe, and when lowered it indicates 
that the block, A-B, beginning at this post is clear. The lower (distant) arm 
is forked and is painted yellow with a black fish-tail stripe. When this is lowered 
it indicates that the block B-C (beginning at the next post) is also clear. Thus 
an engineman is advised at each post as to whether he has one or two clear 
blocks ahead. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 190. 

c B A 



Train ^—^ 1 ^c-U 1 ahlll , j 

I < Jnini))iuj u . 



Train 



T7 *~W 

Automatic Block Signals for Double Blocks. 

Siding/ £ S. * (Automatic) 1— I 1_^> Tcuver 

■ < 1 > ■ • I 1-7 <r + -7— 

To^r dT-J *~J tfatomaticj^ D / 

Combined Manual-Controlled and Automatic Block System. 
Fig. 190. — Automatic Signals for Regular and Auxiliary Blocking. 

Combined Manual and Automatic System. — A combined manual and auto- 
matic block-signal system is employed on some roads to facilitate traffic on 
single-track lines. The Cincinnati Southern Ry. has a system of this kind. 
The controlled-manual signals at the ends of the blocks govern opposing trains, 
while intermediate automatic signals govern following trains and maintain 
the necessary space interval between them. A train finding an automatic 
signal at "stop" waits one minute and then proceeds under control, but no 
train must pass a manual signal when at "stop." The signalman at one end 
of the block can admit several trains while his instrument is unlocked from the 
other end, but each successive train is held by this signal being automatically 
locked at "stop" until the preceding train has passed the first automatic inter- 
mediate signal. This system is considered to have increased the traffic capacity 
by 30% as compared with the telegraph-block system having blocks 4 or 5 miles 
long. A somewhat similar system is in use by the Illinois Central Ry. on busy 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 265 

single-track lines, where it was considered that automatic signals would not 
facilitate the movement of opposing trains or of inferior and superior trains 
in the same direction. The object of the intermediate signals is to avoid the 
use of permissive blocking in long blocks, and there is one signal for each direction 
of traffic. Each block signal is controlled by a slot apparatus connected with 
the track circuit between this signal and the opposing intermediate. In the 
plan, Fig. 190, the block section A-D has the two regular manual-controlled 
signals A and D and the automatic intermediate signals B and C. The slot 
control for A is the track circuit A-C, and that for D is the track circuit B-D. 
When the man at D releases the lock, signal A can be lowered and the train 
will enter, the signal being automatically returned to the "stop" position. 
If there is no train in B-C, signal B will indicate "proceed"; but will be auto- 
matically set at "stop" as soon as the train passes. While the train is in B-C 
all the four signals are locked at "stop." After it has passed C, however, the 
man at A can again lower his signal, admitting a train into A-B. The distance 
A-D is preserved between opposing trains, but following trains may be spaced 
the distance A-B, B-D. 

Train-Staff System. — This is a modification of the controlled-manual system. 
In its simplest form each block section had a small bar or staff which must be 
carried by any train moving over the section. This, however, required trains 
to run alternately in opposite directions. With the electric train-staff system, 
there are several staffs to each block, and these are placed in cases at either 
end. The cases are electrically connected, each one controlled by the signal- 
man at the other end. When a train wishes to proceed from A to B, the signal- 
man at A notifies B, who (if the block is empty) releases the instrument at A, 
so that one staff can be taken out. When this is removed, both instruments 
are automatically locked, so that no other staff can be removed at A or B. When 
the train reaches B, the staff is delivered to the signalman, who places it in the 
instrument and thus restores the apparatus to its normal condition. Either 
one of the men can then release the other's instrument, allowing the latter to 
remove another staff. In some cases a metal tablet is used instead of a staff. 
Semaphore signals are used at the block stations, but cannot be lowered until 
all staffs are in place. They may be automatically restored to the "stop" 
position. The staff can be exchanged at block towers by trains running at 
considerable speed ; either by apparatus on the engine and the track, or by 
enclosing the staff or tablet in a pouch having a large brass ring through which 
the engineman or fireman thrusts his arm as the train passes. Thus at B the 
train would drop the A-B staff and pick up the B-C staff, supposing the signal 
to indicate "proceed." The train-staff system has been used in a number of 
cases for isolated single-track blocks, to protect and facilitat€ traffic at long 
bridges, tunnels, etc., or stretches of single track on double-track roads. 

Signal Equipment. — With comparatively slow trains, the only signal necessary 
would be the "home" signal at the entrance to each section. With high speeds 
it would be impossible to stop the train at a signal after it came in sight. A 
distant signal is therefore provided, to warn the engineman of the position of 
the home signal. When the distant signal indicates "clear," the engineman 
knows that the home signal is also at "clear" and that he has a clear track 
through the block section which he is approaching. The other position of the 
distant signal does not indicate "stop," but only "prepare to stop at the home 
signal." It indicates to the engineman that the home signal is at "stop," and 



265 TRACK. 

while the latter may be moved to the "clear" position before he reaches it, he 
must get his train under control ready to stop at the home signal if it has not 
been cleared. Trains held at a home signal are often allowed to pull past it 
so that the signal will protect the rear of the train, in which case an "advance" 
signal is put about a train-length beyond the home signal, so as to indicate to 
the engineman when the block is clear. On single track, however, trains must 
not pass the home signal until it is clear. The arrangements of automatic dis- 
tant signals have already been referred to. Manual signals are usually kept 
at the "stop" position except when it is necessary to give a "clear" indication 
to a train, but automatic signals return to the "clear" position as soon as a 
train has passed out of the block. 

The signals in general use are of two types: 1, The semaphore signal, consist- 
ing of an arm pivoted to a mast or post, and giving different indications by differ- 
ent positions; 2, The disk signal, the post carrying a "banjo" box having an 
opening at which a colored disk appears. The signals may be placed at the 
side of the track, or on bridges spanning the tracks. The arm is about 8 ins. 
wide and 4 ft. long, and projects on the right side of the post. It is set in a 
spectacle casting pivoted to the post; this casting forms a counterbalance and 
has 6-in. or 8-in. colored lenses which move in front of the lamp as the arm 
moves. The semaphore type is by far the most generally adopted. It is used 
for both block and interlocking signals, and with both the manual and automatic- 
block systems. The disk type is used only for automatic-block signals. The 
signals are carried on wooden posts, or on steel posts of tubes, or built up of 
angles and lattice bars. Block signals are usually about 20 or 25 ft. above the 
track. At interlocking points the height may be 30 or 40 ft. A bracket post 
for signaling two tracks, as on four-track lines, carries a platform supporting two 
posts 5 to 10 ft. high. Dwarf or low signals are commonly used for switching 
and reverse or back-up movements. There should not be more than two arms 
on a post, and these should be at least 6 ft. apart. An exception to this is a 
small arm placed low down on the post and governing low-speed or secondary 
movements. 

Two positions of the semaphore arm are usually employed. The horizontal 
position of the arm means "section occupied, stop." Any position below the 
horizontal (usually 60° to 90°) indicates "section ciear, proceed." In some 
cases a third position is introduced for permissive blocking, the arm being inclined 
60° below (or above) the horizontal to indicate "section occupied, proceed 
under control." The arm then stands in a vertical position to indicate "section 
clear." It is better to have only two positions, and to issue a clearance card 
cautioning the train to proceed carefully, when it is imperatively necessary to 
send it on without waiting for the section to be cleared. A three-position 
signal, however, may be used to advantage with double blocks, as already 
noted. When horizontal, it indicates "stop"; when inclined, it indicates "clear 
to next signal"; when vertical, it indicates "clear to second signal." It is 
thus a combined home and distant signal. There is a growing tendency to have 
the arms move upward instead of downward from the horizontal to the inclined 
and vertical position, and on busy roads the combination of two arms and 
lamps may indicate whether the train is to proceed on a high-speed or low- 
speed track. It is not advisable to give too many indications, which may 
confuse an engineman who has to recognize their meaning instantly. 

Semaphore signals usually have the face of the arms of home and advance 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 267 

signals painted red with a white square near the end, while those of distant 
signals are painted green with a white square or V stripe, the end of the arm 
being notched or fish-tailed. Some roads use yellow with a black V stripe 
for distant signals. Others use yellow with a black square or black fish-tailed 
stripe for the running face of all signals. The object of this is to have the indi- 
cation of the signal given by position and not by color. With disk signals a 
red disk for the home and a green disk for the distant signal is the usual prac- 
tice. Signals at interlocking plants are almost invariably of the semaphore 
type, but where this type is also used for block signals, a distinctive form is 
sometimes adopted by making the arms of the latter pointed, with V stripes. 
This is done for the reason that an engineman must never pass a "stop" signal 
at an interlocking plant unless he has definite and positive orders and a " clear- 
ance card" from the signalman. An automatic-block signal, however, may 
be out of order, and if it is not "cleared" in a few minutes, the train may pro- 
ceed carefully, expecting to find a train, broken rail, etc., in the section. On 
the New York Central Ry., the system is as follows: 1, Home signal of con- 
trolled-manual system; square-end red blade with a white stripe. 2, Distant 
signal; forked or fish-tail yellow blade with a black V stripe. 3, Special per- 
missive signal; green blade of the same shape, with a white V stripe. 4, Auto- 
matic home signal; red arm with a pointed end and white V stripe. 5, Train- 
order and telegraph-block home signal; red blade with a rounded end and 
curved white stripe. On this road the signals are painted every three months. 
The back of the blade is usually painted white, with a black vertical stripe. 

The night indications are given by colored lamps. The old plan was to use 
red for "stop," white for "proceed," and green for "prepare to stop" on the 
distant signal. Owing to the confusion of white signal lights with street lamps 
and other lights in towns and cities, and to the possibility of a "stop" signal 
indicating "proceed" by the breaking of the red lens, the most approved system 
now is to use the green light for "proceed." This, however, has made neces- 
sary a new indication for the "prepare to stop" position of the distant signal, 
and two methods have been adopted: (1) To use two lenses (with one lamp), 
the signal showing a green light for "proceed" and a green and red light side 
by side for "prepare to stop"; (2) To use a distinctly yellow (not white) lens. 
The latter is preferable, as it avoids the use of a double light for one signal. 
The former was introduced by the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., and the latter 
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. In disk signals, the lamps 
show a light through an opening in the case, colored lenses inside being moved 
in accordance with the movement of the disk. A purple light is sometimes 
used for "stop" on minor signals, such as the low or "dwarf" signals for 
secondary movements or for reverse movements through interlocking plants. 
It is also used for the "dummy" posts indicating unsignaled tracks where 
bracket posts are used. To indicate whether the signal lamp is burning, a 
small opening with a frosted white glass is put at the back of the lamp, and 
shows only when the signal is at "stop." The lenses are usually 5 ins. or 
6 ins. diameter, with a 2-in. backlight. (See Chapter 7, "Lamps.") The 
colored glasses in the spectacle casting of the semaphore arm are 6 ins. or 
8 ins. diameter. 

The home signal is usually 50 to 200 ft. from the point it governs, and the 
distant signal 1,500 to 3,000 or even 5,000 ft. beyond. Very long spacing, 
however, requires reliable compensators, which are few and expensive. Derails 



268 TRACK. 

at crossings are 300 or 400 ft. from the crossing, or 150 to 300 ft. from back-up 
derails (see Chapter 9, "Track Crossings")- Signals on bridges spanning the 
tracks should be set directly over the tracks governed. Those on posts should 
be at the right-hand side (left-hand when trains keep to the left). If tracks 
are too close together for the signal to be set at the side, a bracket post should 
be set at the right of the outer track. This has a platform carrying posts of 
different heights, the highest indicating the high-speed route. If there are 
two tracks there will be two posts on the platform, but if the inner one is a 
sidetrack and not signaled, then the low post corresponding to this track will 
have no arm and will carry a purple light at night. When the signals are at 
stations, the two arms are often mounted on opposite sides of the top of one 
post in front of the operator's office. It is much better to have each signal on 
its own post at the proper end of the station, thus protecting trains from the 
rear. All main-line switch signals should be included in the block system. If 
for economy or other reasons this is not done, then a target should be used, 
entirely distinctive from the block signals. 

Block Signals on Electric Railways. — With the increase in length of electric 
interurban railways and the increase in the speed and traffic, methods of con- 
trolling the movements of cars become necessary, and failure to introduce such 
methods has been the cause of many serious collisions. Most lines of this class 
are now operated on the train-dispatching or train-order system, with telephone 
communication. The crews report by telephone at stations, passing sidings, 
etc., while connections on the poles at frequent intervals allow of special com- 
munication in case of emergency. The dispatcher, however, has ordinarily 
no means of calling the train crews, as is the case on steam railways. With 
the Blake system, semaphores and lamps are placed along the line and are 
under the control of the dispatcher, who can thus notify the men to call for 
orders. This is not a block-signal system. Block signals are as yet used to 
only a limited extent on railways of this class, and are almost invariably auto- 
matic, on account of the low cost. The Union system has semaphore signals 
operated by small secondary storage batteries in the base of the post; these are 
charged, through high resistance, by current from the third rail. In the Eureka 
system, the signals are lamps, and may be operated by a one-wire absolute 
block system or a two-wire permissive system. The latter gives greater flexi- 
bility, and by means of intermediate signals between turnouts it protects cars 
moving in the same direction and displays danger signals at the next turnout 
to prevent an opposing car from entering. In the United States system, there 
are two disks and lamps at each end of the block. An automatic switch on 
the trolley wire, 100 ft. before the signal, is operated by the trolley wheel of the 
approaching car. This causes a green disk and light to be displayed as the car 
enters the section, while a red disk and light are displayed at the other end. 
The green signal indicates a receding car, and the red signal an approaching car. 
This can be operated at speeds of 15 miles an hour. In the United system, the 
general arrangement is similar, but modified as follows: a red light indicates 
that an opposing car is in the section; a white light, that the section is clear; 
a green light, that a receding car is in the block, so that a second car may enter 
under control. In the General system, as employed on the Philadelphia & 
Western Ry., single-arm two-position semaphore home signals are used, stand- 
ing normally at "proceed" and arranged with an overlap. Near Philadelphia 
the signals are about 3,300 ft. apart, and the overlap is an entire block. Farther 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 269 

out the signals are about 1§ miles apart, and the overlap is 3,700 ft. These 
arrangements provide for a headway of two and five minutes respectively. 

Cab Signals. — Several systems have been invented by which the signals are 
electrically indicated in the engine cab by small colored lamps. The object 
is to avoid the possibility of the engineman missing a signal accidentally or in 
a fog. They may be used either alone, or in conjunction with the ordinary 
signals. Some of these have been tried, but only to a very limited extent. 

Automatic Stops. — To prevent accidents due to trains being accidentally or 
carelessly run past signals indicating "stop," various systems have been devised 
for automatically stopping the train, either by applying the brakes or closing 
the throttle. Track instruments operated from the signal mechanism engage 
with trips or electrical connections on the engine or motor car. These systems 
have been used to some extent on elevated and rapid-transit lines. The stop 
must be far enough ahead of the block signal to allow the latter to protect the 
train; or it must have an auxiliary automatic signal in the rear for this purpose. 

Torpedoes or Fog Signals. — Another method to prevent accidents of the kind 
above mentioned is to use track instruments which place torpedoes on the 
track when the signal indicates "stop." These are specially adapted for loca- 
tions where fog is encountered, and no special equipment is required on the 
engines. The proper system is to use torpedoes for both indications (one for 
"stop," two for "proceed"); otherwise a man might in a fog pass a signal at 
"clear" without seeing it and thus lose his bearings. 

Derails. — At interlocking points derails are put in to derail a train passing 
a "stop" signal. Ordinarily these are switch points, often with a guard rail 
to keep the train from running off the roadbed. To avoid the objectionable 
breaking of the main track by these switches, Mr. E. C. Carter, Chief Engineer 
of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., devised a derail which is a bar lying on the 
head of the track rail when the signal indicates "stop." The bar is 30 ins. 
long, If ins. thick, 2\ to 4 ins. wide. The wide end is inclined as a wedge to 
raise the wheel, which is then carried over the rail head and drops on the ties. 

Miscellaneous. — Train-order signals are erected at stations to indicate whether 
a train must stop for orders. They are frequently targets mounted on the 
platform shelter or on a post in front of the station, but the semaphore type is 
preferable and is now very generally used. They are operated by levers at the 
operator's table or desk, and if used as block signals will be normally set at 
"stop." The signal should be a definite signal, and not merely a flag or lamp. 
It should give a positive indication for both "stop" and "proceed," but some 
of the targets are only visible when indicating "stop." The train-order signal 
affords no protection to trains, even at stations. Where block signals are not 
in use, it is important that trains should be protected while standing at stations. 
This may be effected by automatic signals, set at the proper distance. Grade 
crossings and the entrances to yards and passing sidings should also be equipped 
with signals to protect and facilitate traffic. All main-track switches should 
have distant signals (see Switches). At outlying sidings there may be auto- 
matic signals on the main track, or indicators to advise the signalman or station 
operator when a train is on the siding and clear of the main track; also a bell 
or signal at the switch to warn waiting trains when the main-track block section 
is occupied; this signal may also control a switch lock. At drawbridges, 
the signals on the approaches should be interlocked with the bridge locks and 
machinery. Thus when the bridge is to be opened, the towermen on the 



270 TRACK. 

approaches must first set the signals at danger, and then release the bridge 
locks. Till this is done the bridgeman cannot operate the bridge. When the 
bridge is again closed, the rail lifts and end locks must be returned to normal 
position before the approach signals can be lowered to allow a train to proceed. 
Isolated points requiring protection, such as bridges, tunnels, sharp curves, 
stations, etc., may be fitted with automatic signals forming a single block. 

Interlocking. 

The term interlocking properly includes the locking of the block instruments 
and apparatus of adjacent towers, but is commonly confined to the interlocking 
of switches and signals at junctions and crossings in such a way that they can- 
not be set for conflicting routes or to cause collisions. Thus in the case of a 
single-track Y-junction (A), where two lines (B-A) and (C-A) unite to form 
one line (A-D): If a train is running from (C) to (D) it cannot be given a clear 
signal for the junction until the signals have been set to stop trains approaching 
from (B) and (D) and the switches have been -set for (C-A-D). Distant and 
home signals are used, and when the train has passed the former and entered 
the limits of interlocking, the signalman cannot move any signals or switches 
of this or conflicting routes until the train has passed beyond the limits. This 
locking of the home by the distant signal at "clear" should never be applied 
to block signals, as the signalman should have it in his power to stop a train 
at any time before it has actually reached the signal, in case of emergency. 
On the other hand, it should not be practicable to show a clear distant signal 
until the home signal is at " clear," and at interlocking plants it must be returned 
to "prepare to stop" before the home signal can indicate "stop." The inter- 
locking should be so arranged that a home signal cannot be shown at "clear" 
until derails or diverging switches in conflicting routes are in their normal 
position and the switches for the required route are set and locked. The home 
signal when at "clear" should lock all switches and locks in the route as far as 
the point to which the signal gives permission to proceed, locking all opposing 
or conflicting signals and releasing the corresponding distant signal. Inter- 
locking plants are not always used where the block system is in use. In such 
case the block signals protect against collisions on the open track, but safety 
against misplaced switches must depend upon the vigilance of switchmen and 
enginemen. Where interlocking plants are used in addition to the block system, 
they should be operated as an integral part of the latter. The interlocking 
plant is operated from the upper floor of a tower or cabin. 

The switches and signals may be operated mechanically or electrically. With 
electric interlocking there is generally a generating plant in the tower, and 
each signal, switch, etc., has an individual motor, connected by wires with the 
apparatus in the tower or cabin. The movements are effected by push buttons 
or small levers. With this system distant signals may be placed 3,000 or 
4,000 ft. from the tower, while with mechanical operation 2,000 ft. is about 
the limit. The locking is also electric, but electric locking may be applied to 
mechanical interlocking plants. The locking includes both the mechanism in 
the tower and at the different outdoor points. The former is so arranged that 
the movement of levers for a certain series of operations locks the levers which 
would be used in a conflicting series. At the same time the switches, etc., are 
locked in the position at which they are set. The signals governing these 



SIGNALING AND INTERLOCKING. 



271 



switches cannot indicate "proceed" until this locking is effected and must be 
returned to the "stop" position before the switches can be unlocked. 

In mechanical interlocking, the movements are effected by means of L or 
inverted T levers, the upright end working between sector guides in the floor- 
A latch handle against the lever handle operates a stop fitting in notches at 
each end of the sector. The locking mechanism is connected with this latch, 
so that when the lever is locked the latch handle cannot be moved to raise the 
stop, and consequently an attempt to pull a locked lever does not put any strain 
on the wire or rod connections. To the ends of the horizontal arms of the lever 
are attached wires, chains or rods which run down to the lower floor of the tower 
and out to the roadbed. This forms the lead-out. 

Lines of 1-in. pipe are generally used for operating switches, detector bars, 
locks, derails (and stop blocks), and home signals. Other signals may be oper- 
ated by wire, but in many cases they are all operated by pipe lines, which insure 
a positive and uniform movement. Distant signals, however, must generally 
be connected by wire, as 1,000 ft, is about the limit for their practical operation 
by pipe lines. Very long pipe lines are liable to buckle, and are hard to operate 
if connected to anything but signals at distances over 800 ft. Wire-connected 
signals are operated at distances of 2,000 to 4,000 ft., but are apt to be unsatis- 
factory, due to the arm not having a uniform movement; 2,000 ft. is about the 
limit for reliable service. Electric connections may be economical and necessary 
for distances of over 1,200 ft. for pipe or 2,000 ft. with wire. Pipe lines have 
compensators to provide for expansion and contraction due to changes in tem- 
perature; there is usually one in each line 50 to 800 ft. long, and two in lines up 
to 1,200 ft. They are usually of the "lazy-jack" or double bell-crank pattern. 
The pipes are supported at intervals of about 7 ft. on roller carriers, while wires 
are supported on small pulleys attached to stakes. The wires may be carried 
under streets, etc., in J-in. or 1-in. pipes filled with crude oil, the pipes requiring 
to be refilled about twice a year. The foundations for pipe carriers, bell cranks, 
chain wheels, etc., should be of concrete, though wood is frequently used. 




' Defector Bar, 
5Vb*q; 

14 Clips. 



Fig. 191. — Bolt Lock for Switch. 



In mechanical interlocking, switches are usually locked by bolt locks, a 
typical arrangement of which is shown in Fig. 191. The head rod of the 
switch, or a rod extending from it beyond the rails, has two holes, engaging with 
a horizontal bolt or plunger moving parallel with the rail in a casting on the 
tie. When the switch is properly set in either position, the bolt is thrown and 
enters the hole; the movement of its operating rod unlocks the lever of the 
signal governing the switch. If the switch is not properly set, the bolt cannot 
enter and consequently the signal remains locked at "stop." When the switch 
is locked, the bolt cannot be withdrawn while a train is passing, a detector bar 



272 TRACK. 

preventing the movement of the operating rod. The bar is at least 50 ft. long, 
so that one wheel of a train will always be over it. It is hinged on studs, and 
lies against the outside rail head. In moving it has a longitudinal motion, and 
rises slightly above the rail head, which it cannot do as long as a wheel is on the 
rail. These bars are very extensively used in interlocking work, but track 
circuits may serve the same purpose. 

Where the tower is not part of a block system, track instruments may be set 
at a suitable distance and connected to a bell or indicator in the tower. The 
towerman is thus notified that a train is approaching, and on what track. 
Without such apparatus he must rely on the engine whistle. If he fails to hear 
this or to comprehend at once on which track the train is approaching, he may 
fail to set the signals promptly, and thus check a fast or heavy train. At cross- 
ings with light and slow traffic, distant signals may sometimes be omitted, 
fixed "slow" signs warning all trains to approach the crossing slowly. Inter- 
locking plants are being used to protect the increasing number of crossings 
of electric railways with steam railways; these plants are practically identical 
with those used at the crossings of steam railways. 



CHAPTER 16.— ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 

The great development of electric traction, not only for city and suburban 
service, but also for long-distance interurban and rural service, has been attended 
by very considerable improvements in track construction, and has opened a 
new field for engineers in the construction and maintenance of these lines. On 
lines outside of city and suburban streets, and built at the sides of roads or on 
their own right of way, the construction is usually very similar to that of an 
ordinary railway. If the line follows a highway it may be paved over like the 
rest of the road. In city streets the track construction is usually of a special 
character, adapted to the style of paving. Greater permanence of surface is 
required here, as the track must maintain its conformity to the surface of the 
street, and there is no opportunity for the continual tamping, surfacing and 
tightening of bolts which is done on railway track. For this reason a sub- 
stantial and permanent foundation is a necessity. 

For street railways, the excavation should be carried below the level of the 
bottom of the ties. The subgrade should be rolled, and then covered with 
concrete; or with a bed of slag, broken stone, or gravel, well rolled to a finished 
depth of 8 to 12 ins. below the ties. The same material should be filled in 
between the ties and form the foundation for the paving. In city streets with 
heavy traffic, a concrete foundation for the tracks and paving is desirable, and 
with such construction the use of wooden ties may be dispensed with, the rails 
being laid directly upon or embedded in the concrete. Both systems are in 
use, but the tendency is to eliminate all wood in heavy first-class construction, 
the rails being connected at intervals by tie-rods or tie-bars through the webs. 
It has been contended that tracks having rails laid upon the concrete would be 
very rough riding and cause increased wear of wheels, bearings and cars, but 
experience does not sustain this objection, especially where deep and stiff girder 
rails are used, and where the track is rigidly anchored to the foundation. In 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 



273 



fact, some of the most easy riding track is built in this manner, and on two 
parts of a line where the concrete base and the wooden cross-tie system were 
both in use, no difference in the wear of rails or equipment was found after 
careful investigation. Where a well-built track proves to be hard riding, atten- 
tion may be directed to the car springs, as these have an important influence 
upon this matter as well as upon the wear of rails, and in many cases too little 
attention is paid to the design of the springs and spring rigging. 

The rails are almost universally of the girder or ordinary T sections, the 
various forms of strap, box and compound rails and shallow rails supported on 
chairs being practically obsolete. The deep rails are rigid, and if well anchored 
are free from the wave motion which proves destructive to paving. Girder 
rails are used for lines of all classes, but more especially for city streets; T 
rails are also used in streets, but mainly for suburban and country lines. The 
rails used in street tracks are of the types shown in Fig. 192: 1, Grooved girder 
rails; 2, Side-bearing girder rails; 3, Tee-girder rails; 4, Ordinary tee rails. 
The grooved rail has the head flush with the paving, a groove forming the flange- 
way for the wheels. In one type the guard side of the groove is about £-in. 
lower than the running head of the rail. For city streets the grooved head is 
the best, the rail head being wide enough for the widest wagon wheels and 
having a groove for the car-wheel flanges. These grooves form the only break 



: — {^— &£-3-1s4' k-*g---f "'-V r H f--2h-* ~li;-f\ \ onL K -<*~ -t' 




7e*.... ...... ...„ 

Grooved Girder 
Raik 



k — - -5'-- - X 

Side-Bearing Girder 

Rail. 
Fig. 192. — Rails for Street-Railway Track. 



in the street surface. The rail is of little advantage in ill-paved rough streets. 
The inner side of the groove is nearly vertical, but the outer side may be flaring 
or vertical. The latter gives the least break in the pavement, but the former 
enables narrow wheels to turn out easily and is also more easily kept clean. 
Dirt and snow in the groove offer some additional resistance to traction, but 
the general advantages of this form of rail far outweigh any minor objections 
on the part of the railway companies. When first introduced, following 
long-established English practice, it was claimed that narrow tires would be 
caught and that the grooves would be so clogged up with street dirt that cars 
would not be able to run. Practical experience has shown that the use of these 
rails is practicable and advantageous. With the side-bearing rail there is no 
groove proper, but the paving between the rails of each track is lower than that 
of the rest of the street. This makes an irregular surface, inconvenient for 
driving and difficult to keep clean. Girder rails are 6 to 10J ins. high, and 



274 TRACK. 

weigh from 70 to 140 lbs. per yd. The use of T-girder rails, or T rails of greater 
height than those used on steam railways, has become very general for city 
and suburban lines. Ordinary T rails are also frequently used, but the lighter 
sections are too shallow for use with brick or block paving, as there is not room 
for the proper cushion course of sand over the rail flange. The T rail, whether 
of ordinary or girder pattern, is prohibited in some cities. 

The rail joints may be spliced in the same way as those of steam railways, 
but for very tall rails the splice bars are usually of channel section, with a double 
row of bolts, and have sometimes a horizontal rib which bears against the web 
of the rail, as shown in Fig. 192. Many of the special joints described in a 
former chapter have also been adapted to street-railway track. Reinforced 
joints, having base pieces riveted or bolted beneath them, have been used in 
many cases. With 5-in. and 6-in. rails at Scranton, Pa., ordinary angle bars 
are bolted to the rails with six bolts, and an inverted piece of rail 4 ft. long is 
riveted to the base of the rails with 18 rivets; four of these are of oopper to act 
as electric bonds. A pneumatic riveter is used, suspended from a derrick on 
a construction car. As the work on rail joints represents some 75% of the 
general track maintenance, and as this work is done under unfavorable con- 
ditions, the desirability of eliminating joints may readily be seen. For this 
reason 60-ft. rails are very commonly used. As the rails are used to carry the 
return current, the joints must be bonded or connected by copper wires or 
plates, so that the current will flow uninterruptedly from rail to rail and not 
seek an easier path through the earth owing to the resistance which it encounters 
in passing the joints. This bonding is often defective or of insufficient capacity, 
the conductivity of the bonds being far less than that of the rails. As a result 
the current escapes and travels along water and gas pipes and other conductors 
offering less resistance. This causes electrolytic corrosion or electrolysis. 

Within recent years the elimination of the joints by welding the rails together 
'has been very extensively practised, and in general with good results. As the 
rails are embedded in the paving, and only the top of the head is exposed, the 
contraction and expansion due to temperature are very much reduced, and 
where breaks occur they are more often due to faulty welding than to the con- 
traction of the rails. It is claimed that welded joints eliminate the necessity 
of electric bonding, but it requires careful work to make welded joints which 
are equal to the rail in conductivity. At Milwaukee, the cast-welded joints 
show a conductivity of 100 to 140% as compared with the rail itself; any joint 
showing less than 80% is broken and remade. The joints may be welded 
electrically or by pouring melted iron around the rail ends. In electric welding, 
steel bars about 1X3X15 ins. are clamped to the rail webs, and three electric 
welds are made at the rail ends and the ends of the bars, heavy pressure being 
applied while the rails are heated by an electric current. In the "cast-weld" 
system a hinged mold is clamped to the joint, and a vertical screw applies 
pressure from above to keep the rail ends from buckling vertically under the 
influence of the heat. Metal heated to a white heat in a portable cupola is 
then poured into the mold, which is left for about an hour. The metal is usually 
composed of about 67% pig iron and 33% scrap, and the best results are obtained 
where a thin iron shim or plate is inserted at the joint. In "thermit" welding 
a self-fusing metal is put in the mold and ignited. The rail ends must be clean 
and bright to insure good work, and the finished joint should be ground or 
dressed to a plane surface. Breaks are classed as broken rails, broken joints 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 275 

and slipped joints, the latter being due to imperfect welding. They may be 
repaired by rewelding, putting on splice bars, or by cutting out 10 ft. of rail 
and putting in a new piece with two joints. 

The rails may be laid (with or without ties) upon a continuous sheet of con- 
crete which also supports the paving, or upon concrete stringers. In the former 
case, where concrete forms a foundation for both the track and the paving, 
the depth may be increased at the track: 1, Under the enthe width of track, 
if ties are used with ordinary spacing; 2, Under the ties only, where these are 

8 to 12 ft. apart; 3, Under each rail, if ties are not used. Concrete stringers 
are adapted to streets having no concrete foundation, or old concrete of insuffi- 
cient thickness to carry the track. At Tacoma, Wash., 7-in. 70-lb. T rails are 
laid on stringers 10X14 ins.; no ties are used, but the rails are connected by 
tie-rods. In the stringer system, a trench is dug for each line of rails, about 
20 ins. wide at top and 16 ins. at the bottom, which is 8 to 10 ins. below the 
rail base. Wooden blocks are placed in the trenches, 10 ft. apart, the rails 
being spiked to the blocks and spliced. When the track is adjusted to line, 
gage and surface, the trenches are filled with concrete, tamped well under the 
rails to give them a full bearing, and allowed to set for about six days, accord- 
ing to the weather. On existing lines, sections of about 1,000 ft. of one track 
may be given up, portable crossovers connecting the tracks at the ends of each 
section, or a temporary track being laid on the street if conditions permit. 

Wooden ties are usually of sawed pine, oak, cedar or chestnut, 6X8 ins. and 7 
to 8^ ft. long; a few roads use 6-ft. ties, which are not to be recommended. They 
are spaced 18 to 30 ins. c. to c, except that where they are used mainly to hold 
the rails during construction, they may be 5 to 12 ft. apart. Ties embedded in 
concrete do not show such rapid decay as might be expected. Ordinary or 
screw spikes are used. Steel tie-plates are generally placed on all ties, com- 
bination tie-plates and braces being used on all or a certain proportion of the 
ties. Steel ties of I-beams, troughs or angles are sometimes used, being 
embedded in concrete; the first are by far the most general. They may be 
spaced 5 to 10 ft. apart. High rails are very frequently connected at intervals 
of about 10 ft. by 1-in. tie-rods (if to be embedded in concrete) or flat tie-bars 
(if to fit between rows of paving blocks). These have threaded ends which 
pass through the webs of the rails and have nuts on both sides of the webs. 
The rods and Tail braces are to maintain the gage and resist lateral thrust. 

The switches in paved streets are usually of the tongue pattern, a pivoted 
tapering tongue moving in a casting having a wide groove. The switch or 
tongue is placed on one side of the track only, with a fixed point or "mate," 
like a long frog point, on the opposite side. Frogs and crossings are usually 
steel castings, manganese steel and other specially hard steel being often inserted 
at the points of most severe wear. Passing sidings may be arranged in different 
ways: (1) The main track continued in a straight line, with the siding on one 
side; (2) Both tracks diverted equally from the center line; (3) The main track 
offset so as to overlap for the length of the siding. In the third case, auto- 
matic spring switches are set normally for the straight line; cars in each direc- 
tion have a facing switch always open, and trail through a closed switch at the 
leaving end. Junctions and intersections in cities often require complicated 
special work, which is laid out with great accuracy. 

The gage of street-railway tracks is usually 4 ft. 8i ins., with tracks spaced 

9 ft. to 10 ft. c. to c. Gages of 3^ ft. to 5£ ft. are used in some cases. On 



276 TRACK. 

electric railways, grades of 5 to 6% are frequent, and 8 to 12% grades are suc- 
cessfully operated. On cable lines (now almost obsolete), grades of 15 and 
18% are surmounted. Very heavy grades on electric city lines (15 to 18%) 
are occasionally equipped with a counterweight system. A counterweighted 
truck on a cable running in a conduit travels up the grade as a car descends,, 
the car being controlled by a special cable grip car which runs on the incline. 
Curves may be as sharp as 30 to 125 ft. radius. Transition or spiral curves are 
frequently adopted, not only for ordinary curves on outlying parts of the 
line where cars run at high rates of speed, but also on sharp city curves, to 
eliminate the severe shock and swing caused by a car passing from the tangent 
to the curve. In one case, curves of 400 ft. radius have transition curves 60 
ft. long, with an initial radius of 3,400 ft.; 33-ft. curves have transition curves 
running out to 180 and 368 ft. at the ends. Terminal loops of 33 ft. radius 
have the gage widened J-in., but no elevation is required, as the speed is 
invariably slow. On curves up to 100 ft. radius, the gage may be widened 
i-in., but beyond that the standard gage is commonly used. Curves of 250 
and 300 ft. radius on high-speed suburban lines are sometimes elevated 3 \ to 
4 ins., using a guard rail on the inside. In city streets an elevation of 2 ins. 
can sometimes be obtained on sharp curves without undue interference with 
the paving, but curves at intersections can have little or no elevation. In 
Boston the rail is elevated for a speed of 15 miles per hour, where the street 
construction will permit of using this formula: E = (GV 2 )-h(32.2R). 

It must be borne in mind that the width of tread of wheels for electric cars 
is usually less than that of ordinary railway wheels, so that widening of gage 
may unduly reduce the bearing of the wheel upon the inner rail. On sharp 
curves where guard rails are required (sometimes all under 500 ft. radius), the 
gage may be widened a sufficient amount (according to the width of the groove) 
to prevent the flange of the wheel from cutting into the tread of the outer rail. 
Guard rails are required on sharp curves, and these may be grooved girder 
rails with wide grooves and guards of exceptional thickness. With T rails, 
an inside guard rail of the same section (or a heavy rectangular bar) may be 
bolted to the web of the track rail, spacing blocks of the required width being 
used. Special care must be taken in laying out curves to insure easy riding 
and (on double track) to prevent any liability of cars striking when passing on 
a curve. On very sharp curves it is impossible to spread the curves to prevent 
this interference with long cars, and cars must not attempt to pass each other. 
There is a movement towards standardizing wheels, and on interurban rail- 
ways the wheels conform largely to the standards of the Master Car Builders' 
Association, already described. Street-car wheels have treads 2\ to 2| ins. 
wide; flanges f to f-in. deep, and 1 to 1| ins. thick. Where interurban cars 
are run over city tracks, all grooves must, of course, be designed for the larger 
flanges. On double-track lines in streets the outer rails may have to be ^-in. 
or J-in. lower than the inner rails, to conform to the crowning of the surface. 

In paved streets the same paving material should be used for the entire width 
of the street, so as to distribute the traffic, but many cities allow the use of an 
inferior material between the rails and tracks. The track in city streets should 
be considered as a part of the street construction. Under an advanced system 
of municipal administration it should be designed, built and maintained by the 
city, or at least under its direct control. Several cities already exercise more 
or less control over the construction, but municipal authorities might well 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 277 

undertake closer control of track construction and maintenance. Various styles 
of paving are adopted to conform to the design of track. Concrete may be 
filled between the ties to form a foundation for brick or stone paving, or it 
may be laid over the ties to the necessary height for an asphalt paving. Where 
asphalt is used, or where a macadam road has heavy traffic, a line of bricks 
or granite blocks may be placed to form or protect the grooves for the wheel 
flanges. On heavy grades a similar plan may be used to prevent macadam 
paving from being washed out along the rails, one or two lines of brick being 
laid outside of the rail head. Asphalt usually deteriorates if laid against the 
rails. A macadamized street, having tracks laid with 85-lb. 5|-in. T rails, has 
broken stone 5 ins. deep under the ties, and filled in to 3 ins. below the top of 
the rail ; the top course is of gravel and stone screenings. With T rails in brick 
paving there are numerous methods of construction, and six methods of form- 
ing the flangeway groove are shown in Fig. 193. 

In the reconstruction of the Chicago street railways (1907), 9-in. 129-lb. 
60-ft. grooved girder rails are used, laid on Carnegie I-beam steel ties or wooden 
ties 5 ft. c. to c. They are laid with square joints, spliced with very short bars 
having only one bolt to each rail; the bolts are at the bottom of the web. They 
are fastened to the wooden ties by screw spikes, and to the steel ties by hook- 

6 rout Nose Brick Asphalt 

'•■jana 

J. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 

Fig. 193. — Methods jof Forming Flangeway for Tracks in Streets with Brick Paving. 

headed wedges or keys. Steel tie-plates are used in both cases, and the rails 
are connected at intervals by tie-bars. Concrete is filled in beneath and around 
the rails (but kept clear of the joint bolts); upon this is a sand cushion for the 
granite paving blocks, which are set |-in. above the guard (and £-in. below the 
head of the rail). On minor streets, wooden ties are laid 24 ins. c. to c. on an 
S-in. bed of broken stone which has been well rolled. Concrete is filled in as 
above. In this work electric power from the trolley wire was used to operate 
concrete-mixing machines, augers for boring the ties, and spike-setters for 
driving the screw spikes. 

At Indianapolis, the standard track construction is on the combination tie 
and beam system, Fig. 194. The concrete stringer is 10 ins. deep under the 
rail; it has either an 18-in. flat bottom and sloping sides, or is of curved section. 
The ties are 6X8 ins., 8 ft. long, 10 or 12 ft. c. to c, the concrete being 6 ins. 
deeper for a width of 24 ins. under each tie. Each rail has a brace tie-plate 
on every tie, and two between the ties, the latter having anchor bolts embedded 
in the concrete, so as to hold them rigidly upon the concrete. A 7-in. 91 -lb. 
T-girder rail is used. When the cross-tie system is employed, the rails rest on 
white-oak ties 24 ins. apart, with a brace tie-plate on every third tie. Under 
the ties is a 6-in. bed of gravel concrete, which is also filled in between and over 
them. The use of ordinary concrete under the ties necessitates the stopping 
of traffic (as the track cannot be held to line on wet concrete), and where it is 
not practicable to divert traffic a dry concrete is used. The gravel and sand 




278 



TRACK. 



are excavated with a §-yd. orange-peel bucket; two sacks of cement are thrown 
upon it, and the load is then dropped into a concrete mixer, which delivers it 
directly to the ballast cars. This concrete has the ordinary moisture of the 
pit gravel. It is laid in the same way as gravel ballast, and the track properly 



$! ,/." , /DryGrovf „ WoodFUf.\ , , • „ , ,2%phalf- 




^k& 6x6x80 Tie 




^ i r :}° : : : -A ; : o :; * • • ,j ;'; * '•. V-'v Concrete-^ \ > 
vS mmMM'MmmmmmmmMi Section G-D, between Ties. 
1 Sec+ion A-B, a+ Tie. 

A C 

" >K- 3'4?—\ ->' ..-Brace Tie-PL 



■3V-- 



| | o_o i o o Kfl'j 7"ftail;9llbs\ ^ j [^ 

^ m;rA*Vi : :;:V ! ?:«m ^ D Anchor 



En©, news. 



tffr-' 






wo 



Pari* Longitudinal Section,. 
Fig. 194. — Street -Railway Track; Indianapolis, Ind. 

lined and tamped to the permanent grade. After several months the absorp- 
tion of moisture from the earth is sufficient to allow the concrete to set to a 
strength approximately 80% of that of similar concrete mixed with water in 
the usual way. At the end of three years it seems to be practically as strong 
as ordinary concrete, and the track has maintained its line and grade. 

At Kansas City, Fig. 195, the ties are laid on 6 ins. of stone ballast, which is 
also filled 2 ins. between them. On this is the concrete foundation for the 
paving. The business streets have 141-lb. grooved-girder rails, but other 



100 ib. 
A^CZMril-^ , 

VN I* 

Vrk Paving Brick. \ \ \ 



pC ,a "■■"»-■ 



Special Molded Bricks 



—JO'O'C. to 0. of Trtfc/f ^ 






Concrete '■: -S 




Ens. news 



streets have T rails of the 100-lb. section of the American Society of Civil 
Engineers. With asphalt paving, a line of brick is laid on each side of the 
rail. At Toronto, a 6-in. bed of concrete is put in for the entire width of the 
street, increased to 12 ins. for a width of 20 ins. under each rail. Under the 
tracks the concrete is first laid to within A.\ ins. of the rail; wooden blocks 
are set on this to carry the rails, and the concrete is filled in to If ins. above 
the base of rail. On this is a 1-in. sand cushion and a 4£-in. brick pavement. 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 279 

A T rail or a 7-in. grooved girder rail is used, according to location; in the former 
case a row of nose blocks of scoria (or slag) is laid inside each rail to form the 
groove. The rails are 60 ft. long, with 24-in. Continuous and Atlas splice bars. 
They are bolted to ties of old 4^-in. T rails (inverted) 12 ft. apart, and are also 
connected by |-in. rods 6 ft. apart. At Milwaukee a 7-in. 95-lb. T-girder rail 
is used, having a head 3 ins. wide. The rails are in 60-ft. lengths, with cast- 
welded joints. They are laid on cedar ties 24 ins. c. to c, with 6 or 8 ins. of 
concrete (1:2}: 5) beneath them. The subgrade is flooded and tamped, or 
rolled, and the concrete allowed to set for a week before cars are run. The 
stone blocks are laid as at No. 6 in Fig. 193. 

The poles for the trolley wires are usually about 30 ft. long; 40 to 50 ft. at 
crossings and if carrying transmission lines. They are set 6 or 8 ft. in the 
ground, and are vertical if single poles carry brackets for the trolley wire. If 
this wire is supported by transverse span wires between pairs of poles, these 
are inclined outward 4 or 5 ft. in their height. They are generally 100 ft. apart. 
Woqden poles are about 5 to 7 ins. diameter at the top and 10 to 13 ins. at the 
butt. They may be of cedar if left round, or chestnut if trimmed to a square 
or hexagonal section. Very frequently they are tarred to the ground line and 
painted above this. Creosoted poles are durable, but are good conductors. 
Iron poles may be tubular or built-up, the former being the most common and 
usually consisting of three tubes, 5, 6, and 7 ins. diameter, with telescoped and 
swaged joints. Concrete poles have been used in several cases. Those of the 
Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley Ry. are 1:3:3 stone or gravel concrete, having 
a 1 : 3 facing mixture. They are 32 ft. long, 8 ft. in the ground, 10 X 10 ins. to 
6X6 ins. section, and weigh 3,300 lbs. each. 

Interurban lines are as a rule operated on the overhead trolley-wire system. 
The wire is about 22- ft. above the rails, and is carried by bracket arms on a 
single line of poles set beside or between the tracks, or by transverse span wires 
between poles set on both sides of the track. Side poles are 7 or 1\ ft. from 
center of track, and double poles 15 or 16 ft. apart. The poles may be erected 
by ropes and pike-poles, or by means of a derrick-wagon. Cables are hauled 
over the cross-arms by a rope and team. The trolley wire may be put up by 
a tower car, in front of which is a truck with the spool of wire. The wire has 
a distinct sag between the poles, but for high speed a level wire is desirable. 
This is secured by supporting it at intervals by hangers from one or two longi- 
tudinal catenary cables carried by brackets or by bridges spanning the track. 
On the Indianapolis & Cincinnati Ry., where speeds of 65 miles per hour are 
attained, there is a single catenary cable on brackets carried by poles 120 ft. 
apart (50 ft. on sharp curves), and 7 ft. from the center of the track. The 
hangers are 10 ft. apart, and the trolley wire is 18 ft. above the rails. For 
some lines with high speed and heavy traffic, the third-rail system is used, in 
which a shoe on the car truck rides upon a conductor rail laid at the side of 
the track. This may be a T rail, with the shoe riding on the top, or a double- 
headed rail carried by overhanging brackets so that the shoe rides against th& 
bottom face. The wearing face is usually 2\ to 3 \ ins. above and 27 to 32 ins. 
from the track rail. With the under-running arrangement, the rail is easily 
protected from snow and against accidental contact with persons. 

Many interurban lines are built on their own right of way. In such cases the 
ordinary system of track construction may be followed, using 60-lb. to 80-lb. 
rails spiked to. ties 18 to 30 ins. c. to c, laid on a suitable amount of ballast. 



280 TRACK. 

Where the line is laid along a road, however, T rails or girder rails are generally 
used, being connected by tie-rods about 10 ft. apart. They are generally single 
track, with passing places at intervals, sometimes every two miles. A No. 6 
spring-rail frog is sometimes used for the turnouts, as this gives a theoretical 
lead of 56.52 ft., which is convenient for placing the turnout within the 100 ft. 
spacing of the trolley poles. Many roads use rails 60 ft. long; in some cases they 
are satisfactory, but in others it is difficult to keep the rails in line. In unload- 
ing them, two dollies of different heights are set beyond the rail car, each with 
a roller on top. The bond holes are sometimes drilled by machines mounted 
on a car, the drills and propelling machinery being operated from a gasoline 
engine. The Milwaukee interurban lines have 66-ft., 80-lb. rails, with square 
joints (except on curves). They are spliced with Weber joints and anchored 
at intervals of 200 ft. to prevent creeping. The open track has cedar ties 
spaced 16 ins. apart in the clear, without regard to width; hewed oak ties are 
used on curves, and sawed oak ties on sidings. 

Roads of this class should have ample signal and safety equipment, as there 
is apt to be more liability of accidents than on steam railways. The methods 
of operation are often unsystematic, the discipline slack, and the rules not 
rigidly enforced. The schedules are also variable. Train dispatching by 
telephone orders is the usual system of operation, but the block system is some- 
times established. (See Signaling.) Road crossings should be equipped with 
automatic electric-bell or lamp signals, as the cars run swiftly and quietly and 
the motormen very generally fail to sound their whistles. Grade crossings of 
electric lines with steam railways are too numerous, and could often be avoided. 
They should be efficiently protected, as noted in a previous chapter. The 
grades and curves may be considerably heavier than on ordinary railways, but 
it seems probable that the curvature is in many cases too sharp for safe and 
efficient operation at high speeds, especially as cars are run at 50 to 70 miles 
per hour on many of such lines. Curves of 14° to 20° are sometimes necessi- 
tated by the fact that the location has to be made to fit a right of way already 
purchased. The rules used by steam railways for superelevation of curves are 
not satisfactory for electric railways, owing to the lighter weight of the cars, 
the arrangement of the motive power, and other conditions. 

The Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Electric Ry. is a high-speed electric interurban 
line, operated on the third-rail system. Its right of way is mainly 66 ft. and 
100 ft. wide, all fenced, and on single track all cuts are excavated for a double- 
track roadbed. The ordinary curves are of 1° to 4°, with 16° curves at cemetery 
property which could not be purchased. The superelevation on curves was 
originally 1 in. per degree, with a maximum of 5 ins., but for high-speed service 
it has been found necessary to give 3 ins. elevation on 1° and 2° curves. The 
elevation is run out 1 in. in 50 ft. and the ends of the curves are spiraled. The 
width of roadbed is 16 ft. for single and 28 ft. for double track (13 and 26 
ft. over ballast). The double tracks are 13 ft. c. to c, with crossovers 4 
miles apart. On single track there are passing sidings 4 miles apart, 
and long sidings at curves to insure safety in high-speed service. The sid- 
ings are from 700 ft. to a mile in length. The 80-lb., 60-ft. rails of the Am. 
Soc. C. E. section are laid with broken suspended joints, spliced with 28-in. 
angle bars and four 1-in. bolts. There are 32 oak or cedar ties to a rail length, 
with from 6 to 9 ins. of gravel ballast under the ties. The joints are bonded, 
and the rails cross-bonded every 500 ft. The main-track turnouts have split 



ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 281 

switches with 15-ft. reinforced switch rails and No. 10 spring-rail frogs. The 
conductor or third rail is of the 100-lb. Am. Soc. C. E. section, in 33-ft. lengths. 
To give great conductivity it is of 0.1% carbon, but as the soft steel rusts and 
corrodes more rapidly, it was painted with a cheap asphalt paint thinned with 
gasoline. This soon wore off and the rail became rusty. It would be better 
to use a good quality of durable protective paint to keep the rail in condition 
and to reduce the labor cost for cleaning and repainting. 

The holes for the bonds were formed in the rail flanges after the rails were 
laid; some were formed by a portable hydraulic press, and others drilled by 
hand or by a gasoline machine on a car. Every fifth tie is a 6X8-in. white-oak 
sawed tie 9 ft. long, the end carrying an insulating support for the third rail. 
The head of this rail is 11^ ins. above the tie and 19^ ins. from the gage side 
of the track rail. At grade crossings the third rail is cut, the last rail being 
dropped 2 ins. in its length and fitted with a 24-in. incline to catch the shoe 
on the car. The current is carried across by a cable laid under the road. This 
is protected by being laid in a 3-in. bituminized fiber conduit, covered with 3 
ins. of gravel concrete. Signs, cattleguards and warnings as to the third rail 
are placed at crossings. The cars used are 53 ft. long, weighing about 40 tons 
empty; they are geared for speeds of 73 miles per hour, and the acceleration 
is two miles per second, or 60 miles per hour in 30 seconds. In track work 
60-ft. rails are more difficult to handle and much more difficult to keep in 
line than 30-ft. rails. There is practically no difference as to keeping the rails 
in surface; any difference is in favor of the 60-ft. rail. As the third rail inter- 
feres with the lining of track on that side, a chain is used with a hook at one 
end and a ring on the other. The hook is slipped over the rail base and the 
chain passes under the third rail, so that the men on the outer side of that rail 
can put their lining bars through the ring. 

Organization. — The organization of the maintenance-of-way department of 
the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Co. is as follows: The system (with about 619 
miles of track) is under the charge of an engineer of way and is divided into 
seven divisions. The five main divisions average 109 miles each. In the other 
two divisions one man has charge of approximately 40 miles of track, chiefly 
suburban, and the other of about 25 miles. The work in each of the divisions 
is in direct charge of a superintendent, who looks after track, paving, bridges and 
building repairs. The work in general is outlined each month by the engineer 
and supplemented by written orders daily. In addition to these divisions 
there is a floating gang which has charge of the building of new electrical con- 
duits, bonding track, and miscellaneous repairs to pavements and masonry 
w r ork. Such work as cleaning and oiling curves and switches, and sanding 
track, is done by men specially detailed for that purpose in each division. All 
jobs have a number, and sheets from each division showing the distribution of 
time and labor are forwarded daily to the main office. From these sheets is 
compiled a monthly report to the president and general manager. On the 
Chicago City Ry., the maintenance of tracks is divided among four general 
foremen, who report to the superintendent of tracks, and the work is divided 
among them according to character rather than location. One man is in charge 
of straight track maintenance of the entire system, having foremen under him 
responsible for different sections. Another has charge of special track work. 
A third maintains railway crossings, track elevations and car houses. The 
fourth has charge of handling all material, including teanvng and supply-car 



282 TRACK. 

service. For emergency work, such as wrecks, snow, etc., the regular force is 
divided into sections, with separate divisions alloted to each general foreman. 
The Aurora, Elgin & Chicago Ry. has two roadmasters: one for the third-rail 
system, with about 87 miles of track; the other for the interurban and city 
.trolley lines, with about 75 miles. On the third-rail system, the sections have 
an equivalent of 8 miles of single track, and each foreman has five men as a 
regular gang. Trackwalkers are employed on many interurban lines. 



PART II. TRACK WORK. 



CHAPTER 17.— ORGANIZATION OF THE MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY 

DEPARTMENT. 

In the organization of railway service there are two distinct systems: (1) The 
Division System. Each division is operated practically as an independent 
line, its superintendent having control of transportation, maintenance-of-way, 
and maintenance of equipment. All other officers on the division report to him, 
and he reports to the heads of the several branches of the service. The latter 
transmit all instructions to him, which he refers to the proper subordinate 
officers. (2) The Department System. The several branches of the service 
(for the line as a whole) are centered in the heads of certain departments, 
which are usually as follows: (A) The engineering department, in charge of 
the construction and maintenance of line, roadway and appurtenances; (B) 
The mechanical department, in charge of locomotives, cars, machinery, float- 
ing plant, shops, etc.; (C) The operating department, in charge of train service 
and traffic. In this^system the division engineers report to the chief engineer, 
the division master-mechanics to the superintendent of motive power, and the 
division superintendents to the general superintendent. The first system is in 
many ways the better, as all authority and responsibility for the work of each 
division are concentrated, which conduces to the economy and efficiency of the 
service. The maintenance-of-way forces may be organized in different rela- 
tions to the general organization: 1, As a separate department; 2, As a division 
of the engineering department; 3, As a division of the operating dapartment. 
The first is practicable only on very large railway systems, and of the two others, 
the former is the more appropriate and advantageous. 

On a large railway having the maintenance-of-way work under the engi- 
neering department, it would be impossible for the chief engineer to attend 
personally to details of track work, as well as to all the other varied work of 
his department. There is consequently a growing tendency to make this a 
separate branch, in charge of an engineer of maintenance-of-way. He may 
report to the chief engineer or to the head of the operating department, accord- 
ing to the system of organization. In very many cases the roadmasters report 
directly to engineers and are under their direction. In some cases there is a 
general roadmaster over the division roadmasters, but this practice is not 
general. In other cases there is a superintendent (or inspector or engineer) 
of track, reporting directly to the general manager. There is no uniformity in 
titles or in details of organization; these vary arbitrarily and also with the 
mileage and traffic of the several roads. Some small roads have engineers, 

283 



284 TRACK WORK. 

while other considerably larger roads have no track or engineering official above 
the rank of roadmaster. On small roads where all departments of service are 
centered in one officer, there is danger that track maintenance work will be 
overlooked in consequence of the daily pressure of work relating to the traffic 
and general business. Several railways of the smaller class have therefore a 
special officer in charge of maintenance-of-way. The bridge and signal forces 
should be organized as divisions of the engineering or the maintenance depart- 
ment. Details of the systems of organization on a number of railways are 
given at the end of the chapter. 

Organization for Track Work. 

Whatever may be the system of organization of the maintenance-of-way 
department, the system of organization of the working forces is practically uni- 
form. The line is divided into sections, the work on each of which is in charge 
of a section foreman and laborers constituting the section gang. The length of 
section varies according to the number of tracks, character of construction, 
number of frogs and switches, and the amount of traffic. The average is about 
5 to 7 miles on single track, and 3 to 4 miles on double track. On four-track lines 
the length of sections is from 2 to 3 miles. The amount of work does not increase 
directly in proportion to the number of tracks. Thus ditching, clearing right of 
way, cutting grass, etc., average about the same in any case, the greater amount of 
clearing on a single-track right-of-way compensating for the greater care usually 
required on double track. On double track, however, the men know in which 
direction to look for trains, and can therefore do their work to better advan- 
tage and with greater safety. 

The distribution of track forces on several railways is shown in Table No. 18. 
On the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry., the length of the roadmasters' 
divisions varies from 83 miles for a busy main-track division (sometimes with 
four main tracks) to 170 miles for branch divisions with light traffic. The 
length of single-track sections varies from 3| to 7 miles for about the same 
reasons. The double-track sections vary from 3 J to 4 miles; three- track sec- 
tions, about 3 miles; and four-track sections, about 2\ miles. The track forces 
in winter are reduced to about 1 man to 2 miles on branch sections and 1 man 
to \\ miles on main-track sections. The summer force varies from 1 man to \\ 
miles on thin branch sections, to a sufficient number to get the work done on the 
busy main-track sections. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. has some 
branch lines on which no regular laborers are employed during the winter. 
Only the foremen are retained, and they employ men as required for clearing 
snow and other work. On the New York Central Ry., the length of roadmas- 
ters' divisions ranges from 84 to 150 miles on single track, and from 30 to CO 
miles with four tracks. The lower limits of four-track subdivisions also have 45 
miles of double track in addition. Floating gangs are used for ballasting, 
laying new rails, and for construction work. A floating gang usually consists 
of a foreman, an assistant foreman, and 15 to 50 men. When there are more 
than 30 men, there is also a timekeeper. At the end of the table are included 
some railways of the smaller class. 

While the organization is almost invariably as above described, a special sys- 
tem was introduced successfully on the Ohio River Ry. by Mr. C. E. Bryan. 
This provided for permanent floating gangs, leaving only the lighter class of 
work to the regular section gangs. The divisions were subdivided into 30-mile 



ORGANIZATION. 



285 



lengths, each of which had a floating gang consisting of a foreman, 20 men, 
and a cook, and was provided with a boarding train. These were under the 
direction of the roadmaster of the division. The sections were changed from 
7 to 8 miles, with gangs of 4 men instead of 7 (including the foreman). These 
gangs went over their sections daily (the trackwalker being dispensed with); 
they inspected the track, made light repairs, fixed fences, kept station grounds 
neat, etc. This had the advantage that the inspection was done under the 
eye of the foreman, and repairs could be made at once. The floating gangs did 
all such work as ballasting, renewing ties and rails, widening banks, ditching, 
etc. Under this system, the work of renewing rails, ballast and ties was carried 
on in 1900 without any increase in forces such as would have been required 
under the ordinary system. Each division was able to do all this work on 
about 8 to 10 miles per month. 

TABLE NO. 18.— ORGANIZATION FOR MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY. 



Railway. 



Atch., Top. & S. Fe 

Bait. & Ohio 

Boston & Maine 

Chicago & Northwestern. . . . 

Chic, Burl. & Quincy 

Chic, Mil. & St. Paul 

Clev., Cin., Chic & St. Louis, 

II ti 11 ii D II 

Erie 

Houston & Texas Central. .. 
Illinois Central 

Lake Shore & Mich. Southern 

Maine Central 

Michigan Central 

New York Central 

N. Y., N. H. & Hartford. 7. ' 

Pennsylvania 

Wabash 

Somerset 

Buffalo & Sus 

Georgia 

Ft, Dodge, D. M. & N 

La. & Ark 



Length of 

Roadmasters' 

Divisions. 



miles. 

140 to 150 

40 to 100 

i About ii.5 of d.-t. 
< main line & 115 of 
( s.-t. branches 
150 to 200, s. t. 

"Ave. i 50 
100 to 200 

80 to ioo 

ioo to i46 

" iio' " 

225 to 486 

' 83 to i 70 

90 to i35 



84 to 150, s. t. 

60 to 86, d. t. 

30 to 60. 4 t. 

50 to 75 (plus 50, s. t.) 

25 

Ave. 100 



90 
110 
100 
160 
225 



Length of 
Track Sections. 



miles. 
8, Sin. track 
6 to 8, Sin. track 
4 to 5, Dbl. track 

4 to 5, Sin. track 
3, Dbl. track 



5 to 6, 
2i to 3i, 

5 to 8, 

5£ to 9i, 

4, 

5 to 6, 
3, 

6 to 7, 
5, 
7, 
6, 
8, 

3i to 7, 
3i to 4, 
4 to 6£, 

5, 

4, 

5 to 6, 
2i to 4, 
2\ to 3, 

2, 

24, 

6," 

4, 
3 to 6, 

5, 
8 to 9, 

6 to 7, 
9, 



Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 
Branches 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Four track 
Four track 
2 & 4 track 
Sin. track 
Dbl. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 
Sin. track 



No. of Men in 
Section Gang. 



Spring. Winter 



5 to 7* 



5 
6 to 9 

8 to 10 
12 to 15 
6 to 13* 
2 to 7 

8 
7* 

7* 

'8* 

8 

7* 

4* to 5* 

10 

4 to 6* 
4* 

5 to 6* 

8 to 9* 

11* 

9 

5 to 9 
7* 
7* 

4 max. 
8 max. 

8 max. 

6 max. 

9 max. 



3* 



3 
3 

1 to 3 

5 to 6 

1 to 3* 

1 to 2 

1 (min.) 

4* 

4* 

5* 

8 



3 to 4* 
3* 

3 'to 4* 

5 to 6* 
7* 

5 

•3* 

3* 
2 min. 

4 min. 

6 min. 
2 min. 

5 min. 



* Including foreman. 

Engineers and Roadmasters. 

The engineer in charge of maintenance-of-way should have had some prac- 
tical experience with a section gang or floating gang, so as to understand the 
work, but he need not be an expert at driving spikes, tamping ballast or put- 
ting in switches. He has the more important duty of organizing, directing and 
supervising the work; he must see that it is done according to instructions and 



286 TRACK WORK. 

with regard to efficiency and economy. His subordinates are responsible to 
him for the details, but this does not mean that he can safely be ignorant of such 
details. It is for him to study the proper economic relations of track to rolling 
equipment and traffic, and (in practice) to try to maintain a good and safe 
track under conditions where these proper relations do not exist. Engineering 
knowledge and experience are essential in track maintenance work, and within 
recent years there has been a marked development of the organization of the 
maintenance-of-way department upon an engineering basis. 

The engineer is sometimes regarded as being mainly a surveyor and drafts- 
man, and quite unaccustomed to the handling of work or men. As a matter 
of fact, however, the engineer is a man of liberal training and generally of wide 
experience. In such other lines of railway work as construction, reconstruc- 
tion, changing grades and alinement, bridge renewals, etc.,* he has to organize 
his forces, to regulate the expenditures, and to handle and direct large bodies 
of men. He has also to provide for carrying on the work with rapidity and 
economy, and with the least interference with traffic. In the maintenance-of- 
way department he exercises the same capacity and ability. The average cost 
of labor and material for track maintenance alone is from $600 to $3,000 
. per mile per year, and represents from 12 to 20% of the operating expenses, 
as noted in the " Introduction." On a division of 100 miles, the annual 
expenditure for this work may amount to $60,000 or $300,000, and it will 
be evident that the officer in charge should be capable of controlling such 
expenditures wisely and economically. The position of the engineer of main- 
tenance-of-way (or roadmaster) varies on different roads. In some cases he 
is the executive head of his department, and in others he occupies a more 
subordinate position. 

The roadmaster (called the supervisor on some roads) is the direct head of 
the track work on his road or* division, being the intermediary between the 
executive officers and the working forces. He should therefore be an intelli- 
gent and educated man, and should so act that his men will feel that he is 
friendly and just in his dealings with them. As to the question whether the 
roadmaster should be an engineer, or what is vaguely termed a "practical man" 
(meaning one promoted from the ranks of the section foremen), a very little 
consideration will make it evident that the former is by far the better fitted for 
the duties and responsibilities of the position on any important line, unless the 
organization is such that the roadmasters are under the direct supervision of 
engineers. Besides the general work of maintaining the track in good condi- 
tion, the roadmaster should be familiar with the principles of curve and switch 
work and yard design, the problems connected with ties and tie preservation 
the relation of rail sections and weights to wear of wheels and rails, and other 
matters of similar character. All this, of course, is part of the training of 
the engineer, who is familiar also with instruments and mathematical work. He 
must, however, understand the limits to mathematical precision in track work 
so that he will not figure out his turnout leads to decima 1 . ooints, when a little 
variation may avoid the cutting of a rail and will make no difference in the 
turnout. In the same way he must understand the limitations which traffic 
conditions impose upon superelevation, gage on curves, etc. He must, of course 
be familiar with track work, or his subordinates will have little respect for 
him. But while he must be able to direct and govern these subordinates, there 
is no necessity of nis being an expert with the spiking maul or the tamping 



ORGANIZATION. 287 

bar, any more than the general manager need be an expert at the typewriter, 
or the mechanical superintendent an expert at firing an engine. 

The roadmaster who is a sort of first-class foreman may be thoroughly com- 
petent in track work proper, but is apt to be contemptuous of instrument work 
and mathematical calculations, because he does not understand them or their 
purpose. The niceties of superelevation and of easement curves are beyond 
him, and he does not like to see an engineer set stakes for his guidance. For 
putting in switches and making curves ride easily, he usually prefers to rely 
upon his eye, rough measurements and " trial and error." He does not 
comprehend operating conditions and the economic principles underlying his 
work, and is also liable to prove inefficient in the handling of large numbers of 
men. He is apt to rely more upon special instructions and personal direction, 
although general rules and written orders are better for officers directing the 
work of large bodies of men. Many excellent roadmasters have graduated from 
the ranks of the section foremen, and may well be in charge of track if under 
the direction of engineers. A more technical training is required for officers in 
charge of railway maintenance on important lines under modern conditions. 

Great difficulty is often experienced in obtaining men who combine prac- 
tical and technical training with ability to command, and the railways have 
looked to the engineering colleges to supply men whom they can educate in 
the service. The system of apprenticeship introduced on the Illinois Central 
Ry. by Mr. John F. Wallace is noted later. Other roads have tried a somewhat 
similar plan, but on a smaller scale. There is no intention of putting young 
men fresh from college in responsible positions in the track department, over 
the heads of experienced foremen. They are put in the gang to learn, not to 
command, and to learn general practice and methods of work rather than to 
become simply expert sectionmen. The practical training these young men 
receive, added to their engineering training, is a good foundation for future 
development in the maintenance-of-way department, and they should be given 
some promise of promotion. Otherwise they will not care to remain in the 
roadway service. In view of the steady development of track work on scien- 
tific principles, and the valuable class of officers obtained by the combination 
of scientific and practical training, railway managements can well afford to 
give the necessary encouragement and opportunities. This does not appear to 
be recognized, and very little progress has been made in this direction. 

In regard to the details of the work of the roadmaster, he is responsible for 
keeping everything pertaining to the roadway in repair and in proper condi- 
tion for safe use. He is held responsible for the maintenance and condition of 
the track on the division, for the safe keeping and proper use of all track mate- 
rial and tools, for the condition of the tool houses, section boarding houses, 
tanks, pumping stations, etc., and for the proper supply of water to trains. 
He is also responsible for the condition of yards, right-of-way and station 
grounds, culverts, trestles, bridges, grade crossings, cabins, platforms, turn- 
tables, fences, cattle stations, and all minor structures. The rules and regu- 
lations which govern him differ on all roads, in accordance with local condi- 
tions and organization. Of course much of the work has to be attended to by 
the foremen, but it is all included in the roadmaster' s responsibility. 

He must spend much of his time on the road, but must not neglect proper 
attention to office duties, such as the checking up of time-books, pay-rolls 
and records, the preparation of requisitions and reports, and the answering of 



288 TRACK WORK. 

letters from other departments. He has usually a clerk for the correspondence 
and general office work. He must inspect the track partly from the engine or 
the rear platform of trains; but mainly by going over the sections on his car 
or on foot, personally interviewing the foremen, and carefully inspecting all 
new work. He is usually required to pass over a part of his division every 
day, except when engaged in checking up time-books at the end of the month; 
and to pass over the whole of the division on foot or on a velocipede at slow 
speed at least once or twice a month, or oftener on mountainous or dangerous 
divisions. He should not use the section hand cars for his trips. He must 
record the dates on which he goes over the division, noting whether the trip 
was made on foot, by hand car or by train; and must record all important 
work and its progress. He should be thoroughly posted as to the physical 
condition of the road and the daily disposition of his forces. 

During his trips he must look closely into details of work, and talk frequently 
with the foremen, calling their attention to defects or bad practice, giving 
them instruction and advice (but not " nagging" them), and being prompt to 
award either praise or blame. He must see that new foremen are properly 
instructed, and that they understand their work and duties. He should see 
that his orders are thoroughly understood and properly executed, particularly 
on special or important work, and should inquire of the foremen as to their 
plans for doing future work. He should never issue orders directly to the 
laborers, as that tends to injure proper discipline and the respect for the fore- 
man's authority. He must remember that the foreman (and not the road- 
master) is in charge of the gang. He should see, however, that proper and 
competent men are employed. He should accompany the pay car over his 
division, to identify the foremen and help settle any disputes. 

He must inspect the track to see if it is kept in proper condition as to line 
and surface, accurate gage, alinement, and superelevation and widening of gage 
on curves. Frogs and switches must also be examined as to condition and 
position. The accuracy of the foremen's gages and levels must be occasionally 
tested. He must see that the proper expansion shims are used in laying new 
rails, and that new ties and ballast are properly used. Also that all frogs, 
switches and fixed signals are placed in accordance with standard plans. He 
must inspect the car and tool equipment, lamps, etc., to see that they are in 
efficient condition and properly used; and he must see that all supplies are 
accounted for when requisitions are made for new material. Curve and dis- 
tance stakes must be noted to see that they are not disturbed, and when the;, 
need renewing he must either set them out or report to the engineer. He must 
see that track signs, bridge tell-tales, mail cranes, etc., are in good and proper 
condition, and that all notices at farm crossings, etc., are properly posted. 
Fences, gates and gate fastenings must be noted and reports made of cases 
where farm gates are habitually left open, or where encroachments are made 
on the company's property. 

The roadmaster frequently has authority over the pumping-station men. 
He must see that they keep the machinery clean and in order, and that the 
fuel is properly stored and used. In winter he may also order the foremen 
to detail men to look after the stoves to prevent freezing up of the water sta- 
tions. On the failure of water supply at any station, he must send a telegram 
to the superintendent, and follow this by a written report. He must also 
report any signals that are out of order. He must see that all buildings and 



ORGANIZATION. 289 

their surroundings are tidy and in good repair, that boarding houses and boarding 
trains are kept neat and clean, and that proper food and accommodations are 
provided for the men. If this is not done it will not be easy to keep good men, 
and track work will be expensive in consequence of being always in the hands 
of new men. He must also see that telegraph linemen, fence gangs and bridge 
gangs are afforded proper facilities and assistance in making repairs. When- 
ever any structure is being built or work being done on the company's property 
by other than employees of the company, the facts must be reported, unless 
it is positively known that proper authority has been obtained. The road- 
master must exercise a general oversight of all work performed on the division 
by contractors, bridge Carpenters, telegraph gangs, etc., in case anything should 
interfere with the safety of the track. A special inspection of all waterways 
should be made before the winter or rainy season, any necessary repairs being 
then made to trestle bents or banks of streams, and all obstructions removed. 

Arrangements must be made for carrying out all new work ordered, such as 
ballasting, laying new rails, putting in switch or interlocking work, laying addi- 
tional tracks, rearranging yards, reconstructing bridges, etc. The execution 
of the work should receive close personal attention. The roadmaster has full 
charge of all work trains on his division, must lay out their work, and make all 
orders for running them. All orders for work done by construction and material 
trains are given by him, except in cases of emergency. Insufficient motive 
power on work trains must be at once reported, as these trains are expensive 
and require the best motive power to insure their economical operation. 

The roadmaster should annually inspect the ties which the section foremen 
mark as needing renewal, and from this personal examination prepare a requi- 
sition for ties needed in the coming year, checking the foremen's counts and 
requisitions. This estimate must be sent in to the proper officer by a specified 
date each year. No ties must be removed without his approval, and those 
removed should not be disposed of until he has seen them. He must carefully 
examine the requisitions made by the foremen, and ascertain if the articles 
are really needed and in the quantities asked. Requisitions must be made in 
writing and sent by mail, the telegraph being used only in emergencies or when 
delay would result in loss to the company. He must personally receive all 
materials contracted for, such as rails, ties, ballast, wood, etc., and must strictly 
enforce the printed specifications for the same, and arrange for handling and 
unloading or storing. Ties must be properly piled. No material must be 
piled within 8 ft. of the rails. He must also supervise the storing and shipping 
of scrap, and its disposal at the scrap yard or pile. He must not permit old 
material to be sold or given away or otherwise disposed of by the men, and 
must see that foremen do not allow laborers to remain at the section boarding 
houses to work for the boarding master. 

The roadmaster may be directed to investigate the wear of track material, 
rails, splice bars or special joints, ties, etc., reporting results from time to time, 
especially in regard to material under experimental trial. He should mark on 
a profile of the line all the new rails laid, giving the date, brand, and location. 
This is in addition to the monthly written reports of rails laid, and enables the 
engineer to keep account of the wear and life with reference to tonnage. All 
cases of broken rails in main track should be carefully investigated and reported 
upon. The rail may be laid aside for examination; and a piece on each side 
of the break may be cut off, labeled and sent with the report. 



290 TRACK WORK. 

The roadmaster is authorized to discharge any section foreman, road watch- 
man, conductor of construction train, or other subordinate, for neglect of duty. 
He suspends him and makes a report in case of accident resulting from such 
neglect. Changes of foremen should be made only at the beginning of the 
month, except for good reason. In reporting the discharge of a foreman the 
cause should be stated, so that a record of the man's standing can be kept for 
future reference. A record of all foremen (and sometimes trackwalkers also) 
employed, discharged, resigned, transferred, promoted, married, deceased or 
sent to hospital, must be made monthly. A card index is useful in compiling 
this. When a foreman leaves the service, the roadmaster must see that all tools 
and other company property are properly accounted for, and must examine 
his time-books to see that all accounts are correct. New foremen must be 
carefully instructed in their duties, and must be closely questioned to ascertain 
if they correctly understand them. While passing over his division, he should 
carry a book of time vouchers, so as to be able to issue a voucher to any track- 
man who presents a properly filled time-check. He should require the man 
to write his name in the blank space provided, so that the voucher may be used 
as far as practicable to identify the holder. Receipts on standard forms or 
blanks must be taken for every issue of time cards and for instruction books. 
These receipts are pasted in alphabetical order in a book. 

The roadmaster must see that section foremen, foremen of extra gangs and 
conductors of work trains are supplied each month with the necessary time- 
books, diaries, reports of work and materials, board bills, time-tables, etc., 
and that the use of the blanks is explained to all new foremen. During his 
trips he should examine the foremen's blanks to see that they are being prop- 
erly filled in. These returns are sent to him on the last day of the month, and 
he should examine them carefully, making a mark opposite the names of all 
men on the check rolls to whom he has issued time vouchers. He then for- 
wards the several reports to the proper officers. The roadmaster must also see 
that the foremen make reports of accidents, persons or cattle killed by trains, 
fences burned, etc. (See "Records, Reports and Accounts.") 

The roadmaster is required to keep a journal or diary, in which he must 
enter the location and the dates of beginning and ending of all extra work 
under his charge; such as grading and laying sidings, changes of line, laying 
new rails or ties, ballasting, experimental ties or joints, etc. He has also a 
pocket notebook, in which he records how each trip is made (whether on pas- 
senger or freight train, on hand car or on foot), and also any points for record 
or of use in making up his returns, such as material delivered or required, the 
number of men employed, etc. As a check on the time of the sectionmen, he 
should note here the number of men in each gang as he passes. These books 
should be of a uniform standard size, supplied by the company, and sent to 
the superior officer each month. Memorandum books and all blanks are 
obtained from the office regularly or by requisition. He should have his watch 
inspected once every three months, and should compare it with standard 
clocks and with the watches of the foremen as often as possible, seeing to it 
that the foremen take his time as correct. To the roadmaster should be made 
all applications for detailing men from the section gangs to assist fence gangs, 
telegraph repair gangs, or bridge gangs, or to clear station grounds and yards. 

He must be familiar with the train rules, special orders, etc., and keep in 
communication with the transportation department. Disregard of signals 



ORGANIZATION. 291 

by trainmen must be promptly and invariably reported. Locomotives and 
cars with worn and flat wheels must be reported, as they are very injurious 
to the track. Also engines which throw sparks during hot dry weather, and 
are liable to start fires. He must report all defects in bridges, and if neces- 
sary make the structures safe until the bridgemen arrive. He must see that 
the track and roadway are in proper condition for the winter. In times of 
storm, flood or snow he must keep the superintendent fully advised of the 
condition of the road, and he must see to the proper distribution and work 
of trackmen to help the snow gangs on their sections. The roadmaster must 
closely investigate every accident that occurs on his division, and make a 
full written report in the proper form, giving the cause of the accident and all 
information possible. He must be ready at all times, both day and night, 
to render assistance in case of accident or detention to trains. On receiving 
notice of a wreck he must proceed to it at once and take charge. Besides 
removing the wreck, he must put the track in condition for the passage of 
trains, or build a temporary track around the wreck, all with the least possible 
delay. Such material as broken rails, axles, etc., which may be of use in 
determining the cause of the accident, must be preserved. When cars are 
broken up or burned for removal at a wreck, he should note the type of each 
car and its number and initials. 

Section Foremen. 

The section foreman is the most important of the men in the working fore 3, 
and should be a man of judgment and firm character, so that he can rule his 
men and get on comfortably with them, while at the same time getting a full 
amount of work done. He should be able to read and write and keep simple 
accounts, so as to keep the necessary records of labor and supplies, and to make 
out his requisitions for material. All reports and requisitions are sent to the 
roadmaster, and for this clerical work there should be a desk in the section 
tool house. He is usually required to walk over his section every other day, 
or at least once a week; this depends upon the season, the length of the sec- 
tion, the condition of the track and the amount of traffic. He has also to 
make a monthly inspection of and report upon all culverts, trestles, bridges, 
tunnels, etc., on the section; and must also inspect any such structures at 
times when they are liable to be damaged by floods or otherwise. He should 
be subject only to the orders of the roadmaster. Train dispatchers, station 
agents, claim agents, bridge foremen, tie inspectors, foremen of fence and 
telegraph gangs, etc., should not be allowed to give orders direct to the section 
foreman, or to call upon him to supply men for any purpose, except in case 
of emergency. He should on no account throw switches for trainmen. Where 
two or more gangs work together on emergency work, as in case of accident, 
the senior foreman is in charge, subject to the direction of (or until the arrival 
of) the roadmaster or the wrecking foreman. 

As to section foremen working with their men, it may be said that with 
small gangs, up to five men, the foreman can very well join in the work and 
still keep a general oversight of it. With eight men or more he should only 
supervise the work and see that it is being done properly, especially when there 
are new men to be broken in. A foreman who works regularly as one of the 
gang is not likely to have their respect or to get the best work out of them. 
This, of course, depends partly upon the character of the work. Putting in 



292 TRACK WORK. 

switches or lining up track will require much watching, while in cutting grass, 
or in general trimming up (even with a large gang), the foreman can well work 
with the men, and at the same time watch their progress. It is his duty to 
direct the. operations, and to see that they are carried out properly, and to 
supervise the track work generally, being careful to have the work done thor- 
oughly and systematically and not at scattered points. On a busy road, and 
in such dangerous places as tunnels, etc., one of his important duties is to 
see that the men are warned of the approach of trains, and that they get off 
the track (and have all tools clear) in ample time, but without waste of time. 
He must also see that competent flagmen are sent out, if it is necessary for 
trains to reduce speed. With large gangs, the foreman may be permitted to 
appoint an assistant foreman, who ordinarily works with the gang, but takes 
charge in the absence of the foreman. In promotions, the assistant foreman 
should be given the first chance. The foreman should have power to appoint 
and dismiss his assistant, making the necessary report of the circumstances. 
He is, of course, responsible for his ability and for all the work done by 
him, the roadmaster having nothing to do personally with any trackman 
below the grade of foreman. The assistant foreman should be selected not 
only for his technical or practical skill, but also for his executive ability in 
directing the work and handling the men. He may be given a slight increase 
in pay over that of the regular laborers, but while some roads find this suc- 
cessful, others find that it causes dissatisfaction among the men. The fore- 
man employs and discharges the men of his gang, and also the bridge and 
other watchmen on his section, and keeps proper records of all the men and 
their work. He must treat his men properly, without fear or favor, and must 
not use profane or abusive language. If they do not live at a section house, 
he should know their addresses, and arrange a system by which one man 
can call others in case of emergency at night. He should have authority to 
employ extra men temporarily during heavy snow, and should have a few extra 
men assigned him when any extensive switch work, etc., has to be done. It 
should be his aim not only to keep the section in safe running condition, but 
to steadily improve its condition and appearance. 

He has charge of all repairs on his section, and is responsible for the proper 
inspection and safety of the track, bridges and culverts. He must see that 
ditches are clear, that drainage is not obstructed, and that weeds and grass 
are kept cut along the right-of-way and around trestles; also that ties are 
tamped, rails properly spiked and jointed, and track in line and surface and 
in good condition generally. He attends to the fences and signs, and sees 
that water stations are in order and water barrels at trestles kept filled. He 
must see that the gang has the proper equipment of tools and supplies, and 
that this equipment is kept in good condition, properly used, and properly 
arranged in the section house. He must have a reliable watch, and must 
daily, if possible, compare it with and regulate it by the clock in the telegraph 
office at a station or signal tower on his section. He must have a copy of the 
latest time-table, be familiar with train rules and schedules, and look out for 
signals on and messages from passing trains. Failure of enginemen to respect 
his signals or to answer them with the proper whistle must be reported. In 
case of flood, or heavy rain or wind storms, he should patrol the section with 
sufficient men to insure safety to trains by setting out signals and torpedoes 
if any defect is discovered that cannot at once be remedied. Such defect 



ORGANIZATION. 293 

must be at once reported by telegraph to the roadmaster and superintendent. 
In case of accident, he must go to the scene with his men, even if it is on an 
adjacent section. In the absence of other authority, he will detail a watch- 
man to care for freight, etc., at a wreck. 

The foreman is supplied with time-books, pay-rolls and diaries, and carries 
them with him, ready for inspection by the roadmaster at any time. Entries 
of work and materials must be written up in the time-book, etc., every night 
for the day just closed, and then added up at the end of the month. The 
books, board bills, etc., must be properly entered up and certified, and must 
be sent to the roadmaster by a night train on the last day of the month, or 
by the first available train on the first day of the new month. On some roads 
he retains duplicates of these reports. In the check-roll or time-book he enters 
daily the time worked by each man, and on the diary he records the total 
time made by the gang. He also makes reports of material used and on hand, 
of work done, fences or other property burned, and cattle killed by trains. 
He makes requisitions on the roadmaster for material required. 

Should a man leave or be discharged before the end of the month, the fore- 
man gives him a time-check (showing the amount of time he has worked) 
which he can present to the roadmaster, who will take it up and issue in its 
place a time-voucher. This is payable by any agent of the company having 
funds for this purpose. The foreman must require the man to sign his name 
on the back of the time-check if he can write, and the man may retain this 
check, which can be used to identify him to the roadmaster or in the pay 
office. To secure payment to those furnishing board and lodging to track 
and bridge men, the foreman supplies such persons on the first of the month 
with blanks for "board due," which they are required to properly fill out and 
have signed by the men from whom the amounts are due. These blanks 
are returned to the foreman on the last day of the month, and from them he 
enters the amount due by each man in the "board" column of the check- 
roll, opposite the man's name. Different railways have different styles of time- 
books, blanks, etc., as described under "Records and Reports." 

It will be evident that the position of section foreman is one of responsi- 
bility, and calls for an active and intelligent man of some education. But with 
the class of labor now generally employed, it is becoming increasingly difficult 
to find men suitable for the position, while those who are suitable very often 
prefer to take positions as brakemen, which offer better chances of pay and 
promotion. It has been suggested that young men educated in the common 
schools should be trained in the section gangs with a view to becoming fore- 
men, but the conditions are not such as to offer many inducements. Without 
skilled and intelligent foremen, it cannot be expected that a good quality of 
work will be produced by the section gangs. Track work is skilled labor, 
and the foremen should be paid wages commensurate with the importance 
of their work and responsibility. As a rule, however, this important matter 
is ignored, with consequent detriment to the service and the track work. 

Trackwalkers and Watchmen. 

The entire length of each section is generally inspected at least once a day 
(except Sunday) by a trackwalker. On important lines this man is in addi- 
tion to the regular section gang, and he usually starts out in the morning in 
the opposite direction to that taken by the gang, while on roads having much 



294 TRACK WORK. 

night traffic he must also go over the section in the evening. He should start 
from the section house, so that the foreman may know he is on duty. The 
time of starting may be arranged so that he can go over the section shortly 
before the principal trains, and can, perhaps, return by train. In the after- 
noon he may work for a few hours with the gang, and then go over the sec- 
tion again, returning by train. On double track, he may make a round trip 
over each track (one by day and one by night), and on four- track lines he 
passes once over each track. In summer, and in fine settled weather, the 
trackwalker can join the gang in the afternoon, but in stormy weather he 
should spend all his time patrolling the section. After a heavy storm the 
trackwalker and one of the laborers should go over the section and look out 
for any damage requiring immediate attention. 

On the Erie Ry., the trackwalker in summer makes one trip daily over the 
part of the section which is not covered by the foreman on his way to and 
from work. In winter or in stormy weather he covers the section twice daily. 
When tie renewals are being pushed, he works with the gang for the remainder 
of the day, and in the spring and autumn he spends the remainder of the day 
tightening bolts and replacing broken spikes. At all times he gives imme- 
diate attention to any necessary light repairs of frogs, switches, etc. On 
branches or lines with light traffic, one of the laborers may act as trackwalker, 
making one trip and then returning to work with the gang. Some railways 
employ trackwalkers only at certain seasons of the year, when it is made 
necessary by reason of heavy rains or other conditions. Other roads do not 
employ regular trackwalkers, but send a man over each section on a veloci- 
pede, leaving all repair work, etc., to the section gang. The foreman is some- 
times required to act as trackwalker, but this interferes with his charge of 
the gang, except that where the traffic is light, he can go over the section after 
he has first started the gang at work. Where there are many switches or 
signals, the lampman may act as trackwalker. He makes two round trips 
over the section: the first in the morning to extinguish the lamps; the second 
in the afternoon to fill, trim and light the lamps. In such case the foreman 
or a laborer should make an extra trip in bad weather. On the Boston Ele- 
vated Ry., the track is inspected during the day by 11 trackwalkers, each with 
about 1^ miles of line. They replace and tighten bolts, replace worn spikes, and 
grease the guard rails on curves. Repair work is done at night. 

The day trackwalker looks out for broken rails and burnt ties, raises low 
joints, picks up loose material and places it at the side of the track, tightens 
loose bolts and spikes or puts in new ones, and examines frogs, switches and 
switchstands. He must see that cars on sidetracks are clear of the fouling 
points. He also notes broken or defective signals, broken fences, farm gates 
(reporting any that are habitually left open), looks out for fire on bridges 
and trestles, and sees that the water barrels on wooden structures are kept 
full. He may in general "do anything and everything to protect the rail- 
way from accident." After a heavy storm he must be specially observant, 
and look out for evidence of washouts or of slides of banks or cuts. In winter 
he must look sharply for broken rails after a very cold night. He must also 
clear snow where it is packed about frogs, switches, guard rails and the flange- 
ways of crossings. 

The day trackwalker is ordinarily equipped with a track wrench, a spike 
maul, 2 red flags, torpedoes, and a few bolts, nuts and spikes in a bag. The 



ORGAN ZATION. 295 

Southern Pacific Ry. requires a few angle bars and bolts to be kept out on 
the section for the convenience of the trackwalker. On the Chicago & North- 
western Ry., the day man carries a spike maul, and looks out for the general 
condition of the track; there is no night trackwalker. On the Louisville & 
Nashville Ry., the day man carries a wrench, spike maul, 5 spikes, red flags 
and 4 torpedoes; he tightens bolts and spikes. The night man carries a red 
lamp, white lamp, 4 torpedoes and a spike maul. On the New York, New 
Haven & Hartford Ry., the day man carries a maul, wrench, pocket flag, 3 
bolts, 6 spikes and 8 torpedoes. There is no night man. The trackwalker 
should be considered as an inspector, and not as a repair man; he looks out 
for the general condition of the track, but does only emergency work, particu- 
larly the replacement of bolts and spikes. Any general defects he reports to 
the foreman. The night man is not expected to do any work, except where 
the track is actually unsafe. He may carry a lantern having red and green 
glasses in an interior cylindrical case, this being turned by the bail of the 
lantern to show the desired color. 

When the trackwalker finds any place unsafe for the passage of trains, he 
must place a red flag (in each direction on a single-track line) at a distance 
of 90 rails or 15 telegraph poles, and place a torpedo on the rail. The torpedo 
should be on the rail on the engineman's side of the track, and the flag on the 
same side of the track, 3 ft. from the rail. Where the block system is in force, 
the trackwalker's beat may be between certain block towers, and he may be 
required to enter the tower and sign his name and the time in a record book, 
the signalman also signing the record. Watchmen at special points may also 
be required to report at a block tower or telegraph station at stated times. 
Trials have been made with watchmen's clocks carried by the trackwalkers. 
Boxes are placed atr certain points and each has a key attached by a chain ; 
when this is inserted in the instrument, it makes a record on a chart. The 
chart will then show at what time the man reached each of the several points. 

It will be seen that the trackwalker has an important and responsible posi- 
tion, which should be filled only by an experienced and trustworthy man. 
It is sometimes assumed that his work is principally to look after loose bolts, 
but in the main the amount of trackwalking is independent of the work done 
in tightening the bolts. Some roads do not permit the trackwalker to touch 
the bolts unless he sees something wrong, but this does not warrant any reduc- 
tion in the trackwalking. Too much care can hardly be taken in guarding 
the track, and in watching it in time of storms to prevent accidents as far 
as possible, and at least to prevent accidents to trains. With track of average 
condition, the trackwalking usually costs more on curves than on tangents, 
unless more attention is given to the maintenance work on the latter. Watch- 
ing also costs more, as an engineman cannot see ahead on a curve, and in case 
of a storm or flood, it may be necessary to station a watchman in a cut on a 
curve, when it would not be necessary if the track were on a tangent. 

Any particularly dangerous spots, such as tunnels, loose rock cuts, sliding 
slopes of cuts or banks, rock cuts in winter, and culverts and trestles in time 
of flood, should be guarded by watchmen. The man should be provided 
with lamps, flags and torpedoes, and, if necessary, with tools (a pick, shovel, 
ballast hammer, wheelbarrow, etc.), and some sticks of giant powder to break 
up rocks that may fall on the track. If watchmen are stationed perma- 
nently, cabins should be provided. These men must be of sufficient experi- 



296 TRACK WORK. 

ence to appreciate the responsibility of the post and to be relied on in case 
of emergency. On the Erie Ry., the watchmen on rocky divisions are supple- 
mented by a "rock gang" in charge of a foreman. This is composed largely 
of quarrymen, who are experienced in climbing and in detecting and remov- 
ing loose or dangerous rocks. 

Grade-crossing watchmen or gatemen have usually nothing to do with 
the track, except to see that the flangeways are clear and that the planks 
are securely fastened to the ties. Bridge watchmen must see that water 
barrels are kept full on wooden bridges and trestles. They must follow every 
train and extinguish any hot cinders that may have fallen from the engine, 
and at the same time look for signs of sparks lodged in the upper part of the 
structure. They must keep combustible material cleared from the vicinity 
of the bridge, keep abutments, copings and bridge seats clean, and report any 
bulging or sign of cracking and undermining of the abutments or masonry. 
They must also examine the structure and report any decay or defect, slack- 
ening of nuts, loose rivets, etc. They should observe the structure during 
the passage of trains, noting specially if trains cross at too high a speed. Every 
train must be signaled by a white flag or lamp if all is safe. They should pre- 
vent all persons, other than employees, from walking over the structure. 
Drawbridge tenders must look after the locking and other gear, and the sig- 
nals or gates, reporting promptly any sign of defect in the structure or the 
machinery. Bridge watchmen and drawbridge tenders may be required to do 
incidental work when not engaged in their special duties. 

Force and Labor. 

The number of men employed upon each section depends upon the condition 
of roadbed and track, the season of the year, and the amount of traffic. As 
shown in Table No. 18, the maximum gang is about 10 or 12 men and a fore- 
man in summer on a single track. The minimum is reached on roads where 
in winter the foreman alone is required to look after 6 to 10 miles of single 
track, with occasional help in case of snow. The average, however, is 5 to 
8 men on single track in summer, and 2 to 4 men in winter. With a small 
gang, the section should not be too long, as in case of finding a broken rail, 
etc., there may not be time to flag both ways or to get help from an adjacent 
section. As an average, it is estimated, that 1 man per mile of single track, or 
1 \ men per mile of double track, with a foreman and trackwalker to each sec- 
tion, will be force enough to maintain the track in proper condition if the 
material is good. Where sidings exist, it is usual to take two miles of impor- 
tant siding or three miles of unimportant siding as equivalent to one mile of 
main track. As a rule, it is not economical, though sometimes necessary for 
financial reasons, to reduce the force to less than a man to two miles on ordi- 
nary sections, as such a reduction leads to deterioration and a roughly riding 
track, with eventually a heavy expenditure for repairs due to insufficient 
expenditure for maintenance. 

In the spring, the track must be surfaced, lined and gaged, have new ties 
put in, and low joints raised, etc. As soon as the frost is out of the ground, 
therefore, the gang should be filled up to the full number that the foreman 
can handle, say 10 to 15 men. With the heavy work done before the increase 
of traffic in the summer, the force may be cut down before farm work and 
harvesting begin to take the men away. The track can then be maintained 



ORGANIZATION . 297 

during the summer with a force of about 1 man per mile, which is the lowest 
economical average for ordinary work. It is not wise to allow the track to 
get in bad condition in summer for want of enough men to maintain it, as a 
larger force than usual must then be employed in the autumn, or winter,. when 
work cannot be done to advantage. In the autumn, there is ditching and 
cleaning to be done, and the track put in condition for the winter. The force 
is then reduced to the minimum, but should be reduced gradually, so that work 
in hand can be safely and thoroughly finished. With the rails, ties and bal- 
last in good condition, 2 or 3 men may be enough for the watching, clear- 
ing and occasional shimming. The foreman should have authority to employ 
extra men for handling snow when necessary. 

The number of switches and frogs on the section has a considerable influence 
on the amount of work and the number of men required, varying, of course, 
with the amount of traffic. It has been considered that 15 switches and frogs 
on an ordinary section would necessitate an extra man. This refers to both 
main track and small yards under conditions of moderately heavy traffic, 
and the number of switches and frogs requiring an extra man would be less 
than 15 in the case of a busy yard or terminal. Where yards occur, the sec- 
tion must be shortened or the force increased, but at a large yard it is best 
to have a separate gang under a yard foreman. 

Many railways employ extra or "floating" gangs to do fencing, relaying 
rails, switch work, ballasting, general surfacing, ditching, tile drainage, etc. 
This gang has a boarding train. W T here a good class of labor is employed, 
however, it is better to have all ordinary work done by the regular gang. 
There is then no divided responsibility as to the character of the work. A 
good foreman and gang should be able to do all ordinary switch work. The 
frequent appearance- of the floating gang is apt to put the regular gang in 
the habit of expecting to avoid all heavy work, and this is not conducive to 
efficiency. With the poor grade of labor now employed, the conditions are 
somewhat different, and it has been suggested that it would be economical 
to maintain a floating gang of picked men, provided with a comfortable board- 
ing train, working under a good foreman, and paid good wages. The diffi- 
culty is to get and keep such men at the wages generally paid by railways for 
such work. In the system tried on the Ohio River Ry., and already noted 
the heavy work was done by permanent floating gangs on 30-mile sections. The 
floating gangs of the New York Central Ry. are composed of 15 to 50 men 
with a foreman and assistant foreman, and with a timekeeper where there 
are more than 30 men. On some roads there is an "apprentice gang" in 
charge of a foreman, and the new men are given proper instruction in this 
gang, instead of having to pick up their knowledge as best they can while 
working with a regular gang. Men trained in this way are valuable, and will 
often make good foremen. 

There is often a tendency to do any extra or unfinished work on Sunday, 
but this is a reprehensible practice. It spoils the men's temper, and is detri- 
mental to good work and discipline. The men cannot keep up a high stand- 
ard of efficiency, nor can they have respect for foremen who insist upon Sunday 
work. The practice should be forbidden, and the foremen made to under- 
stand that the rule will be strictly enforced. Men require a day of rest, for 
its physical and mental as well as moral effect, and if they are required to 
work for 13 days they will not do a fair day's work during each of the last 6 



298 TRACK WORK. 

days. It is also an expensive practice to spend 6 days in preparing for a large 
amount of work to be done on Sunday, with all the section gangs that can 
be conveniently got together, as the work is generally done with a rush. In 
case of emergency or accident, the men should, of course, go to work at once. 
But it is not necessary to do ordinary work on Sunday, except in special cases 
on busy suburban lines, terminals, or where the traffic is exceedingly heavy. 
It must also be remembered that the sectionman has few opportunities of 
spending time with his family and friends, and to deprive him of these even 
on Sunday is not only unfair, but is opposed to the permanent interests of 
his employers. The man (whether foreman or laborer) is best to be depended 
upon if he gets fair treatment and fair pay for a fair day's work. 

A bad policy which is frequently in evidence is that of employing the lowest 
and cheapest grades of labor on the track. Good results are not to be 
expected from such men, and the employment of foreigners who cannot speak 
the language, but have to be communicated with by signs, is certainly not 
conducive to good work. Inefficient and careless men should be discharged 
without delay, whether foremen or laborers. The improvement in the grade 
of labor rests almost entirely with the railway companies, for good men are 
usually to be had at reasonable wages. It has, however, been pointed out 
many times that the higher officers very generally fail to recognize the 
importance of the track, and to realize the economy of proper maintenance. 
Consequently, cheap labor is employed, and the track forces are reduced and 
their wages kept down. There is a strong sentiment of discontent among 
sectionmen and foremen at the lack of remuneration and encouragement; 
and it is hard to keep a permanent gang where any tramp or laborer is con- 
sidered good enough for track work. The trackmen's work is little regarded; 
yet if these men relax their vigilance or fail in their duty, not all the skill of 
the engineer, the care and faithfulness of the enginemen and train crews, or 
the elaborate equipment of the trains, can give a satisfactory train service 
or prevent accidents. A weak spot, a neglected loose joint, a defective switch 
or frog, an overlooked broken rail, or spikes not properly redriven, not only 
make a roughly riding track but may cause a wreck with disastrous results, 
involving expenditures for repairs and compensation. 

Track work requires skilled labor to a very large extent. The fitting up of 
joints, putting in switches and switch leads, giving the required elevation 
and transition on a curve, lining and surfacing track, and tamping ties to a 
firm and uniform bearing, is work which comes within the daily routine of 
the trackman, but for which common labor is certainly not efficient or eco- 
nomical. It has been shown by investigation that the permanence and easy- 
riding condition of track depends very largely upon the proper tamping of 
the ties. But such work cannot be done properly by inexperienced men, 
who work mainly by "sheer strength and awkwardness." It would be economy 
in many cases to organize a permanent force, as is done in Europe. Trackmen 
who understand their work are valuable, and should rank as skilled laborers, 
and the railways should endeavor to retain their services by encouragement 
in pay and promotion. Intelligence, skill and faithfulness are required, as 
well as muscular ability, but the first requirements can hardly be expected 
from the grade of men whom the foreman too often has to employ. Men 
who hold permanent positions (contingent upon merit), and have perhaps a 
pension in view as a reward for long and faithful work, have more regard for 



ORGANIZATION. 299 

the interests of their employers and are more apt to try to educate themselves 
in their work. But good men will not stay permanently when they are over- 
worked and underpaid, are liable to immediate and unexpected dismissal, see 
little encouragement in the future, and can find plenty of better positions 
in other lines of work. The roadmaster and section foreman can best 
understand these conditions, and their advice in the matter is rarely heeded. 
Unskilled laborers may be employed temporarily for extra work. But it is as 
false economy to have a constantly changing gang of green sectionmen as it 
would be to follow the same practice with enginemen, trainmen or machinists. 
Such men will use more time and material in doing bad work than experienced 
men will use in doing good work. 

Men should not be employed who are under age, elderly, weak, incapaci- 
tated, or deaf; or who suffer from consumption or other diseases. The fore- 
man must not excuse habitual neglect of duty, but should promptly dismiss 
or suspend unfaithful employees. No man. should be discharged without 
cause or for the purpose of making place for another. On most roads the use 
of intoxicating liquors by employees while on duty is strictly forbidden, and 
this rule should be most rigidly enforced. Men who habitually drink too 
much when off duty should be dismissed. Smoking, while on duty, should 
also be prohibited. There should be a rule prohibiting the offer of testimo- 
nials or presents to superiors, or the acceptance of such by the superiors. 

The maintenance-of-way departments of some railways have introduced 
the Brown system of discipline. The demoralization which results from pun- 
ishment by suspending men from duty is well known, to say nothing of the 
hardships for those dependent upon the men. Under the Brown system, 
when a rule is broken, orders are disobeyed, or any irregularity occurs which 
calls for discipline, it is noted on a bulletin issued to roadmasters and foremen. 
The bulletin may also be posted up in stated places. No names are given, 
but the man who is at fault usually receives a marked copy, and a record is 
kept for each man. The disgrace of being bulletined is felt by the average 
man, and the moral or disciplining effect is probably much deeper and more 
effectual than that of suspension. Men are discharged when disciplining 
fails and their records are bad. 

Work-Train Conductors. 

The conductor of a work train is usually appointed by the roadmaster, 
subject to the approval of the division superintendent, and must obey orders 
from the superintendent in regard to safe movement of the train. He must 
see that all ditching, ballast and boarding cars are in good running order, 
that the boarding cars are clean and neat, and that good, substantial food 
is furnished to the men. He must be familiar with the time-table and train 
rules, with the rules and instructions issued to track and bridge men, and also 
with the work of maintenance of track. Ditches must be cut according to the 
direction of the section foreman. He must see that care is taken in unload- 
ing material, that new ballast is cleared to leave a proper flangeway along 
the rails, and that skids are used in unloading rails. In distributing new 
rails, he must note in a book the initial and number of each car, and the num- 
ber and lengths of rails on each car. 

He must notify the roadmaster when ordered to distribute material, such 
as ties, rails, ballast, etc., so that the roadmaster can notify the section fore- 



300 TRACK WORK. 

men and be with the train while working on his division. He makes a weekly- 
report of work done, materials used, delays to work, insufficient power of 
engines furnished, etc. When the train is delayed and likely to be held for 
some time, he must put the gang at work ditching, weeding, or clearing sta- 
tion grounds and yards. He must understand that his desire to get the work 
done and his train out of the way must not lead him to do hasty or careless 
work. The train should always lay over at a telegraph station at night. 

The foreman of the work-train gang should be the conductor, sharing 
responsibility with the engineman, as in regular train service, for a conductor 
who has no other duties outside the train is apt not to work in harmony with 
the foreman, who is interested in and held responsible for the day's work. 
A foreman who acts as conductor can arrange his work to the best advantage. 
He should be an expert track foreman, and be provided with an assistant 
foreman, and also with a timekeeper if he has a large gang. (See also 
" Ballasting" and " Work Trains.") 

Minor Track Officials. 

Master Carpenters. — These usually report to and receive orders from the 
roadmaster. They have charge of the repairs of buildings, bridges, trestles, 
stations, water tanks, pumping stations, etc. When making ordinary repairs, 
they must see that the main tracks are unobstructed, or if it is necessary to 
obstruct them, they must obtain an order from the superintendent and must 
protect themselves by flag in the usual way. 

Yard Masters. — These report to and receive instructions from the division 
superintendent (and also from the trainmaster or other officer in charge of 
transportation), and they also comply with instructions from the station agents. 
They usually have to do only with the handling of cars, but are sometimes 
also in charge of the track work of the yard. 

Switch Tenders. — These report to and receive instructions from the station 
agents, while in yards they report to and are under the direction of the yard 
master or station master. 

Bridge and Building Department. 

This department is frequently connected more or less closely with the 
maintenance-of-way department. It has charge of the construction, main- 
tenance and renewals of all structures, and one of its important duties is to 
plan means for promptly repairing and rebuilding wrecked or damaged struc- 
tures. Turntables, track and stock scales, ash pits, water tanks, wells, pump- 
ing plants, mail cranes, coal-handling machinery, etc., are frequently in charge 
of this department. There is usually a general yard for lumber and piles, 
while emergency stocks of timber are kept by the master carpenters at points 
on the divisions. The department is generally in charge of a superintendent of 
bridges and buildings, who reports to the roadmaster, resident engineer or 
superintendent. Under him are the bridge foremen and master carpenters. 
Examples of the organization on individual roads are given at the end of the 
chapter, and particulars of the work are given under "Bridge Work." 

Signal Department. 

This department is very often allied with the maintenance-of-way depart- 
ment, and the charge of signal apparatus of every description on the road 



ORGANIZATION. 301 

(switch targets, and train-order, block and interlocking signals) should be 
concentrated in the signal engineer. He should have a suitable staff of inspect- 
ors, repairmen, signalmen, etc., and the employing and discharging of these 
men (including the signalmen) should be in his hands. The signal engineer 
usually has charge of construction, but the maintenance and operation are 
often in charge of division officers. In view of the important relation of sig- 
naling to the operating service, it would seem to be more systematic and 
economical to have construction, maintenance and operation all under the 
direct charge of the signal engineer, so that the equipment can be kept in proper 
condition without having to refer matters to various departments. It also 
avoids difficulties due to securing uniform practice and action by the various 
division superintendents. The practice on some railways is described below. 

The respective responsibility of track supervisors and signal supervisors must 
be clearly defined in regard to such matters as the maintenance of insulated 
joints and the maintenance of throw of interlocked switches. These matters 
relate equally to track and to signaling. Variation from the proper amount of 
throw of switch will affect automatic signals or the locking apparatus. 

' Chicago & Northwestern Ry. — The signal engineer reports as follows: 
1, To the engineer of maintenance on maintenance matters and on construc- 
tion orders issued by the general manager or vice-president in charge of oper- 
ation and maintenance; 2, To the general superintendent on operation; and, 
3, To the chief engineer on construction orders issued by the vice-president in 
charge of construction. The division engineers have charge of all signal mat- 
ters on their territories, reporting to the signal engineer. They look after 
the work directly, except that on the four largest divisions there are super- 
visors of signals, reporting to the division engineers. Where the automatic 
block signal system is in use, there is under the signal supervisor a maintainer 
with about 20 miles of double track. Under him (where there are interlocking 
plants) is a helper (who does the interlocking work), a batteryman, and lamp- 
men. On outlying divisions there is usually one repairman who has a suffi- 
cient number of assistants for the work. He reports directly to the division 
engineer. 

Cincinnati Southern Ry. — The signal department includes automatic block- 
ing, interlocking plants, train-order signals, switch and signal lamps, crossing 
gates, and electric-light plants. The superintendent of signals reports to the 
general manager. The signal engineers, with ICO miles each, report to the 
division superintendents and the superintendent of signals. Repairmen, with 
10 miles, serve as batterymen and report to the maintenance foreman. 

Pennsylvania Lines. — The signal engineer reports to the general superin- 
tendent of each system for the work done on that system, and acts under his 
direction. He prepares plans, specifications and estimates for signal equip- 
ment, consulting with the division superintendents as to the plans. He has 
charge of the erection work connected with interlocking and fixed signals, 
and inspects them from time to time to see that standards are adhered to in 
their maintenance. The maintenance of the interlocking and fixed signals 
on each division is in charge of a supervisor of signals, who reports to and 
receives his instructions from the engineer of maintenance-of-way of the divi- 
sion. He reports weekly to the signal engineer the condition of the work in 
his charge, on forms provided for that purpose. The supervisor is responsible 
for the proper working of all interlocking apparatus and other signals on his 



302 TRACK WORK. 

division. He must make all necessary and ordinary repairs, but must not 
make any change in the locking, or in any part of the apparatus or appliances, 
without instructions from the signal engineer. He must make examinations, 
as often as may be necessary, of all interlocking apparatus and signals. Where 
these are in charge of foreign companies, he must not allow any changes to 
be made without instructions from the signal engineer. The signal repair- 
men report to and receive instructions from the signal supervisor. 

Systems of Organization. 

Illinois Central Ry. — The engineering department is in charge of the chief 
engineer, who is responsible for both construction work and the maintenance 
of the entire fixed property, including tracks, bridges, buildings, turntables 
and water supply. Interlocking and block signals, however, are under the 
jurisdiction of the superintendent of telegraph and signals. The chief engi- 
neer reports to the general manager concerning maintenance matters, and 
to the vice-president in charge of construction and traffic in regard to con- 
struction matters. His staff consists of a chief engineer of maintenance-of- 
way, and a principal assistant engineer; the latter has charge of construction 
work. The chief engineer of maintenance-of-way has an engineer of bridges, 
a general foreman of waterworks, a supervisor of scales, a chief gardener and 
a chief timber inspector. The last has charge of the treating and creosoting 
of timber and ties. Reporting to the engineer of bridges are two assistant 
engineers of bridges, a superintendent of bridges, a superintendent of build- 
ings, an architect, and a supervisor of fire protection. The engineer of bridges 
and the general foreman of waterworks also assist the principal assistant 
engineer on new work under construction in their respective departments. 

Ordinary maintenance of track, bridges and buildings and water supply is 
handled by the division organization, the superintendent having jurisdiction 
over all matters on his division. To assist him in roadway matters he has a 
roadmaster, who has an assistant engineer, track supervisors, a supervisor 
of bridges and buildings, and a waterworks foreman. The section foremen 
and the bridge and building foremen report to the supervisors. The super- 
intendent reports to the engineering department through the general super- 
intendents. On operating matters, he reports to the vice-president in charge 
of operation. 

Roadmasters have charge of divisions varying from 225 to 486 miles. Super- 
visors of bridges and buildings cover the same territory as the roadmasters. 
Track supervisors average 100 miles of road. Section foremen have from 6 
to 8 miles. On main line, with single track and gravel ballast, a section gang 
consists of a foreman and 6 men per 6-mile section, one of these men usually 
acting as trackwalker. This force is reduced on the less important lines with 
gravel ballast to a foreman and 4 men. On track with earth ballast (which 
is used only on unimportant branch lines), the gang consists of a foreman 
and 3 or 4 men. Additional men are employed as needed to put in extra 
ballast, lay new rails, clean ditches, and do other important work which cannot 
be taken care of by regular gangs. The average force allowed is 1 man per 
mile in summer and about 1 man per 2 miles in winter. Floating gangs (or 
extra gangs) are used to lay rails, widen ditches and banks, put in ballast where 
an extra amount is required, and any other work which cannot be taken care of 
by regular section gangs. 



ORGANIZATION. 303 

The Illinois Central Ry. for some time employed graduates from engineer- 
ing schools in the capacity of engineering apprentices, the original intention 
being that they should divide their time between assisting the division engi- 
neer and working with the section gangs in order to permit them to acquire 
a practical knowledge of track work as well as engineering work. This, how- 
ever, did not work out satisfactorily, as it was found that chainmen and rod- 
men were needed to such an extent, on account of the large amount of con- 
struction work under way, that it was necessary to take these men into the 
engineering corps before they had acquired the knowledge of track work which 
it was intended they should have before promoting them. Supervisors are 
promoted from assistant engineers and also from the ranks of section foremen. 

Southern Pacific Ry. (Pacific System). — The organization of the engineer- 
ing and maintenance departments is as follows: (A) Chief engineer and 
assistants, who have to do only with construction of new lines and with 
important changes on existing lines, as far as track matters are concerned; 
(B) Assistant chief engineer, reporting directly to the general manager; (C) 
Two engineers of maintenance-of-way, reporting to the general superintendents 
of their respective districts on ordinary maintenance matters, and to the 
assistant chief engineer (either direct or through the general superintendent) 
on matters pertaining to standard plans and important repair and renewal 
work. The assistant chief engineer is assisted by a signal engineer in charge 
of construction and maintenance of block signals, and by a bridge inspector 
and assistant* bridge inspector. To the district engineers report the resident 
engineer of each superintendent's division (either direct or through the super- 
intendent) on all matters concerning the maintenance or renewal of roadbed, 
track, bridges, buildings, etc. All such work (as well as construction work on 
operated lines) is -carried on under the direct charge of the resident engineer, 
in whose office the pay-rolls for his department are made and accounts kept 
for reporting to the auditor at specified times. He is assisted by an assistant 
engineer acting as superintendent of buildings and bridges, a signal engineer 
in charge of signal work on his division, and as many assistant engineers for 
general work as the volume of such work warrants. Each superintendent's 
district is divided into roadmaster's districts, each being in charge of a road- 
master reporting directly to the resident engineer on matters pertaining to 
maintenance of roadbed and track. The roadmaster is assisted by section 
foremen in looking after track matters, and by foremen in charge of carpenter 
gangs caring for bridges and roadway buildings. 

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. — The chief engineer of the system is a 
staff officer, and reports to the president. He has charge of all construction 
and extension work. All changes of line and grades are in charge of the sev- 
eral chief engineers, who submit important plans and estimates to the chief 
engineer of the system for approval before submitting them to the operating 
department for authority to do the work. The maintenance-of-way work, 
ballasting, repairs to track, timber trestles, care of bridges and buildings 
and maintenance of signals, are all under the direction of the general super- 
intendents. The jurisdiction of the signal engineer includes block and inter- 
locking signals, train-order signals and switch signals. All switch, signal 
and train-order lamps are under the supervision of an inspector who reports 
to the signal engineer. There is also a tie and timber department which has 
charge of the purchase, treating and distribution, and the keeping of all 



304 TRACK WORK. 

records of tie treatment and renewals, etc. The track foremen report to the 
roadmasters, who report to the division superintendents, who in turn report 
to the general superintendents. On each division there is a general foreman 
of bridges and buildings, who reports to the division superintendent, and who 
has charge of the maintenance and repairs of trestles, building and water 
service. The carpenters and painters report to this general foreman. The 
roadmaster's divisions average 140 to 150 miles. The shortest is 106 miles, 
all main track; the longest is 250 miles, nearly all branches. 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. — Engineers of maintenance-of-way report 
to general superintendents, and have the same territory as the latter (from 
1,2C0 to 1,800 miles). They have jurisdiction over division superintendents 
on maintenance-of-way matters. The district engineers are in the engineer- 
ing department proper, and have to do with operating and maintenance-of- 
way matters in an advisory capacity. Division engineers, roadmasters, bridge 
superintendents and master carpenters report to the division superintendent. 
The signal engineer and the bridge engineer report to the engineer on eastern 
lines. A roadmaster's division covers about 150 miles, and track sections 
from 5 to 8 miles, according to the importance of the line. The number of 
men to a section in spring ranges from 6 to 12 (according to the importance 
of the line and the availability of men). In winter it varies from the fore- 
man alone to a foreman and 2 men; this may be increased in an open winter 
and according to necessities. Floating gangs are employed for rail laying, 
surfacing, bridge construction, or any large jobs of either maintenance or 
construction work along the line. On some divisions there are permanent 
gangs of this kind, and on others the gangs may be disbanded in the winter. 

Pennsylvania Ry. — The chief engineer of maintenance-of-way reports to 
the general manager, and is one of the four "cabinet officers" assisting the 
latter (chief engineer of maintenance-of-way, general superintendent of motive 
power, general superintendent of transportation, and superintendent of tele- 
graph). He is assisted by an engineer of maintenance-of-way, and is repre- 
sented on each of the grand divisions by a principal assistant engineer. The 
latter is in turn represented on each operating division by an assistant engi- 
neer, to whom the supervisors report. The supervisors (or roadmasters) are 
engineers, each in charge of about 25 miles of line and having an assistant. 
Subordinate to them are the track foremen, whose sections average 2\ miles 
on double-track and four- track lines. On each division there is a master car- 
penter-, who looks after general repairs to bridges, buildings, etc.; he reports 
to the assistant engineer. The maintenance-of-way department has general 
charge of the track, bridges, buildings, turntables, water and coaling stations, 
signals, etc. It is also charged with the maintenance of standards, and watches 
the developments or improvements in track construction. The chief engineer 
has charge of all engineering construction work, including the preparation 
of plans, estimates and specifications for new lines, bridges and buildings. He 
also keeps records of the cost of all construction work, and has charge of the 
distribution of rails for both construction and renewals. He reports to the 
second vice-president. 

Baltimore & Ohio Ry. — The maintenance-of-way is under the operating 
department. The chief engineer of maintenance-of-way reports to the general 
manager, and each engineer of maintenance-of-way has supervision of the 
maintenance in the territory of the general superintendent to whom he reports. 



ORGANIZATION. 305 

The division engineers have charge of from 95 to 240 miles. They report to 
the division superintendents, while the supervisors and master carpenters 
report to them. The inspector of maintenance and the tunnel inspector 
report to the chief engineer of maintenance-of-way. The signal engineer and 
the engineer of bridges and buildings report to the chief engineer. The num- 
ber of men in the section gangs depends entirely upon local conditions, and 
there is no permanent organization of floating gangs. 

New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. — The maintenance-of-way is under 
the engineering department, and directly under the engineer of maintenance- 
of-way, who reports to the chief engineer. The engineer of construction and 
engineer of bridges also report to the chief engineer, under whose direction are 
made all changes and renewals of roadway, bridges, buildings, docks, etc. 
The division engineers, signal engineer and superintendent of buildings report 
to the engineer of maintenance-of-way. The roadmasters and the bridge 
supervisors (in charge of bridges, turntables, and coal and water stations) 
report to the respective division engineers. Carpenters, masons and painters 
report to the superintendent of buildings. The length of roadmasters' divi- 
sions on double track is from 50 to 75 miles, with various lengths (up to 50 
miles) of single track in addition. The New York Division includes 61 miles 
of four tracks, and 11 miles of six tracks. On four-track lines, the sections 
are 2 miles long. The number of men (including foreman) in the section 
gangs on important lines is 9 in the spring (with full force) and 5 in the win- 
ter. On less important lines, 7 and 5 men; and on unimportant side lines, 
6 and 3 men respectively. 

Erie Ry. — The organization is on the division system. The chief engineer 
has charge of all construction work, and of bridges and buildings. Indirectly, 
he also has charge of maintenance-of-way, as he establishes all standards relat- 
ing to track and signals, and these cannot be changed without his consent. 
The engineer of maintenance-of-way has charge of all matters pertaining to 
maintenance of track, bridges, buildings, water supply, etc. The division 
engineers report to him on these matters, and he reports directly to the general 
superintendent. Plans for all new work and important structures are pre- 
pared by the chief engineer, who either assumes direct charge of construc- 
tion, or refers it to the engineer of maintenance-of-way, and thus to the divi- 
sion superintendents, who in turn refer it to the proper officers. There are 
two general superintendents, each having an engineer of maintenance-of-way; 
and each division superintendent has a division engineer. The latter has under 
him engineers and rodmen, and also the roadmasters (or supervisors), track 
foremen, carpenters, masons, and all necessary mechanics and laborers. 

Michigan Central Ry. — The chief engineer has charge of all construction, 

and of the maintenance of track, bridges, buildings, water supply, real estate, 

interlocking, and signals of all kinds. The division roadmasters report to the 

division engineer, who reports to the assistant chief engineer. The general 

scheme of organization is as follows: 

Officers. Reporting to Officers. Reporting to 

Asst. Chief Engineer. . . .Chief Engineer. Foremen of Repairs Asst. Roadmasters. 

Prin. Asst. Engineer. . . . Asst. Chief Engineer. Foremen of B. & W. S. . . .Supt. Bldgs. & W. S. 

Masons and Bdg. Carps Div. F., B. & W. S. 

Carps, and Painters 

Asst. Bridge Engrs Bridge Engineer. 

Div. Foremen of Bdgs. 



Division Engineer 
Bridge Engineer 
Signal Engineer. 
Supt. of Bldgs. & W. S 



Assistant Engineers Division Engineers. Signal Supervisors Signal Engineer. 

Roadmasters . " " Inspectors " Supervisors. 

Assistant Roadmasters. .Roadmasters. " Maintainers Inspectors. 



306 TRACK WORK. 

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Ry. — Maintenance-of-way is under the 
engineering department, and the chief engineer reports to the president. The 
principal assistant engineer, signal engineer, division engineers, superintend- 
ents of water service, and superintendents of bridges and buildings, all report 
to the chief engineer. The general roadmaster and the roadmasters report to 
the principal assistant engineer. 

Philadelphia & Reading Ry. — Maintenance-of-way is under the operating 
department, the engineer of maintenance-of-way reporting to the general 
superintendent (who reports to the vice-president). The chief engineer 
reports directly to the first vice-president. Track supervisors and signal 
supervisors report to the division engineers, who report to the division super- 
intendents. Resident engineers (on construction work only) report to the chief 
engineer. The signal engineer reports to the engineer of maintenance-of-way 
and to the general superintendent. 

Hocking Valley Ry. — The engineer of maintenance-of-way reports to the 
general superintendent, who is the highest official having jurisdiction over 
maintenance-of-way. Supervisors report to the division engineers, who report 
to the superintendents. The chief engineer reports to the president. 

Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. — The assistant chief engineer 
is at the head of the maintenance-of-way department, and reports to the chief 
engineer. The latter (reporting to the general manager) handles both main- 
tenance and construction, but devotes most of his time to the construction 
work. There is an engineer of track and roadway, who acts mainly in a con- 
sulting capacity, and reports to both the chief engineer and the assistant chief 
engineer; he issues instructions to the superintendents, who direct the engi- 
neers of maintenance-of-way. On each division the maintenance is under 
the operating department, the division superintendent being in complete con- 
trol. The track supervisors and the supervisors of bridges and buildings 
report to the engineers of maintenance-of-way, who report to the superintend- 
ents. The supervisor of water service reports to the chief engineer. 

Pere Marquette Ry. — Maintenance-of-way is under the operating depart- 
ment. Roadmasters report to the division engineers, who report to the super- 
intendents. The bridge engineer reports to the chief engineer, who reports 
to the general manager and general superintendent. 

El Paso & Southwestern Ry. — Maintenance-of-way is under the engineering 
department as to plans, forms and methods; and under the operating depart- 
ment in execution. The resident engineers report to both the engineer of 
maintenance-of-way and to the division superintendent. The chief engineer 
and the engineer of maintenance-of-way both report to the general manager. 
The roadmasters and general bridge foremen report to the division superin- 
tendents. 

Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe Ry. — The resident engineers report to the chief 
engineer, who reports to the second vice-president and general manager. The 
roadmasters report to the division superintendents. 

Houston & Texas Central Ry. — The resident engineers report to the division 
superintendents, and the engineer of maintenance-of-way reports to the gen- 
eral superintendent. 



TRACKLAYING. 307 



CHAPTER 18.— TRACKLAYING. 

The engineer in charge of tracklaying runs in the alinement upon the com- 
pleted roadbed, rectifying minor inaccuracies, especially in the curves. The 
anchor bolts for steel bridges should not be set until this final accurate aline- 
ment has been made. He has 'a copy of the field notes locating the position 
of each intersection, P.C. and P.T., the stakes by which these are referenced, 
and notes of the curvature and length of curve. In many cases he finds that 
the curves will not fit, and the P.C. must be moved backward or forward until 
the P.T. falls on the given tangent. The line is monumented as soon as pos- 
sible after this work. Pieces of rail about 4 ft. long, driven down with their 
tops a short distance below track level, make convenient and satisfactory 
monuments; a cross cut on the top marks the exact point. 

In general, center stakes are driven at intervals of 100 ft. on tangents and 
50 ft. on curves, or sometimes 25 ft. on transition curves. Many track fore- 
men consider that centers may be 300 or 400 ft. apart on tangents, but it is 
pointed out elsewhere that instrument work rather than "sighting" should 
be employed in lining first-class track. In any case, stakes should be set at 
intervals of at least 200 ft. on tangents and 50 ft. on curves, and at each end 
of every spiral or transition curve. For a double-track railway, the center- 
line stakes are sometimes set between tracks, and the tracklayers are pro- 
vided with measuring boards with which to get the proper lateral distance 
for the line rail of each track. In some cases, the engineer prefers to run a 
center line between the rails of each track, or outside of the rails and close to 
each track. At sidetracks, the switches and turnouts must be carefully laid 
out, and substantially supported on a good bed of ballast. The center stakes 
should be set for sidetracks, and the positions of head blocks indicated. The 
turnout curve may be laid out with a transit, or by means of a tape, with 
calculated offsets from the main track, as described in the chapter on 
" Switch Work." On bridges and trestles, the track centers may be marked 
by tacks at intervals of about 20 ft., and offsets made at the distance to the 
edge of the rail flange. A chalk line is then struck between these offset points. 
In tracklaying, one rail is first laid with its edge set to the chalk line, and is 
then securely spiked; the other rail is set in position by the track gage. 

Before tracklaying, the roadbed should have been properly dressed by the 
contractor to the exact subgrade, or the subgrade plus any allowance for 
settlement which has been decided upon. This is done by having dressing 
or trimming stakes set by the engineer for the use of a small grading gang 
furnished by the contractor after the first rough grading has been done. If the 
work is not done by the contractor, it should be attended to by a small grad- 
ing gang working ahead of the tracklayers and under the orders of an engineer. 
Failure to have this properly done in advance results in delay to the tracklay- 
ing gang, and probably in defective track. In some cases the roadbed is 
inclined on curves to approximately fit the superelevation. 

The engineer in charge of tracklaying has to see that arrangements are 
made for keeping the contractor supplied with the proper amount of material, 
and also to see that the materials are properly used, and that the work is 



308 TRACK WORK. 

properly done. He should specially look after matters of detail, except, 
perhaps, in these now rather rare cases when a long line of track has to be laid 
with the greatest possible rapidity. As a rule, the railway company supplies 
all material, and a supply train for delivering this material at the end of the 
completed line, ready for the contractor. The latter undertakes the entire 
work of tracklaying (including the distribution of the material from the stated 
points of delivery), subject to the supervision of the company's engineer. 
Similar arrangements are made when the company does the work with its 
own men. The full number of ties to each rail should be laid in advance of 
the rails. In bolting up the joints, the specified spacing between rails must 
be strictly adhered to, and only iron spacing shims should be permi-tted. (See 
the chapter on "Rails.") During this work care should be taken to see that 
spikes, bolts and other small material are not lost or wasted. After any neces- 
sary tamping or filling under the ties has been done, the ballast trains are run 
upon the track and unloaded, and the ballast is put in place and tamped. 
Then comes the final lining and surfacing. The amount of care bestowed upon 
this depends upon the character of the road, but for first-class track, of course, 
all work will be carefully done. As few trains as possible should be run over 
a partly ballasted track, so as to prevent surface kinking of the rails, a defect 
which it is almost impossible to remedy subsequently. In tracklaying work 
on the Oregon Short Line, daily reports are made by the engineer in charge. 
The report is made in triplicate in a book 9X12 ins., having two lines of perfor- 
ations. The report shows the position of the work by 100-ft. stations, the 
length of main and side track laid, switches and turnouts put in, weight of 
rail, number of ties per mile, etc.; also, the weather conditions and the causes 
of any delays. The engineer in charge retains the stub report, and sends the 
two detached reports to the engineer of construction and the chief engineer. 
On the back of this third report are shown the alinement and profile and the 
location of sidings and other features. 

The management of tracklaying requires a clear head, good judgment, and 
a faculty for handling large bodies of men and keeping them all at work 
together without driving them or causing them to interfere with one another. 
This applies to the foremen as well as to the engineers, and it is further to 
be noted that tracklaying trains (like work trains) should be handled by power- 
ful engines in good condition. In regard to the speed of the work, it is rarely 
practicable to maintain a high rate of progress continuously. Uncompleted 
bridges or sections of grading are likely to stop work occasionally, so that 
the work of tracklaying is largely governed by these conditions rather than 
by the means of carrying it on as rapidly and economically as possible, irre- 
spective of delays, etc. The highest records have been made in open prairie 
work, where speed was a prime consideration. In many cases, too much has 
been sacrificed to speed, and on important new lines quality rather than quan- 
tity of construction should govern. 

Tracklaying by Hand. 

The material train, with a properly arranged quantity of track supplies, 
is run to the end of the completed track, and the work is usually begun by 
hauling the ties by teams and distributing them alongside the roadbed. The - 
tie gang then places the ties, spaces them accurately, locates the joints by a 
15-ft. pole, picks out the large ties for joints where this is required, and then 



TRACKLAYING. 309 

lines up the ties on one side of the roadbed by means of a cord stretched 
between stakes set half a tie length from the center stakes. On curves, this is 
first stretched as on tangents, and then curved by measuring from it the mid- 
dle and quarter ordinates for the degree of curve. The ties should not be 
laid too far ahead of the rails, or the joint spacing may require rehandling of 
the ties under the rails, which is troublesome. The full number of ties should 
be laid at once, and not a few ties to each rail length, leaving the other ties 
to be slipped in under the rails, as the rails are likely to be kinked by the 
running of the material train over such a track. The ties should, if neces- 
sary, be adzed to give proper seats for the rails. 

Rails are then run from the train to the head of the track on a push car 
or horse car. The rail gang takes off two rails, half bolts them at the heel 
joint, sets the head ends to gage at the front end by a grooved track gage, 
and secures them by a few spikes. It is usually specified that the rails must 
be laid with the maker's brand on one side (usually outside) of the track. If 
the rails are bent or kinked in handling, they should be straightened before 
being laid. Rails for curves of over 2° or 3° should be curved in a rail-bending 
machine. Care must be taken not to let the joints run ahead, but to keep 
them truly square, or else exactly opposite the middle of the opposite rail, 
according to whether track is laid with square or broken joints. To main- 
tain this even spacing on curves, some of the inner rails must be short. A 
good plan is to have a number of rails cut to a length of 29 ft. 6 ins. at the 
mill, these short rails having their ends painted so that they can be readily 
distinguished. These rails are kept separate from the regular 30-ft. rails, 
and a certain supply of them is carried on the material train. The foreman 
of the tracklaying gang is provided with a list of the curves and the number 
of short rails required on each curve. 

The joint or splice gang then bolts up the rail joints, and the spiking gang 
sets the rails to gage and completes the spiking. In this latter work the rails 
on the line side of the track should be spiked first, and the others adjusted by 
the gage. The outer spikes should be driven in the forward side and the inner 
spikes in the rear side of the tie. About 75 to 80 men would be required to 
lay a mile of track per day by this method. Greater progress is expensive, 
unless the ties can be hauled a long distance ahead with teams and properly 
distributed. By distributing them far ahead, however, the joint ties are 
likely to require shifting when the rails reach them. When it is difficult to 
secure expert spikers, the speed of the work can be increased by using bridle 
rods to maintain the gage in front of the train. The spiking gang behind the 
train removes these bridles, which are carried to the front again. 

A convenient arrangement is to have a gang of 55 men in charge of two 
foremen, and equipped with three rail cars, a horse, and two portable turn- 
tables. One turntable is placed at the loading and the other at the unloading 
end of the track. An ordinary load for the rail car is six rails, and a full sup- 
ply of ties, splice bars, bolts, nuts, washers and spikes for that number of 
rails. If the driver reaches the front before the unloading gang has unloaded 
all the material from the first car, he puts the turntable in position ready to 
haul the car off when empty. If the gang finishes unloading before he arrives, 
it runs the empty car off, ready to be hauled back. On returning to the load- 
ing end with the empty car, the driver puts the turntable on the track, and 
runs the car off onto a pair of ties. He then hitches the horse to the loaded 



310 TRACK WORK. 

car and goes to the front, while the loading gang runs the empty car back 
into position for loading. With such a gang of good men under a smart fore- 
man, a mile of track may readily be laid in two days. The distribution of the 
men is as follows: 

9 Loading truck from construction train. 4 Spacing ties and lining them with a cord. 

8 Unloading truck at head of track. 6 Splicing joints. 

1 With horse hauling the truck. 27 Spiking (3 sets of 9 men each). 

The cost of tracklaying and surfacing (exclusive of ballast and ballasting) 
varies, of course, with the locality and the character of the track. On Western 
roads it has averaged $250 to $500 per mile. One of the lowest records was 
that of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., in 1888, when tracklaying at 
the rate of two miles per day was done with a gang of 164 men, at $170 per 
mile for tracklaying labor proper; and $80 per mile for surfacing, with a gang 
of 84 men. The total cost per mile, including expenses for engineers, engine 
and train crews, etc., was $248. On the Western Division of the Canadian 
Pacific Ry. remarkably rapid work was done across the prairies, the records 
being 4 miles per day in 1882, and 6 miles in 1883. The daily average was 
from 2\ to 3J miles. The tracklaying gangs where fast work was done were 
composed as shown in Table No. 19. 

TABLE NO. 19.— TRACKLAYING GANG; CANADIAN PACIFIC RY. 

Unloading rails from cars * 12 Teams hauling ties 33 

Loading rails on trucks * 12 Unloading and distributing ties 8 

Unloading and laying down rails * 24 Spacing ties ; 4 

Bolters 15 Readjusting displaced ties 2 

Spikers 32 Rail truck boys (to 6 horses) 4 

Nippers 4 

Spike peddlers and tie loaders 32 Total 182 

* Eight men in each of these gangs were handling joints, bolts, etc. 

The following is a description of the methods employed in 1892-1893 in the 
construction of the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry. across North 
Dakota, to connect with a line of the Canadian Pacific Ry. from Pasqua (on 
its main line) to Portal, on the United States boundary. The 30-ft., 72-lb. 
rails Were spiked to ties 6 ins. thick, 7 to 10 ins. wide and 8 ft. long, spaced 
2,816 to 2,992 per mile, or 16 to 17 per rail length. The rails had square three- 
tie supported joints, spliced by 40-in. angle bars with six bolts, but the engi- 
neer questioned the utility of splice bars exceeding 22 to 26 ins. in length. 
The width at subgrade was 16 ft. The tracklaying and surfacing were done 
by the railway company, and the construction train was made up as follows: 

1. Pioneer car. 8. Water car. 

2. Store car. 9 to 16. Flat cars with rails and spikes. 
3 & 4. Dining and sleeping cars. Locomotive. 

5. Kitchen car. 17. Telegraph material. 

6. Dining and sleeping car. 18 to 32. Box cars with ties. 

7. Feed car. 

The first eight cars formed the boarding train, which was always kept at 
the head of the track. The material train, composed of the other 24 cars, 
was brought up during the night from the last sidetrack, and stopped about 
400 ft. from the boarding train. The tie cars were then cut off, and the rail 
and telegraph cars were moved up and coupled to the boarding train,, making 
the train as described. The ties were distributed by wagons, Fig. 196, being 
unloaded from the box cars by chutes, Fig. 197. The inner end of the chute 
had a bar of 2-in. pipe, and was secured at any desired height in the doorway 
by turning the pointed screw fitting within the bar. Fig. 198 shows the 



TRACK! AYING. 311 

method of using the chute. The rails were handled on push cars, Fig. 199; 
these had 20-in. wheels with 7-in. treads, and at each end were rollers, as 
shown. Planks were nailed beneath the two transoms so as to form a box 
for splice bars and kegs of bolts and spikes. 

Work commenced at 7 a.m., the teams hauling ties from the five rear cars 
onto the grade (16 ft. wide), where the tie gang unloaded, placed and spaced 
them. From both sides of cars Nos. 15 and 16, the rail men unloaded 100 
rails and the necessary fastenings, dropping them upon the roadbed. The 
train then moved back 4C0 ft. The 100 rails were then loaded on two rail 
cars or push cars; each carried 50 rails, with splice bars, bolts and spikes. 
The cars were hauled to the end of the track by horses. Ten men on each side 
of the first car ran forward with a rail and dropped it in place, together with 
a pair of splice bars and six bolts for the joint. Immediately the rails were 
dropped, one man threw a hook gage, Fig. 200, over their outer ends, and 
the horse then pulled the car forward 30 ft., one man on each side stopping 
the car with an iron stop block, Fig. 201. Two more rails were then quickly 
run out and dropped as before. . At every fifth and sixth rail length, alter- 
nately, a 200-lb. keg of spikes was thrown off. These kegs were broken open 
by the two spike peddlers, who took 100 lbs. of spikes in their boxes, Fig. 202, 
and placed two spikes on each tie. 

The two "front strappers" put on the splices, adjusted the expansion spac- 
ing by metal shims, and fastened the two center bolts. The other strappers 
followed and completed the joints. Four "front spikers" with a gage fol- 
lowed close to the front strappers, and spiked the track at joints, centers and 
quarters. The spiking was finished by 12 other spikers. For each two 
spikers there was an assistant or "nipper" who held the tie up to the rail 
with a bar, using a block as a fulcrum. When the rails from both cars were 
nearly all in place, the train was again run forward; 100 rails and the neces- 
sary fastenings were thrown off as before, and the train again ran back out 
of the way. The rail-car gang would drop 100 rails (1 ,500 ft. of track) in from 
25 to 30 minutes. The cars were brought forward at about every second move 
of the train, or oftener if the nature of the ground required it. At about 
11.30 a.m., the ties remaining in the box cars were thrown out on the ground, 
to be picked up and loaded on the wagons. Then the empty cars, Nos. 9 to 
32, were run rapidly back to the material sidetrack and exchanged for loaded 
cars arranged as before. These were brought to the front in time for work 
at 1 p.m. An additional locomotive, at the rear of the train, was employed 
when the grades required it. 

Telegraph material was thrown off car No. 17 at each forward movement 
of the train. The poles were of cedar, 6 ins. diameter at the small end and 
25 ft. long, set 5 ft. in the ground, and these were spaced 30 to the mile. The 
wire was stretched from a reel placed on a small hand wagon, pushed by men. 
Tents were carried on the boarding train to be set up at night for quarters 
for extra men, or to shelter the horses in cold weather. Detachable feed 
boxes were slung on the sides of the boarding cars. Surfacing gangs followed 
the tracklayers, and surfaced the track from the shoulders of banks or sides 
of cuts, so as to make a safe roadway and prevent bending of the rails or 
splices before the ballasting was done. These gangs usually numbered 40 
to 45 men under a foreman and sub-foreman. They lived in boarding cars 
set out on temporary sidetracks, and went to and from work on hand cars. 



312 



TRACK WORK. 




Side Elevation. 



Kg. 196.— Tie Wagon. 



End Elevation. 




^ JO- 





0" 12' 

' ■ 



24* 



36' 

_1 



Fig. 197.— Tie Chute. 



o' 5* \q' 

Ui.i >. i i I iii i i .1 




Fig. 198.— Unloading Ties by Chute. 



Jk 



^ 



Fig. 200.— Tracklaying Gage. 




Side Elevation. 



EI 



a 



Bolt 



and 



Splice 



Box 



D 



-^5> y a "**3> 

Fig. 199.— Rail Car for Tracklaying 



/ \ 0' 6' ft* rf 

I J In... I. .nil J 

Fig. 201. — Stop BlocK for Rail Car. 




0" 6* 12* 18" 

' '■■■■■L i 



Fig. 202.— Spike-Peddler's Car. 



TRACKLAYING APPLIANCES ON THE MINNEAPOLIS. ST. PAUL & SAULT 

STE. MARIE RY. 



TRACKLAYING. 313 

Mr. Rich, the chief engineer, stated that the company had used tracklay- 
ing devices, and in swampy, very hilly, or timbered regions they were very 
serviceable. But in a dry, open country, like North Dakota, the method 
above described enabled the work to be advanced at higher speed and at no 
greater cost per mile. The average advance was three miles per day, and on 
some occasions over four miles of track were laid in 10 hours with the force 
named below. By increasing the force without regard to strict economy, 
five or six miles might be laid in a day. The entire work was in charge of a 
superintendent of construction, stationed at the siding nearest to the head of 
the track, who ordered and forwarded material and gave general instructions. 
He had a business car, a clerk (who was also a telegraph operator), and a 
cook. The telegraph line was in working order at the end of the track every 
night, the instrument and operator being located in car No. 1. The general 
foreman had control of all trains and employees working at the front, and 
in case of emergency could at any time communicate by telegraph with the 
superintendent of construction, a few miles at the rear. Material tracks 
from 2,000 to 2,500 ft. long were laid at intervals of about 10 miles, unless 
regular stations were to be provided at shorter distances. The tracklaying 
force was as given in Table No. 20. 

TABLE NO. 20.— TRACKLAYING FORCE; M., ST. P. & S. S. M. RY. 

Fore " borl For e- w" 

men - ers men. b o ° r - 

ers. ers. 

General foreman, on horseback. .... 1 . . Men unloading ties from cars (3 to 

Rail-car gang (who dropped rails each car) 15 

and fastenings) 1 22 Men unloading rails and f asten- 

Strappers (who adjust and bolt ings from cars 4 

splices) 6 Telegraph gang 1 8 

Spike peddlers (distribut. spikes) 2 Telegraph operator 1 

Tie-spacing gang 1 12 Drivers of rail-car horses 2 

Men lining ties (rope and stakes) 2 Blacksmith 1 

Men spacing joint ties (with 30-ft. Night watchman 1 

pole and tie pick) 2 Cooks 2 

Men leveling grade cut by tie wagon ... 4 Baker (worked only at night) 1 

Spikers 16 Waiters and helpers 5 

Nippers (hold up ties for spikers) 8 Storekeeper 1 

Tracklining gang 16 

Teamsters for tie wagons 1 40 Total 6 161 

All baking was done during the night by an extra force of cooks. The 
cooks, baker, waiters, helpers and storekeeper were employed by a contractor, 
who boarded the men for $3.50 per week, furnishing all supplies and bedding. 
The amount for board was deducted from the wages of the men and paid to 
this contractor. The equipment of the boarding train, kept at the head of 
the track, was as follows: 

No. 1. Pioneer car; double deck. This contained a blacksmith shop, 10X12 
ft.; storeroom, 8X12 ft., for heavy tools, harness, etc.; office for general 
foreman, 12X14 ft., with three sleeping berths and telegraph office; two 
sleeping apartments on the upper floor; and a tool box under the car. A 
platform in front, supported by rods from the top, carried extra splice bars, 
bolts and spikes. Under the platform was fastened an extra rail car. 

No. 2. Store car; double deck. Besides two storerooms for clothing and 
provisions, there were sleeping berths for the cooks, a sleeping apartment 
above, and a tool box underneath. 

No. 3. Dining and sleeping car; double deck. On the lower floor were 
two dining rooms; one for the foremen and guests, the other for teamsters 
and telegraph gang. Above were separate sleeping apartments for the team- 
sters and the telegraph gang, and underneath was a tool box. 

No. 4. Dining and sleeping car; double deck. On the lower floor was the 



314 TRACK WORK. 

laborers' dining room, and above was a sleeping apartment with berths for 
32 men. Underneath was a tool box. 

No. 5. Kitchen car. The kitchen and provision room was 12X32 ft., with 
two cooking ranges. Underneath was a tank supplied by hose from the water 
car; pumps at the sinks delivered the water as needed. 

No. 6. Dining and sleeping car; double deck. On the lower floor was a 
laborers' dining room, and on the upper floor was a sleeping apartment with 
berths for 32 men. Underneath was a box for wood for fuel. 

No. 7. A box car carrying feed for the horses, and coal and wood for the 
use of the cooks. No. 8. A flat car, having at each end a wooden tank of 
2,000 gallons capacity, the tanks being connected by a pipe. No. 9. A flat 
car loaded with rails, bolts and spikes. No. 10. (Car No. 17). A flat car 
loaded with telegraph material. The double-deck dining and sleeping cars 
were 34 ft. long over the body, with a 3-ft. platform at one end; the width of 
the body was 12 ft., and the dining room and sleeping rooms had a clear head- 
way of 6 ft. 3 ins. The sleeping room had two rows of berths on each side. 
The kitchen car was of similar dimensions, but had only one floor. The 
bodies of these cars could be removed by unbolting four corner bolts which 
secured the floor beams to the car sills. 

In the extension of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. from Stockton, 
Cal., to Point Richmond, in 1899-1900, the tracklaying work was organized as 
in Table No. 21. The rails were laid with broken joints, and there were 17 
ties per rail on tangents, 18 on curves up to 3°, and 19 on curves over 3°. 
The first piece of work was practically level; the second had a descending 
grade of 1%, with curves at short intervals. The tracklaying train each 
morning carried material for one mile of track, and was made up as follows: 
Pioneer car, 3 cars of ties, 2 cars of rails, 3 caro of ties, 2 cars of rails, tool 
car. The train was pushed to the front, a certain amount of rails and ties 
unloaded, and the train then pulled back. The material unloaded was then 
placed on cars hauled by a horse, the rails ahead and the ties behind. The 
ties were carried around the rail car and distributed, after which the rails 
were thrown in place and the rail car and tie car moved forward. This was 
repeated until the supply was exhausted. Strappers and spikers followed 
the cars and partially spiked and bolted the track before the train came upon 
it. As soon as the material was laid, the train was again pushed forward 
and another lot unloaded. 

TABLE NO. 21.— TRACKLAYING; A., T. & S. F. RY. 

Track laid 10 . 74 miles. 16.6 miles. 

Average per day 2,846 ft. 3,503 ft. 

Maximum per day 5,400 ' ' 4,500 ' ' 

Rails 62Hb. 75-lb. 

Number of men, average 44 . 6 47 . 9 

Number of men for maximum day's work 57.0 52.5 

Foreman 1 Distributing spikes 1 

Subforemen 3 Spacing ties 2 

Strappers 4 Spacing rails 2 

Rail-car men 10 Back bolting 2 

Spikers 8 Tie carriers 2 

Nippers 4 Picking up material 1 

Tie lineman 1 — 

Lining ties 2 Total 52 

Tie plater 1 

The track was laid with ties which had been tie-plated in the material yard 
before being sent to the front. The tie-plates under the joints had spike holes 
punched to a different spacing from those used elsewhere under the rail, and 
as the track was laid, it was necessary for a man to take out the ordinary 
plates and replace them with the joint plates. He also had to replace any 



TRACKLAYING. 315 

tie-plates which had been shaken out during transfer to the front. The rails 
were all curved in the yard before being forwarded to the front. The rail-car 
men attended to unloading the rails from the train and loading them on the 
rail cars. They also handled the fittings, such as splices and spikes, until it 
came to distributing, when an additional man was used for distributing spikes. 
The "heelers" at the rear end of the rail unloaded from the car the splices 
at the proper places. The surfacing was done by a following gang taking 
material from the corners of the bank, throwing it between the ties and using 
it for tamping. In some cases, however, material such as sand for surfacing 
purposes was hauled onto the track, there being no ballast which, could be 
obtained at hand. The boarding train was set out at a sidetrack. 

Tracklaying by Machinery. 

Tracklaying machines are now very extensively used, not only on large 
railway contracts, but also on lengths of 50 to 100 miles. For long 
stretches of work and in difficult country (rugged or swampy), especially 
where teams cannot be used to distribute the ties ahead in the usual way, 
machine tracklaying is very extensively employed and permits great rapidity, 
with a saving in cost over the ordinary method. It is also preferable in laying 
new track, as it avoids the cutting up of the roadbed by teams hauling ties. 
The title " tracklaying machine" is rather incorrect, since the machine does 
not lay the track, the general principle of the system being that the ties and 
rails are run to the front of the supply train on rollers or tramways laid along 
the cars, and are delivered to the tracklaying gang from a frame projecting 
in front of the first or pioneer car, this car or "machine" forming the head 
of the material train. In recent improved designs, however, the rails are 
run out by overhead trolleys on a frame extending as a cantilever ahead of the 
car, and are then lowered in place. This simplifies the labor problem and 
dispenses with the large gangs of men required to handle heavy rails. The 
supplies for a day or half a day are carried on the train and delivered where 
wanted, the train being moved 30 or 60 ft. at a time, according to whether 
the rails are laid singly or in two-rail lengths. Sometimes only half the num- 
ber of ties to a rail length are laid ahead of the train, leaving the rest to be put 
in by a tie gang following the train. This somewhat reduces the close work 
of a large gang, but while a single train may perhaps not do very much dam- 
age, it is better practice to put in the full number of ties before the train runs 
over the track. There will then be less liability of injuring the rails or joints 
by surface kinking. The speed depends largely upon the ability to keep the 
machine supplied with material. On the Rio Grande, Sierra Madre & Pacific 
Ry., in 1897, the work averaged 2\ miles per day, and could have been 
increased to 3 miles if material had been supplied, but in this case teams were 
used in addition to the machine. It is possible to put on enough men to lay 
more track by hand than by machine, but this is usually more expensive. 
Mere rapidity of work is now rarely a first consideration. 

Holman System. — The tracklaying train, Fig. 203, has ordinary flat cars 
fitted on each side with tramways 20 ins. wide, having a series of iron rollers. 
These tramways are 30 ft. long, and are carried by iron brackets set in the 
stake pockets of the cars. The sections are flexibly connected between the 
cars, and extend the full length of the train, having a slight inclination towards 
the front end. The ties and rails on the cars are thrown upon these tram- 



316 



TRACK WORK. 



ways and rolled down to the front, where men receive them and place them 
in position on the roadbed. The ties (moving endways) come down on one 
side of the train, and the rails on the opposite side. The tie tramway ends 
in a chute, supported by a wire cable, which runs out 35 ft. in front of the 




train, so that the tie gang is one rail length ahead of the rail gang. The tie 
chute is adjustable laterally, so that on curves the ties are always delivered 
at the proper distance from the center line, while on bridges and trestles they 
can be delivered near the center of the track. As each rail comes down the* 



TRACKLAYING. 317 

chute it is seized by the rail gang, placed upon the ties and pushed back 
against the previous rail, the expansion spacing being arranged by the joint 
gang. The rails are usually delivered on the left side, the left rail being the 
"line" rail, from which the position of the other is gaged. A recent modi- 
fication of the machine has a cantilever frame on which travel trolleys by 
which the rails are run out. 

The pioneer car at the head of the train is fitted with an elevated frame or 
trestle, from which the chutes forming the end of the tramways are suspended. 
On this frame rides a man who signals the engineman when to push ahead; 
he also handles the brakes on the car. This car is kept at the head of the track. 
The tracklaying train is made up at the yard or siding where material is stored. 
It usually consists of three cars of rails (at the front) and six cars of rails, 
followed by the locomotive. On reaching the end of the completed track, the 
pioneer car is coupled to the head of the train, the brackets are set in the car 
pockets, and the roller tramways fitted to them. This takes about 15 min- 
utes. At the same time, the kegs of bolts and spikes are placed on the pioneer 
car, ready for distribution. The train will carry sufficient material for a half- 
day's work, or from |-mile to f-mile of track. From 1J to 2 miles of track 
per day can be laid with this equipment and a force of from 40 to 60 men, 
provided the railway company can deliver the material at the front fast enough. 
More than this can be done under favorable conditions. This includes the 
full supply of ties, laying the rails in position; joint, quarter and center spiking; 
and putting on the splice bars with two bolts to each joint. This leaves the 
track in safe condition for the construction train, and the balance of the work 
is finished behind the train. As fast as each rail length is laid, the train moves 
forward one rail length. When all the material is laid, the tramways and 
brackets are removed from the flat cars and laid at the side of the track. The 
pioneer car is uncoupled, and the train goes back to the material yard, where 
another set of cars has been loaded. 

On the Northern Pacific Ry., with the Holman system, 11,200 ft. of track 
have been laid in 10 hours with 63 men. On the Washington County Ry., 
the highest record for a 9-hour day was 10,000 ft. full tied, spiked and lined. 
This was done with a force of 110 men. Two train loads of material were 
laid each day, each train consisting of about three cars of ties and three cars 
of rails. The second train was ready at the nearest siding at noon, when the 
trains were exchanged. The ties were distributed about two rail lengths 
ahead of the rails, and the full number was always laid, as it was considered 
that with machine work it was cheaper to do this than to put in only half the 
ties in front and to lay the rest behind the train. There were usually about 
£0 men in the gang, distributed as follows: 26 running ties out; 3 running 
rails out; 8 receiving and placing rails at the front; 6 carrying ties to the 
front; 2 lining; 2 bolting up splice bars; 30 spiking; 4 lining and spacing 
ties, and 6 helping, waiting on the others, etc. On the Billings extension of 
the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry., the speed with the Holman machine 
and a force of 85 men was \\ miles per day, at a cost of about $1C0 per mile. 
There was a morning and an afternoon train, each made up of four flat cars 
of rails and four flat cars of ties ahead of the locomotive, and four box or flat 
cars of ties behind the engine. The track was laid with 65-lb. rails, and 18 
ties to a rail, or 3,168 ties per mile. The track was half-tied in front of the 
engine, the balance of the ties being put in by lifting the rails and slipping the 



318 TRACK WORK. 

ties into place. Curves of 1° to 16° were laid without any special arrange- 
ment. The force was distributed as shown in Table No. 22. 

TABLE NO. 22.— TRACKLAYING GANG WITH HOLMAN MACHINE; C, B. & Q. RY. 
43 Men. in Front of the Engine. 43 Men Behind the Engine. 



1 Foreman. 


1 Lineman. 


1 Straw boss. 


2 Spike peddlers, 


1 Heeler. 


1 Poleman and 


2 Tie unloaders. 


4 Bolters. 


4 Spikers. 


marker. 


2 Tie placers. 


1 Gage carrier. 


2 Nippers. 


4 Tie carriers. 


4 Tie spacers. 


1 Water boy. 


1 Rail thrower. 


2 Tie spacers. 


2 Rail lifters. 


2 Spike pullers. 


1 Spike peddler. 


1 Tram tender. 


12 Spikers. 


4 Liners. 


1 Gage carrier. 


1 Bolt trimmer. 


6 Nippers. 




1 Expansion driver. 


2 Bolters. 






2 Fork men. 


2 Strap carriers. 






4 Rail pullers. 


8 Tie pushers. 






1 Water boy. 


2 Tie loaders. 







Harris System. — The tracklaying train has 34-ft. flat cars specially equipped. 
The cars for carrying ties have 8-ft. ties laid across them and projecting alter- 
nately on opposite sides of the car so as to carry a running plank for the men. 
Upon these a track of 2-ft. gage is laid in the middle of the car. Each car for 
carrying rails has five long timbers (11-ft. bridge ties) laid across it, the tops 
of these being cut away at the middle to allow the rails of the 2-ft. tram track 
to be laid upon ties of the same height as those on the other cars. Between 
the rails, at each timber, is an iron roller 3|X10 ins. The tops of the rails 
of the tram track are flush with the tops of the timbers, so that the rails piled 
on either side can be thrown easily upon the rollers. These form a runway 
for conveying rails to the front. There are no rollers on the tie cars. Splice 
bars are attached to the ends of the tram rails by a single bolt through the 
end hole in the rail and the plates, the plates on adjacent cars projecting 
toward each other. When work is in progress, the gap is filled by short rails 
having the base cut off for 18 ins. at each end, the web dropping into the 
slots formed by the splice bars projecting from the fixed rails on each car. 
These connecting rails are cut short enough to avoid jamming when all slack 
in car couplings is closed up. They require no fastenings, and are retained 
at the front for use on each train. The tracklaying rails are piled upon each 
side of the cars, so as to clear the tram track. Each car carries the proper 
complement of splice bars, stored in the open spaces between the cross-ties; 
spike and bolt kegs are loaded in the runway between the rail piles and are 
afterwards moved to the end of the car, preparatory to unloading when the 
train reaches the front. 

The pioneer car has, in addition to the rail rollers and tie tramway, a pair 
of stringers extending the tram track about 20 ft. ahead of the car. The 
stringers are elevated to clear the men working on the track, and the outer 
end is supported by rods passing over a gallows frame about 10 ft. high at 
the middle of the car. A cross beam on the ends of the stringers has a cast- 
ing which projects downwards and carries a double-ended roller about 2 ft. 
below the level of the car deck. This roller is about 14 ft. from the end of 
the car for laying single rails, or 22 ft. for laying two 30-ft. rails spliced 
together. A nose piece deflects the rails to either side. Two portable "dol- 
lies" are used at intervals of 15 ft. ahead of the car. These are light frames, 
about 3^ ft. high, with sills resting across the ties; each has a roller 4X18 ins. 
on the top. The 2-ft. gage tram for the ties has a platform 5X9 ft., and is 
fitted with a double frame; when the wheels strike the chock blocks on the 
front end of the stringers, the top frame slides forward about 3 ft. on rollers. 



TRACKLAYING. 319 

This shifts the load forward, causing the car to tilt and dump the ties on the 
roadbed. The car then tilts back, and the men slip the top frame back into 
position while returning for another load. As the ties are carried crosswise, 
the men on the rail cars have to move back onto planks laid on the ends of 
the 11 -ft. timbers to allow the tram to pass. Another truck may be used to 
convey the ties part of the way from the tie cars to the front, the load being 
transferred to the dump car by a loading device at the meeting point. This 
truck is very low, and has at its front end an incline up which two men slide 
the ties to the side frames of the loader. The dump car runs under the ties, 
and trips the loader, the side frames dropping and laying the ties across the 
car. The tie trams and the pioneer car are kept at the head of the track. 
For ordinary work, the full number of ties may be laid in advance; but for 
fast work, half the ties are put in behind the train, though this practice is not 
to be recommended. 

Material for a mile of track is loaded as follows: 5 flat cars with 72 rails 
each, 5 flat cars with about 300 ties each, and 5 to 8 cars with about 1,500 ties 
in all. The engine pushes the train to the head of the track. The pioneer 
car is coupled to the front car; the short connecting rails are adjusted in the 
tie- tram track; spike and bolt kegs are taken from the runway and stored on 
the ends of the cars. The tie-tram is then run back and loaded. One man 
on each of two of the rail cars throws two rails onto the rollers. Four men 
pull these four rails forward to the pioneer car, two more men on the rear end 
of that car putting on the splice bars and two bolts, and putting in the expan- 
sion shims. The man on the rail car also throws off the splice bolts and spikes, 
as required. Meanwhile, 16 to 18 ties (for two rail lengths) have been loaded 
on the tram andjthe rail men step aside to let it pass. It dumps the ties on 
the ground, and the tie gang distributes them. When the tram is run back, 
the four rails (bolted together in pairs) are run forward over the dumping 
frame rollers onto the portable "dollies" until the rear ends are clear of the 
car. The rails on the line side are lifted from the rollers and dropped on the 
ties, thrown back against the rails already laid, and fastened to the latter by 
one bolt through the splice bars previously bolted to them. While the gage 
rails are being laid in the same way, 4 men are spiking the line side at 3 or 4 
ties per rail (quarters and centers); 4 other men follow with gages and spike 
the gage rail. At the same time 2 men are putting expansion shims at the 
heel joints of the two-rail section and half-bolting up these joints, and 2 more 
are putting the splice bars on the front end of the section, while others are 
moving the dollies ahead. The train then moves ahead 60 ft., bringing the 
front end of the pilot car about 8 ft. from the end of the rail, when another 
load of ties is dumped as before. 

Meantime, men in two of the cars at the rear of the train drop off eight or 
nine ties per rail length at each move of train, while a man on the ground sees 
that the ties do not go down the embankments, and also that the proper num- 
ber are dropped. A few men with picks and jacks then put in the back ties. 
They are followed by the back bolters, spikers and lining gang. Thus the 
track is only half-tied, half-bolted and quarter-spiked in front of train. 
Material to complete the work is distributed from the train as it advances, 
and the back gang keeps the work completed close up to the rear of the train. 
For laying track with broken joints, the ties are carried 15 ft. further ahead, 
and the four rails (two lengths of two rails each) are run out as usual. The 



320 TRACK WORK. 

line rails are dropped into place. The gage rails are run out 15 ft. further 
on the rollers of the dollies, then dropped into place and heeled back into the 
angle bars of the rails already laid. This is done while the line spikers are 
spiking their first rail, so that no time is lost, as the gage spikers start their 
work as soon as the gage rail is in position. The pioneer car may have an 
overhead projecting frame which carries hoisting trolleys equipped with rail 
tongs. A pair of trolleys takes a rail and runs it out ahead of the car, where 
it is lowered into place under the guidance of two men. 

The organization for laying two miles of track per day on the Chicago, Kan- 
sas & Nebraska Ry. was as follows: On the train: 2 bolters, 4 or 6 rail pullers, 
1 man throwing rails on rollers and dropping off bolts and spikes, 6 men hand- 
ling ties and running the tram (or 8 men with two trams); 13 to 17 men in all. 
In front of the train: 8 spikers, 4 nippers, 12 rail men, 2 bolters, 2 men mov- 
ing the "dolly," 1 handling the tie line, 1 handling the 30-ft. pole and mark- 
ing the ties, 1 spike peddler, and 1 water boy; 31 in all. Behind the train: 4 
bolters, 12 to 14 men with two track jacks and some picks, pulling in and 
spacing the additional ties, 16 to 20 spikers, 8 to 10 nippers, 5 liners, 2 spike 
peddlers, 1 tie marker and 1 water boy, or 49 to 57 in all. The complete crew 
would consist of 1 general foreman, 1 heeler acting as foreman of the front gang, 
1 foreman in charge of the back spikers, 1 foreman of tie gang, 1 subforeman 
lining track, and 100 to 115 laborers. The tie markers carried a measuring board, 
which they placed on the line end of every tie, striking a chalk line across (16 
ins. from the end of the tie) to guide the spikers in keeping ties in line. With 
four quick bolters in front, easy-fitting bolts, and a well-trained front gang, 
a 60-ft. section was often laid in 2\ minutes. Owing to delays in switching 
and running to and from work, the force never worked 10 hours consecutively, 
but over two miles of track were usually laid in 9 hours' steady work. 

Roberts System. — The flat cars are fitted with runways on each side, these 
being supported by brackets inserted from the bottom of the stake pockets. 
The special feature is that the rollers of these runways are driven by power. 
Each 34-ft. runway has a shaft, with bevel gears to the rollers, and these shafts 
are connected by universal couplings, while the runways also have flexible 
connections between the cars. Sectional corrugated rollers are used for the 
ties. Between these driven rollers are smaller dead rollers whose faces are 
about 1 in. below the live rollers. In the rail runway, the rollers are double, 
one for each line of rails. The shafts are driven from an engine on the pioneer 
car, taking steam from the locomotive. Friction clutches allow of stopping 
and starting each line of shafting independently of the other. The ties are 
delivered 60 ft. ahead of the pioneer car, so that they are distributed well in 
advance of the rails. The rails are delivered 6 ft. ahead of the car, at a height 
convenient for handling by the rail gang. This arrangement puts the heel 
joint 8 or 10 ft. ahead of the car. On the front end of the car are the splice 
bars, bolts and spikes; tools and a few short rails can be carried at the rear 
end. The tracklaying train is made up with the rail cars in front of the loco- 
motive and the tie cars behind. 

In 1905, tracklaying by this system on the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. 
Marie Ry. averaged 2.1 miles of main track per day, with sidings in addition. 
The average force was 110 men (130 for a full crew), and could lay 6,500 ft. 
of track in 3.J hours. The track had 3,000 ties per mile, and was spiked and 
lined. The system was also used in 1905 on the Chicago, Indiana & Southern 



TRACKLAYING. 321 

Ry., where the sidings for material were ten miles apart. The track was not 
full spiked and bolted ahead of the train, but the average progress was about 
one mile of track per day (full tied, spiked and bolted). Behind the track- 
laying train was a surfacing gang of about 160 men. The distribution of the 
tracklaying gang (averaging 100 men) is shown in Table No. 23: 

TABLE NO. 23— TRACKLAYING GANG WITH ROBERTS MACHINE; C, I. & S. RY. 

With the Train. Behind the Train. 

1 Foreman. 2 Foremen. 

1 Engineman on pioneer car. 2 Distributing spikes and bolts. 
6 Throwing ties into runway. 24 Back spikers. 

2 Throwing rails into runway. 12 Back nippers. 

1 Distributing splice bars, bolts and spikes 4 Back strappers. 

ahead. 6 Spacing and lining ties. 

12 Receiving and placing ties. 6 Lining track. 

11 Receiving and placing rails. 
4 Strappers putting on splices. 

2 Tie liners. 

40 56 

Hurley System. — This differs essentially from the other systems described. 
The pioneer car is self-propelling and can haul a train of 15 supply cars. It 
resembles a large box car, and is carried on three trucks, each of which is driven 
by power. Upon it are two engines of 100 HP. Next to this is a car with 
coal and water. The cars with rails are at the rear of the train, which is the 
reverse of ordinary practice. A steel truss projects 60 ft. ahead of the pioneer 
car, and is about 8 ft. above the track. Rails are handled by trolleys on the 
bottom chords, while ties are handled by a chain conveyor passing over the 
top chords (which form an incline at the front end). On the floor of each 
flat car are pairs of flanged rollers, 7 ft. apart transversely, and on the tie cars 
the ties are supported about 12 ins. above the floor to clear these rollers. The 
machine hauls forward along the train two continuous strings of rails, by means 
of a pair of driven rollers between which the rails are gripped. The men on 
the rail cars drop rails upon the runway rollers, and attach the angle bars 
by a single bolt to each rail. The rails thus form a conveyor upon which the 
ties are placed, the proper number to each rail length. On reaching the pio- 
neer car, the ties are delivered to the chain conveyor passing along the top of 
the cantilever truss. As each rail passes through the driving rolls, it is dis- 
connected at the heel, and is attached to rail tongs on trolleys which run it 
out ahead of the car. As it is lowered, the loose splice bars at the heel spread 
to pass over the head of the previous rail and are then temporarily secured 
by a clamp. The train moves forward while the joint is being completed and 
the rail quarter spiked. Each side is worked independently, so that the rails 
can be laid with even or broken joints, as may be required. The cantilever 
truss is high enough from the ground to clear the men, and it can be swung 
on curves to deliver the material at the proper position on the roadbed. This 
equipment has been used on several roads, and has handled 100-lb. rails on the 
Bessemer & Lake Erie Ry. About 2 J miles can be laid in a 10-hour day with 
a gang of 40 competent men. 

Westcott System. — The special features of this are the rail-handling device 
and the rail and tie conveyors operated by power. The pioneer car is a flat 
car, having at the ends vertical steel frames which support a pair of triangular 
trusses with horizontal bottom chords. This structure extends as a cantilever 



322 TRACK WORK. 

about 20 ft. beyond the car. On each bottom chord run two hoisting trolleys 
having cables attached to rail tongs. Each truss has two air-cylinders with 
cables led to the trolleys; one serves to run them forward and the other to pull 
them back. Along the middle of the car, and projecting about 15 ft. in front 
of it, is a conveyor for delivering the ties at the head of the machine. Behind 
the tracklayer car are cars with rails sufficient for about 1,000 ft. of track, and 
having a conveyor (above the floor) which extends to the pioneer car. Behind 
this again are the cars with ties which are fitted with a conveyor extending 
under the rail conveyor and beyond it in front of the machine. Behind the 
tie cars and next to the locomotive is a car carrying supplies and having a 
steam engine which operates the conveyors. The movements of the trolleys 
and conveyors are controlled by a man stationed above the pioneer car. 

Two rails are run out and lowered into position upon the ties. They are 
then bolted at the heel joints and temporarily connected with bridle bars to 
hold them to gage. The train then moves ahead, and as soon as it comes to 
a stop the conveyor is started, delivering the ties already in the trough. While 
the train is moving ahead and the ties are being distributed, the rail trolleys 
are run back and their tongs are attached to another pair of rails on the con- 
veyor at ths middle of the car. These are then swung to the sides and run 
out ahead of the machine, ready to be lowered in place as soon as the ties are 
laid. The spiking gang follows the tracklaying train, and spikes the rails while 
the ties are being distributed. This machine was used on the Pacific Trac- 
tion Co.'s electric interurban line at Tacoma, Wash. The rails were 33 ft. 
long, and from 2 to 2 J miles per day could be laid with the following force: 
1 foreman, 4 men to operate the machine and feed ties and rails, 6 men to dis- 
tribute and space ties, 4 strappers, 8 spikers, 4 nippers, and 1 spike peddler. 

A combination method of working, in which the ties were distributed by 
teams and the rails were handled by runways and the pioneer car, has been 
used by the Canadian Northern Ry. The tracklaying train consisted of the 
pioneer car at the head, then the flat cars of rails, and then the engine; behind 
this were the cars of ties and bridge material. The full number of ties were 
laid ahead of the train, and the rails were spiked at joints, quarters and cen- 
ters. The bolting and spiking were completed close to the rear of the train. 
The pioneer car had an elevated platform or cabin for a man with a flag to 
signal the engineman when to move ahead as each rail length of track was 
laid. The rails were run to the front in roller-ways or chutes attached to the 
sides of the flat cars. These chutes were about 30 ft. long, composed of two 
timbers 3X8 ins., 16 ins. apart, held together by bolts with spacing sleeves; 
journaled in the side timbers were 4-in. rollers (having collars on the ends), 
about 3 ft. apart. The ties were hauled ahead of the train by teams, about 
50 teams being employed. These averaged 25 ties each, but the number 
varied, depending upon the nature of the ground over which they had to be 
hauled. The sidings for material trains were about 7 miles apart. The board- 
ing train consisted of sleeping and dining cars, timekeeper's car with stores, 
supply cars, and a car for the general foreman. Double-deck sleeping cars 
were used on some of these trains. All bridge material (piles, posts, caps, 
stringers, etc.) was kept on the rear of the tracklaying train and hauled ahead 
by teams to the various structures. The timber was erected by bridge gangs 
ahead of the track, and the tracklaying train crossed the bridges when laid 
with half the complement of stringers and common track ties. The addi- 



TRACKLAYING. 323 

tional stringers, the proper bridge ties (12 ft. long), and the guard rails, were 
placed by a gang in the rear of the tracklaying gang. 

, The tracklaying gang was exceptionally large, averaging about 240 men, 
and worked from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m. It laid an average of 2.25 miles per day, or 

17 miles per week, the maximum record being 3.7 miles in one day. Three 
(and sometimes four) gangs followed the tracklayers, surfacing and lining 
the track; each of these gangs consisted of 80 to 100 men. The distribution 
of men in the tracklaying gangs for laying 3 \ miles of track per day is given 
in Table No. 24. The extra men to lay sidings and to finish work behind the 
tracklaying gang proper bring the full force up to about 240 men. 

TABLE NO. 24.— TRACKLAYING GANG; CANADIAN NORTHERN RY. 

In Front of Engine. In Rear of Engine. 

1 Foreman. 1 Foreman. 
8 Rail pullers. 24 Spikers. 

2 Line men. 12 Bolters. 
14 Tie men. 6 Nippers. 

4 Spikers. 3 Spike distributors. 

2 Nippers. 1 Putting in bolts. 

18 Steel men (handling rails on both sides of 1 Water boy. 

car). 6 Liners. 

1 Liner. 6 Tie men. 

1 Gage man. 80 Men handling ties, including teamsters. 

1 Tie marker. 1 Blacksmith. 

4 Bolters. 2 Cooks. 

4 Loading steel on trams. 4 Helpers. 

1 Timekeeper and storekeeper. 

60 Total. 148 Total. 



CHAPTER 19.— BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 

Ballasting. 

The ballasting of track is a work which has to be done both as construction 
and maintenance work. In the latter case it is required for increasing the quan- 
tity and improving the quality of the original ballasting. In constructing 
the track for a new line, the ties are first laid upon the subgrade, and when the 
rails have been laid earth is tamped under the ties and the track is lined and 
surfaced to make it safe for the ballast trains. When the ballast is deposited 
the track is raised by jacks and the material filled in beneath the ties. In 
some cases, however, the track is jacked and blocked up above the subgrade 
before the ballast is distributed. For stone ballast, the ties may be blocked 
up 4 to 6 ins. with spalls or flat stones; the ballast train is then run upon the 
track, and the material filled and tamped under the ties. This will suffice to 
carry the construction traffic, after which the track is raised for another fill- 
ing of 4 to 8 ins. to give the standard depth of ballast. Whether the track 
is raised before or after the ballast is deposited, it is liable to injury by traffic, 
causing vertical kinks in the rails and at the joints. For this reason, as little 
traffic as possible should be run over a half-tied and unballasted track, but 
this is often neglected in actual work. The English practice is to use a tem- 
porary track of old rails for the construction trains and ballast trains. When 
the track is properly ballasted the regular rails are then laid for the permanent 
track. This is the origin of the term "permanent way" as applied to track. 
It is not intended to indicate (as is often assumed in this country) that the 



324 TRACK WORK. 

track itself is permanent, but to distinguish the regular or " permanent" track 
from the temporary construction track. 

Grade or ballast stakes are set generally for the level of top of rail. These 
are set on both sides of the track, about 5 ft. from the center line, or 4 ft. from 
the rail on one side only. Their location should be governed by the question 
of avoiding disturbance by the dumping of the ballast. This will differ a little 
according to the style of cars and unloading of ballast; and (on double track) 
according to whether one of the two tracks is an old track where no change 
is to be made and where a grade stake for top of track can be set safely with- 
out fear of its being disturbed. The stakes are set at all points where changes 
of grade occur. They are also set at intervals of 100 ft. on tangents and 50 
ft. on curves, giving the proper elevation for curves. On curves, the stakes 
are usually set for the inner or lower rail, this rail being kept at grade and the 
superelevation put entirely in the outer rail. On roads using spiral transition 
curves, grade stakes are also set opposite the P.C. and P.T. and at each change 
point of the spiral. Large stakes or posts are sometimes set clear of the road- 
bed at these points and at the beginning and end of curves. At grade inter- 
sections where vertical curves are used, the stakes are set for the proper profile. 
A red chalk mark should be made on top of every grade stake whose top is 
intended to be the exact top of rail level. Otherwise the stake should be dis- 
tinctly marked to indicate the distance above or below top of stake for grade. 
These stakes should not be set until they are needed, as if set ahead of the 
tracklayers they are pretty sure to be disturbed. No care is required in secur- 
ing an exact distance from center line; in fact, if they are set in an irregular 
line, inexperienced men are less likely to mistake them for center-line stakes. 

The ballast should not be distributed until the banks are properly completed 
and the roadbed is finished to the standard cross section, so that the material 
will not be mixed with the earth and clay of the roadbed. If the stakes show 
too little or too great a depth, the roadbed should be trimmed or filled accord- 
ingly. In ballasting, all earth above the bottom of ties should be removed; 
and in reballasting, all old and dirty material between the ties should be 
removed. Old broken-stone ballast may be shoveled out and then handled 
and put back with forks, thus freeing it from dirt. Where a good supply of 
gravel is available, it will be found economical to have gravel trains at work 
to keep the track well ballasted, as this will tend to reduce the maintenance 
work in wet weather, or in winter when the frost is in the ground. On the 
other hand, it must be recognized that ballast is usually somewhat expensive, 
and should not be used for filling sags or for other work where cheaper material 
would suffice. The minimum depth of ballast under the ties should be 8 ins. 
or 12 ins. for first-class track. The cost of ballasting with 6 ins. of gravel 
below the ties has been estimated at $580 per mile of single track, of which 
$320 is for delivering the gravel and $260 for putting it in the track. This 
is based on 30 miles average haul; $15.11 per day for engine, train and crew, 
and 11 cts. per hour for labor. The cost of train includes engineman, fire- 
man, flagman and conductor; the latter acts as foreman of the gang. The 
work may be done in the spring, before tie renewals are made, so that when 
the ties are renewed and tamped the track is left in finished condition. 

The ballast is generally loaded onto the cars by a steam shovel. A conveyor 
may be used, fed by a shoveling gang, and the men's scoops may be suspended 
from an overhead frame so they do not have to lift each load in taking it from 



BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 325 

the bank to the conveyor boot. Ballast is sometimes carried on flat cars with 
low hinged sides, or sides of loose boards supported by short stakes in the 
Stake pockets. On important work, however, gondola cars are more gener- 
ally used, whether for depositing the load by hand shoveling, plowing or dump- 
ing. Several roads use such cars 40 ft. long, of 32 cu. yds. capacity (50 tons 
nominal load capacity), with sides 3 ft. high. Each side is formed by a series 
of doors hinged at the top and locked by cams on a shaft running along the 
sill. When the doors are released by turning the shaft, the material can be 
shoveled or plowed out through the sides. A flat car 33 ft. long and 9 ft. wide 
can be loaded with 10 to 12 cu. yds. of ballast, or 14 to 15 cu. yds. if 12-in. side 
boards are used. Hand shoveling for unloading is slow and expensive, unless 
for small pieces of work or where small quantities have to be thrown off various 
points. It is sometimes preferred, however, on extensive work for additional 
tracks (where the ballast trains do not block traffic) and for reballasting; in 
such cases, the same gangs unload the trains and then put the ballast under 
the ties. To avoid surface bending of the rails by trains running over loosely 
ballasted track, the ballast of each train load should be thoroughly tamped 
as soon as it is put into the track. 

Ballast is more generally unloaded by plowing or dumping. In the former 
case, the cars must be connected by iron aprons to prevent material falling 
on the rails, and gondola cars must have the end gates removed. The side 
boards must be removed from flat cars, and the side doors of gondolas 
released. On the rear car of the train is a heavily weighted wedge-shaped 
plow, extending the full width of the car, and shaped to throw the material 
off on one or both sides. It is guided by side stakes on the cars. To the nose 
of the plow is attached a steel cable extending over the cars, and led through 
pulleys or snatch blocks on chains attached to the sides of the cars if the unload- 
ing is to be done on a curve. If the plowing is done by the locomotive, the 
train is stopped at the place where the ballast is to be unloaded, and the car 
brakes are set. The cable is attached to the locomotive, which is uncoupled, 
and moves slowly ahead, hauling the plow along the cars. With loose gravel, 
the engine can be run at about 4 to 6 miles per hour. When the plow has been 
drawn the length of the train, the cable is unhooked and thrown to the side 
of the track. The end may be hitched to a stand resembling a mail crane. 
As the next train runs slowly by, the end of the cable is attached to the loco- 
motive and the stand lays it in position along the cars. The cable is thus 
handled by one man, while in ordinary practice it takes several men a con- 
siderable time to place the heavy steel cable on the cars. 

When plowing ballast in this way, the entire train load must be deposited 
at one place. A more convenient arrangement, however, is to use a "rapid 
unloader," in which the cable is operated by a winding engine mounted on 
a car next to the locomotive, steam being supplied from the locomotive or 
from a boiler on the car. With a train made up in this way the material may 
be dumped in one place or at several places; or any desired quantity can be 
unloaded and distributed by the locomotive moving the train ahead while 
the plow is being hauled along the train. The locomotives of ballast trains 
(and work trains generally) should be kept equipped with jacks and wreck- 
ing frogs. Derailments are liable to occur, and if these devices are not at 
hand much valuable time may be lost and traffic perhaps blocked. 

Various forms of dump cars are used in ballasting and filling, and should 



326 TRACK WORK. 

allow of regulating the quantity dumped. The Rodger cars are 34 or 40 ft. 
long, of 30 to 50 cu. yds. capacity (40 to 50 tons nominal load capacity). The 
bottom forms a longitudinal hopper, with doors to deliver the ballast in the 
middle of the track. The hopper doors are opened to any desired width (up 
to 22 ins.) by levers at the ends of the cars, the quantity delivered per yard 
of track being governed by the speed of the train and the width of hopper 
opening. Under the rear car is a steel plow which can be raised or lowered 
and rides on the rails when in use.. As the train moves, the ballast between 
the rails is plowed down between the ties and out over the rails (the rails being 
cleared by flangers), so that it is ready to be put under the ties as soon as the 
track is raised by jacks. The train can be run at the rate of 3 to 5 miles per 
hour while delivering the ballast. The Pratt cars used on the New York, 
New Haven & Hartford Ry. are of 25 cu. yds. capacity. They are 28 ft. long 
inside, and weigh about 25,000 lbs. empty. The sides are made in two parts, 
divided horizontally. When the train stops, the upper half of the side of the 
car is swung down, and half the load dumped. The train then moves on a 
train length and the lower half of the side is swung up, dumping the rest of 
the load. In the Goodwin steel cars, only the top 18 ins. of the side is fixed; 
doors inclined inward form the lower part, resting on a movable bottom piece 
at the center of the car. Inclined aprons extend over the wheels. The cars 
have a capacity of 28 to 30 cu. yds., and can be dumped by hand or by air, 
while the train is moving at 5 to 8 miles an hour. The material is deposited 
on either side or both sides or between the rails. 

The Louisville & Nashville Ry. handles slag ballast in 22-yd. hopper-bottom 
center-dump cars of its own design. Each car has at the front end a tie or 
plow laid across the rails, instead of leveling off the whole train load by a plow 
at the rear of the train. Many roads haul ballast, cinders, etc., in cars hav- 
ing the bottom sloped from the middle to each side, the material sliding out as 
soon as the sides are removed or released. As ballast trains are expensive 
and cause delay to regular trains, the plan is sometimes adopted of delivering 
small quantities for repair work by means of dump cars hauled in local freight 
trains. For such work the Michigan Central Ry. uses special cars of 25 to 30 
cu. yds. capacity; the bottom slopes steeply to each side, and two transverse 
bulkheads form six pockets or compartments. Each pocket has a swinging 
door at the side of the car, and a swinging board half way up the slope, sub- 
dividing the pocket. Thus a large or small amount of ballast can be dumped 
at any point, as desired. A few of these cars are put together in a freight train, 
and stopped at the required spot (marked by stakes). The trainmen release 
the outer doors, the amount of ballast being sufficient for a raise of 6 to 8 ins. 
in the length of the car. The train then moves on, and the inner doors are 
released, depositing the same amount of material beyond the first lot. A 
similar plan is used by the Delaware & Hudson Ry., but the cars are set out 
of the freight trains at specified points and then taken by work-train engines. 

In all cases where ballast is deposited between the rails, care must be taken 
to control the flow, otherwise the ballast may flood the track, covering the 
rails and blocking the wheels so as to stall the train. The bottom doors cannot 
then be closed, and as fast as the material is dug out from the side it will flow 
in until the cars are empty. Ballast deposited outside the rails must be kept 
clear of engine cylinders and car steps. Ballast trains with 22-yd. center-dump 
cars on the Louisville & Nashville Ry. average 15 cars each, with a foreman 



BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 327 

and six shovelers in addition to the train crew. On the .Chicago, Rock Island 
& Pacific Ry., trains with 15 to 25 center-dump 30-yd. cars were handled by 
a conductor and two or three brakemen; no sectionmen or extra men were 
on the train. On the Delaware & Hudson Ry. four men operated a train of 
center-dump cars, while three operated a train of 20 flat cars (10 yds. per car) 
with rapid-unloader plow; one man operated the plow engine and two 
handled the cable and snatch blocks. With freely running material, a 30-yd. 
car load deposited at a speed of 3 to 4 miles an hour will suffice for a raise of 
4 to 6 ins. For new track, the Chicago & Eastern Illinois Ry. has made one 
run with cars dumping at the middle, and a second run with the same cars 
dumping at one side. For reballasting, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 
Ry. used 25-car trains of washed gravel, with 50 men per train to dig out the 
old and put in the new ballast. 

When the ballast is distributed, the track is raised by jacks (both sides at 
once) for a distance of about 100 ft., and properly lined. The ballast is then 
thrown between the rails and tamped under the ties. Two lifts are usually 
made, and the inclined parts approaching the raised portion must be made 
solid enough to prevent injury to the rails and joints by passing trains. The 
shoveling of the ballast from the sides to the middle of the track may be avoided 
by the use of center-dump cars, as mentioned above. When earth ballast is 
to be replaced with gravel, the earth between the ties is first dug out. A train 
load of gravel (giving about 15 cu. yds. per car length) is deposited, and is 
packed down to make room for another load, filling it in level with the tops 
of the ties. The track is then raised by jacks, and the gravel shoveled under 
the ties, after which another load of ballast is deposited. The track is then 
again raised, the ties are spaced properly, the final tamping done, the track 
lined and surfaced, and the ballast finally dressed to the required cross section. 
Newly ballasted track will not long remain in good surface, the material set- 
tling unevenly. The section foremen must therefore keep close watch of it, 
going over it every few days to fill and tamp low spots. 

Ballast for new parallel tracks may be deposited at the side of the existing 
track, and thrown into place by a spreader car at the rear of the train. This 
has an adjustable wing hinged to a frame at the side of the car, and will spread 
and level the material to a width of 15 to 20 ft., on one or both sides. The car 
is usually a heavy flat car with a gallows frame or side posts, from which run 
stays to the outer end of the hinged spreader or wing, which is 20 ft. to 30 ft. 
long, built of plank and faced with iron. Adjustable braces are fitted between 
the wing and the sills of the car, and it can he raised and lowered or adjusted 
as to position by chains or air cylinders. When not in use, the wings are raised 
and folded back against the side of the car. In building the additional tracks 
for the four-tracking of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., a tempo- 
rary track of old material was first laid on the subgrade. The stone ballast 
was then deposited, the temporary track being raised by jacks to the proper 
grade. The permanent track was then laid, and thoroughly tamped, Lurfaced 
and lined. The ballast was carried on 10-yd. drop-side flat cars, and unloaded 
by hand. From this first new track the ballast for the two adjoining tracks 
was then unloaded, and spread to the level of the bottom of the ties. On the 
bed thus prepared the new tracks were laid, and were at once ready for slow 
trains. It will readily be seen how the ballast may be distributed and leveled 
for any number of parallel tracks after the first track has been laid. With 



328 TRACK WORK. 

movable pieces or mold boards attached to the bottom of the wing, the bal- 
last can be trimmed to the required cross section, and ditches can be cleaned. 
(See "Ditching.") The machine can also be used in clearing snow. 

Renewing Rails. 

This work should be done from late in the spring to early in the autumn. 
It is often done at whatever time the new rails can be obtained, even in win- 
ter, but this is bad practice. The adzing and trimming of ties for the new 
rails should be done in advance. The laying of rails should be done under the 
supervision of the division engineer (or his assistant) and the roadmaster. 
The superintendent should be informed, in order that train dispatchers may 
be notified and handle traffic accordingly. Where the traffic is heavy, a tele- 
graph operator should be with the work to keep the foreman informed as to 
train movements and delayed trains. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 
Ry. a portable telephone equipment is used, hooking upon the wires, to enable 
the foreman to keep in touch with the nearest operators. Flagmen should 
be sent out, and in some cases every train is required to come to a stop and 
then pull slowly over the work. This is not generally considered necessary, 
as it may tend to block traffic. It is also liable to cause trouble from coup- 
lers parting when heavy trains start after being stopped. The work should 
be done as rapidly as is consistent with good work, but safety and good work 
are of more importance than speed. Special care must be given to the expan- 
sion spacing at joints, the spacing being given by L-shaped iron shims of thick- 
ness suitable to the temperature. (See " Rails.") Each shim may be marked 
with its thickness and the range of temperature for which it is to be used, and 
the foremen should be provided with thermometers. On the Eastern Ry. of 
France, the width of spacing is governed by the temperature of the rail instead 
of that of the atmosphere, and a special form of thermometer is used. The 
width is obtained by a formula in which A is the expansion spacing (milli- 
meters), B is the maximum temperature which the rails can attain in summer 
(generally taken as 40° C), C is the temperature of the rail when laid (degrees 
centigrade), and D is the length of rail (meters): A = (B — C) 0.0122D. 

In laying new rails on a section there are two principal methods of practice. 
One method is to lay the new rails along the ends of the ties, to fully bolt up 
the joints, and then to take up the old rails and throw in the string of new 
rails. The other method is to lay in one rail at a time. There is also a com- 
promise method, by which the rails are bolted together in lengths of five or 
six, the intermediate joints being left open, to be bolted up when the rails are 
in the track. The details of the work and the distribution of the men depend 
largely upon the traffic, and vary considerably on different roads. Some- 
what different methods may be followed where the track can be given up to 
the roadway department (either on single-track or double- track roads) for a 
certain time by arrangement with the superintendent or train dispatcher. 
The method of working on double track on the Boston & Albany Ry. is as 
follows : The rails unloaded from the work train are placed along the ends of the 
ties by the section men, all being placed with the brand outside. Care is taken 
to set the joints correctly, and to use occasional 28-ft. rails on the inside of 
curves to maintain the proper relation of the joints. The rails are then bent 
for the curves, and, if necessary, straightened for the tangents, it being found 
that from 20% to 50% of the rails require to be straightened. The splice 



BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 329 

bars, bolts, nuts and spikes are properly distributed, and the ties are adzed 
as far as possible at the rail seats. If tie-plates are used, this work will be 
greatly reduced, but if the new rails have a different width of base from the old 
ones, necessitating the removal and replacing of the plates, then new seats 
should be adzed for the tie-plates. A large force of men is now employed to 
cover the greatest length of one track that can be dealt with at one time, this 
track being closed to traffic meanwhile. From 3 to 5 miles is a fair day's work, 
varying with the number of switches, but 8 and 10 miles have been relayed in 
a day of 10 hours. 

With a force of 200 men, three gangs of 12 men each pull all the spikes except 
those on the inside of the right-hand rail. Men with ordinary clawbars start 
the spikes, others have goose-neck clawbars to pull them out. Then come the 
men who throw the old rails with crowbars; there are 3 or 4 men to each line 
of rails, the joints being unbroken except at long intervals. These are fol- 
lowed by 20 or 30 men who finish the work of adzing the rail seats, while 3 or 
4 men of this gang have brooms to sweep chips and dirt off the ties. To remove 
old tie-plates and adze the rail seats where necessary will require about the 
same number of men as where no tie-plates are used. Then come the two 
setting-in gangs, 16 on each side, the 16 men lifting one 95-lb. rail with tongs 
and dropping it in place on the ties, while the foreman puts in iron spacing 
shims of the required thickness. Sometimes the rails are bolted up in pairs, 
in which case there are 32 men to each line of rails. These are followed by 
the strappers, who put on the splice bars, and bolt up each joint fully and 
tightly. The number of men in this gang will depend upon how well the nuts 
fit the bolts. If the nuts can be brought to a bearing on the splice bars with 
the fingers, 20 men will be sufficient, but if a wrench must be used to screw the 
nut all the way on, 40 men may be necessary. After them comes the spiking 
gang of 30 men; these work in groups of three, one man having a lining bar and 
the others having spike mauls. The leading group works on the right-hand rail, 
forcing the : ail home against the old inside spikes, and driving the new outside 
spikes. The other gangs, or "gagers," have each a track gage, and set and 
spike the left-hand rails to the proper gage. They also shift any ties that 
may have been misplaced, and tamp those which do not give a full bearing 
to the rail. The whole series of operations occupies about half an hour. A 
separate gang under its own foreman puts in the switches. The work train 
follows the men, its crew picking up stray tools or supplies and seeing that 
the track is in safe and proper condition. When the work is complete, the 
track is again thrown open to traffic. After this, the section men unbolt the 
joints of the old rail, put the splice bars and bolts together, and throw the rails 
between the tracks ready for loading. The ties are also respaced as required, 
more or less of this work being always necessary; tie-plates are put on if 
required, and the track gaged and respiked. It is then surfaced and finally 
lined. As soon as the track has been laid by the relaying gangs, the rails are 
drilled for the bond wires of the signal system, and the creeper plates are put on. 

Laying Rails in Strings. — This method is not extensively used, and mainly 
where the traffic is only moderately heavy. All the preliminary work, and 
the bolting up of the new rails laid on the ends of the ties, is done while the 
traffic is passing. The rails are then thrown into place in strings as long as 
the intervals between trains will permit. One objection is the difficulty of 
insuring uniform expansion spacing, and much time is apt to be lost in 



330 TRACK WORK. 

properly connecting up with the old rail and adjusting the expansion spac- 
ing of the string of rails when in position. On curves the new rails may be 
laid 12 ins. from the old rails. Those for the outside of the curve are given 
more and those for the inside less expansion spacing than on tangents, at the 
rate of |-in. per 100 ft. length (that is for four joints) per degree of curve. The 
bolts should also be left somewhat slack, and the expansion spacing regulated 
and bolts tightened as soon as the rails are thrown into position. The joints 
between tangent and curve rails should be left open. The spacing may be 
preserved from change during the work by having all joint ties in proper posi- 
tion and driving the spikes in the slots or at the ends of the angle bars as fast 
as each joint is reached. Usually only one line of rails is laid at a time, but 
both may be laid together if desired, one gang being 10 to 15 rail lengths ahead 
of the other, so as to avoid interference. In any case, the second line of rails 
should be laid as soon as possible after the first. Care should be taken to avoid 
bending the splice bars by hurriedly throwing the string of new rails into posi- 
tion with bars. The iron expansion shims are put in when the strings of rails 
are bolted up, and are left until the rails are thrown into position. Two men 
may then remove them, one raising the joint with a bar to enable the other 
to take out the shim. Accurate work can be done with proper care, but it is 
generally considered that better results and more uniform joint spacing can 
be obtained by laying rails singly. 

At the heel or first connection of the string, a spike is driven to keep the 
rails from being forced backward. The head connections may not fit closely, 
however, owing to variations in expansion and to slight variations in length 
of old and new rails. For this reason it is sometimes necessary to move a string 
of rails endways. A string of 20 to 50 rails can be removed by from 4 to 8 
men with bars placed at intervals of about 6 rails. They place the bars 
so as to get a bearing against the ends of the angle bars and pull together at 
a signal. If a work engine is available, a string of rails can be moved by a 
rope or chain. The foreman should arrange with the train dispatcher to per- 
form the work at times when it will least interfere with the movement of trains. 
He should then lay the longest stretch that can be properly taken care of in 
the time available, and have the track finished up before the next train is due. 
The work should not be done hurriedly. 

Laying Single Rails. — The most general practice, especially where the traffic 
is heavy, is to lay a rail at a time, keeping the track all finished up behind the 
gang. This method requires a larger gang, as several men are required to lift 
and move single rails, while two or four men with bars can easily shift a string 
of rails. The men in the larger gang also work somewhat at a disadvantage 
by being more crowded. There is the advantage that every interval between 
trains can be utilized, but if the traffic is exceptionally heavy, much time may 
be lost in disconnecting and connecting up for each move. A flagman (or 
two flagmen on single track) must be kept out all the time, while under the 
former method this is required only when the string of rails is being thrown in. 

The practice on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. is to lay single 
rails, and before this is commenced the ties are carefully adzed, bad spikes 
are removed and old broken spike stubs are driven down. A gang of 54 to 56 
men is employed. In advance are 8 men pulling spikes, and when the spikes 
are drawn and holes plugged, 2 men push out the old 30-ft. 80-lb. rail. With 
new 33-ft. 100-lb. rails there are 18 men with rail tongs to set the rail in place; 



BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 331 

12 to 14 men putting on splice bars and tightening bolts, 2 men with splice 
clamps forcing the new splice bars into place, and 12 men finishing up the spik- 
ing. As a rule both sides of the track are done at the same time. The work 
advances rapidly, and 4,000 to 5,000 ft. of track per day can be done. Imme- 
diately after the rails are laid, an extra gang puts in what new ties are neces- 
sary, spaces them to fit the new joints, and gages the new rails. Behind this 
gang comes the regular section gang to do the surfacing and lining; this work 
is kept close to the extra or tie gang, so that each day's work is finished as 
completely as possible. On the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. the work 
is done in much the same way, but with a gang of 65 to 85 men, and laying 
from 50 to 85 ft. per man per day, according to conditions and number of trains. 

The practice on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., with new and 
old rails of 100 lbs. per yd., is as follows: When new rails are received at the 
yards, they are distributed by work trains, unloaded carefully and placed with 
the brand on the outside. A gang then places them in convenient position 
to be laid in the track. Another gang adzes the ties so that spikes may be 
pulled easily, and the ties are adzed to a level after the old rail is thrown in. 
When the new rails are to be placed, all the spikes are pulled from the inside 
of the rail, and the old rail is thrown in. All spike holes are plugged, the rail 
seats leveled, and new rails placed in position one at a time. As soon as the 
rail is dropped in place, allowing the necessary expansion, the next gang puts 
in the bolts and does the spiking. The old rails, when thrown in and unbolted, are 
picked up by the work train, and stored or distributed at such points as may 
be specified. A good gang will be composed of 80 men, as follows: 20 pulling 
spikes, 4 throwing in the old rail, 16 adzing or leveling the ties, 12 placing the 
new rail, 12 bolting, 8 spiking, and 8 finishing up in the rear. Such a gang with 
a foreman and assistant foreman should be able to lay about two miles of track 
per day when it has only an occasional train to interfere with the work. 

For still larger gangs, laying one mile of track per day with 85-lb. rails, the 
organization on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. is about as follows: 

1 foreman, 5 assistant foremen (1 for spike pulling and adzing, 1 for spiking 
and bolting, 1 for distributing and picking up, 2 for tie spacing), 1 timekeeper, 
12 men unloading and loading, 2 (ahead) putting on splice bars, 14 pulling 
spikes (2 with mauls), 2 throwing out old rail with lining bars, 1 cleaning ties 
with broom, 12 adzing ties, 12 with rail tongs, 7 bolting, 18 spiking, 3 holding 
ties with bars for spikers, 1 distributing bolts, 1 with expansion shims, 68 spac- 
ing ties, 1 with push car for joints and fastenings for closing up connections, 

2 flagging, 2 water boys; total, 158. Gangs of over 50 men should have a 
foreman, two (or more) assistant foremen, and a timekeeper. As to relay- 
ing with long rails, the Norfolk & Western Ry. has found it possible to lay 
1,500 to 3,000 ft. of track per day with 60-ft. 85-lb. rails, without interruption 
to a heavy traffic. The force consisted of 10 men pulling spikes and throw- 
ing out old rails, 16 men putting in new rails, 4 men putting in joints, and 4 or 
6 men spiking joints, centers and quarters. There was no appreciable differ- 
ence in speed between the laying of 60-ft. and 30-ft. rails. The joints had 
outside angle bars and 8-in. inside fish plates with two holes, so that no inside 
spikes had to be drawn. Afterwards the Churchill joint was applied. 

Relaying rails where trains pass every few minutes is close work, which 
is necessary on rapid-transit railways. On the New York Elevated Ry. (elec- 
tric) a gang of 18 to 20 men can renew a rail in U to 2 minutes; this includes 



332 TRACK WORK. 

cutting out bonds, renewing spikes, loosening joints, removing rail, setting 
new rail, spiking, bolting up joints and rebonding. On tangents the work 
is done between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m., with trains at intervals of 2\ minutes; in 
this time 60 rails can be renewed without interfering with traffic. On the 
subway lines of this system, work is done between 1 a.m. and 5 a.m.; with 
trains at intervals of 1\ minutes on the local tracks, 33 rails can be renewed; 
64 rails can be renewed on the express tracks, which have no trains between 
these hours. A caution flag or light is set 500 ft. from the work, and a man 
with a red flag (or lamp) is placed within communicating distance from the 
gang. On the Boston Elevated Ry. (electric) all the relaying is done between 
1 and 5 a.m.; from 30 to 50 men are employed, but may be divided into three 
or more gangs under subforemen. During the day, a gang of 8 men is employed 
in curving and otherwise preparing rails. A broken rail (with an insulated 
joint at one end) has been removed and placed in 12 minutes. On the South 
Side Elevated Ry. (Chicago), this work is done early on Sunday morning, 
traffic being temporarily operated on single track. On curves of 100 ft. to 
200 ft. radius, 20 men can relay 10 or 15 rails in from 3 to 4 hours; and also 
load the old rails. On straight track, 35 men can relay about 60 rails in 6 
hours, the rails being previously bolted up and bonded in sections of 10 rails 
each. This time includes the placing of new tie-plates. Screw spikes are 
used, but are placed only for every third tie when rails are being laid. The 
others are put in later, under traffic. 

If the new rails have the same width of base and head as the old ones, all 
the outside spikes may be removed, the inner spikes being loosened, so that 
the old rails can be lifted out and the new ones slipped in against the spikes. 
As there is generally some difference in the rails, however, due to a variation 
in section or to the wear of the old rails, the outside spikes may be drawn on 
one side of the track and the inside spikes on the other side, so that the new 
rails can be spiked to gage. Three rows of spikes may also be drawn for this 
purpose. Where the new and old rails meet, care should be taken that the 
heads are in the same line, gage and level. For small differences, an iron shim 
under the lower rail may be used, but for larger differences, a special joint is 
required. Where the new rails are heavier than those of sidetracks, they should 
be laid on the turnout and extending beyond the frog, so that the special joint 
will not come upon the switch ties. The rails must not be punched, nicked 
or slotted, as such marks are liable to cause fracture, but all holes made in the 
field should be drilled. Short rails are only admissible on the inside of curves 
or as a temporary expedient on tangents, and no rail shorter than 15 ft. should 
be used in main track. For details as to cutting and bending rails, etc., see 
"Maintenance." 

On curves, it is necessary to use a short rail at intervals in order to keep the 
joints from overrunning, 26-ft. and 28-ft. rails being frequently used. The total 
difference in length (in feet and decimals) of the inside and outside rails of 
the curve may be obtained by multiplying the constant 0.08552 by the num- 
ber of degrees in the central angle of the curve (the minutes being either dis- 
regarded or reduced to a decimal of a foot). This total must be distributed 
over a suitable number of rails so as to avoid the use of one very short rail, 
and also to. keep the joints as even as possible. A 30-ft. rail may be cut into 
two parts, differing in length by the difference ascertained as above. Then 
by laying the longer piece at the beginning of the outside line of rail and the 



BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 33S 

shorter piece at the end of the inner line of rail, these will give broken joints 
on the curve and square joints at the ends. Another method is to allow a 
difference of 1.03125 ins. in length per 100 ft. for each degree of curve; or, in 
other words, to multiply 1.03125 ins. by the degree of curve and the number 
of hundreds of feet in the length of the curve. Methods of finding the degree 
of a curve in the track are given under "Lining." To change from even joints 
or tangents to broken joints on curves, the length of short rail on the inside 
may be found by measuring from the center of the rail J-in. for each degree 
of central angle of the curve. Table No. 25 shows the difference in length of 
outside and inside rails for lengths of 100 ft. on various curves. 

TABLE NO. 25— DIFFERENCE IN LENGTH OF OUTSIDE AND INSIDE RAILS 

ON CURVES. 

Degree Difference for Degree Difference for Degree Difference for 

of curve. 100 ft. in ins. of curve. 100 ft. in ins. of curve. 100 ft. in ins. 

0° 15' .2465 3° 0' 2.9583 7° 0' 6.9027 

0° 30' .4930 3° 30' 3.4513 8° 0' 7. 



0° 45' .7396 4° 0' 3.9444 9° 0' 8.8749 

1° 0' .9861 4° 30' 4.4374 10° 0' 9.8611 

1° 30' 1.4791 5° 0' 4.9305 11° 0' 10.8471 

2° 0' 1.9722 5° 30' 5.4235 12° 0' 11.8333 

2° 30' 2.4652 6° 0' 5.9166 

Example: 3° 30' curve 615 ft. long. 3.4513X6.15=21.25 ins.= 21i ins. 

It is usually required that the rails must all be laid with the maker's brand 
on the outside (sometimes the inside) of the track. This is to provide for pos- 
sible defects in the rolls by which the sides of the head may be slightly unsym- 
metrical. Rails of similar section should be kept together, and this is specially 
to be observed in distributing old rails for relaying on third track, branch lines, 
etc. With old rails, this rule should not be observed where it will put a badly 
worn gage side against a uniformly worn gage side of an adjacent rail. Old 
rails for relaying should be sorted for height at the yards, and sent out in lots 
of the same height. They should be laid with the unworn side of the heads 
as the gage side. 

In temporarily connecting the new rails with the old to allow a train to pass, 
a 15-ft. switch rail should be used, being firmly spiked to place and having 
its surface slightly above that of the stock rail against which it is laid, in order 
to carry tires that are worn hollow. If this plan is followed in closing up work 
for the night, great care must be taken to properly set and secure the rail, and 
it should be clamped to the stock rail to prevent being thrown out by a trail- 
ing movement. On many roads it is preferred to connect up the track at night 
with pieces of regular rails and full-bolted splice joints. The short rails and 
taper rails for these connections, with the necessary fastenings and tools, may 
be kept on a push car ahead of the rail gang and in charge of one man, so that 
the material will be promptly available when needed. No train should be 
allowed to pass unless each rail has at least 4 inside and 6 outside spikes (or 
half the full number of spikes on curves), and each joint has at least the two 
middle bolts in place and properly secured. After the new rails are laid, the 
string of old rails which has been thrown into the middle of the track may 
be unbolted and taken apart at leisure, all bolts, nuts, nut locks and splice 
bars being carefully preserved. The old rails should not be left in the ditches, 
but placed beside the ballast or piled ready for loading onto the cars. Many 
men believe it is necessary to renew rails on Sundays on account of the traffic. 



334 TRACK WORK. 

The work can be done, and is done, as well on week days, and (as already noted) 
Sunday should not be made an extra work day. 

Handling Rails. 

In renewing rails, a common cause of complaint is the number of kinked 
and surface-bent rails, and these are often offered as an excuse for roughly 
riding track. Such defects may be caused by dropping the rails in unloading 
them. Rails should not be dropped or thrown from the side of the car upon 
the roadbed. If this is necessary, care should be taken that they are dropped 
on soft, level places, and that they do not strike ties, boulders or other rails. 
The rails should not be allowed to slide off the cars and drop upon the ties. 
Neither should they be unloaded from a moving train, except where the move- 
ment is used to pull the rails from the cars. In throwing off rails, at the first 
stop of the train two unloading gangs of 8 or more men each may work from 
the ends of the train, throwing two rails off each car. When they meet at 
the middle car, the train moves ahead one train length, and the gangs work 
from each other to the end cars. The number of men required varies with the 
length and weight of the rails. The greater the number, the greater is the lia- 
bility of injury, and in most cases it will be economical as well as otherwise 
advantageous to use rail-handling machines and other appliances described 
below. Rails 30 ft. and 33 ft. long can generally be carried on ordinary gon- 
dolas or flat cars, end gates or planks preventing the rails from shifting. They 
are sometimes carried in box cars. Rails 45 ft. long can be loaded in two groups 
on three gondolas (with end gates removed) or flat cars, the middle car sup- 
porting the projecting ends of both groups. Rails 60 ft. long may be loaded 
on two cars, being supported mainly by bolsters just behind the outer trucks, 
but having intermediate supports over the inner trucks to prevent undue sag- 
ging and swaying of the load. The Norfolk & Western Ry. loads 60-ft. rails 
on alternate flat cars, the ends projecting over the intermediate cars. Three 
loads (of 34 rails each) require seven cars. Very long cars of special construc- 
tion are sometimes used in transporting rails from the mills to the railway 
yards. 

If the rails are to be unloaded in piles along the track, for distribution later 
by push cars, they may be slid down skids from the side of the car, and if the 
slope is steep they should be controlled by ropes with hooks to fit over the 
rails. The skids may be two .rails, or two timbers about 3X4 ins. (6 to 10 ft. 
long) faced with iron and having clamps to fit on the car. At the upper end 
of the skid may be a small pulley (set below the face) for the rope. Two men 
on the ground lower the rails by these ropes and also shift the skids as the train 
moves ahead. The rails may also be lowered vertically by means of three 
or four brackets or straps hooked onto the side of the car, each bracket carry- 
ing a horizontal roller at its lower end. The length of the brackets is from 
5 to 18 inches. The shortest is at about the middle of the car, and the longest 
near one end, with the others between them, so that they form an inclined roller- 
way. Men on the roadbed receive the end of the rail and lower it. 

In unloading from the end of a car, the rails may be simply pushed off the 
car, or hauled off by a rope. Sometimes 6 or 10 men on the car, with tongs, 
slide the rail off; 8 or 10 men on the track haul the end outside the track until 
it rests on the ground. Then they move up to the car and take hold of the 
other end, which they carry out in the same way, laying the rails either upon 



BALLASTING AND RENEWING RAILS. 335 

the ground or upon the ends of the ties. The men should not be permitted 
to drop the end of the rail, but there is liability of injury to the men, owing 
to carelessness or accidental slipping causing them to drop a rail. For haul- 
ing the rails off the car, the rope should be 30 to 50 ft. long, with an L hook 
at one end and a claw hook at the other. The L hook is put through the bolt 
hole of a rail on the car, and the claw hook placed over the edge of a tie. The 
train then moves ahead and the rail is thus hauled off. Two men attend to 
the ropes, and there should be men to lower the free end of the rail. 

Rough usage of the rails may be prevented, and the number of men reduced, 
by using an inclined apron or a pair of trough-shaped skids attached to the 
end sill of the car and riding on the rails. For gondola cars with fixed ends, a 
second shorter apron may be attached to the top of the end, its lower end rest- 
ing on the longer apron. As the rails are hauled off they are supported by the 
apron until they rest on the ties. In this way, work can proceed quickly with 
a smaller force and with little danger to the men. Instead of these aprons, 
the New York Central Ry. couples a small car behind the rail car. This has 
a triangular incline made of two rails; the upper end (or apex) is level with 
the floor of the car, and the incline throws the rail to one or other side of the 
track. A 35-ft. rope is used, with a hook at the front end. The rear end is 
attached to a 2J-in. round stick 6 ft. long, and is anchored by sticking this 
into the ballast at the rear side of a tie. Thus the man does not have to stoop, 
as in operating a tie-hook or rail clamp. A similar arrangement is employed 
on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. There are two 50-ft. ropes, with 
rail clamps or anchors, one rope for each side of the track. The first rail is 
adjusted with its end opposite a rail joint; the rope is then anchored, and 
the train moves forward. About 10 men form the unloading gang; 2 on the 
car shift the rails into position, 1 on the push car attaches the rope hook and 
guides the rail to one side or the other as required, 2 men (1 to each rope) hand 
the hook to the man on the push car, 2 attach and detach the rope clamps. 

In loading rails by hand at the yard for distribution, skids may be used, 
but in loading old rails along the track, the common practice is to have a gang 
of 25 to 40 men, depending upon the weight of rail and method of handling. 
With flat cars, the rails are usually raised by main force and thrown upon the 
car; this is a slow and dangerous process, especially with heavy rails. With 
box cars or drop-end gondolas, a push car or truck may be coupled to the rear 
of the train, being kept some little distance from it by a spacing timber. On 
this truck is a dolly with a roller or a piece of rail at about the height of the 
floor of the cars. The men pick up a rail, rest one end on the dolly and push 
this end into the car, where men with tongs pull the rail into place. About 
24 to 30 men are required for this, and as each car is loaded it must be set out 
and the push car again coupled up. 

Rail-Handling Machines. 

Where there is much work of this kind, it can be done more rapidly and 
economically than by hand by the use of machines designed for the purpose. 
For loading and unloading rails on the track and at yards, many railways use 
derrick cars which can travel along the rail cars, and some of these can also 
operate on the yard tracks. A crew of from 5 to 7 men with a machine can 
do the work of a gang of 20 to 40 men. The United machine has a mast and 
boom giving a clear lift of 14 ft. and a reach of 20 ft. from center of track. Stays 



336 TRACK WORK. 

from the mast are hooked to the car sills and tightened by turnbuckles. An 
air cylinder on the mast, and connected to the brake system, operates the hoist- 
ing line, which ends in a chain sling having two rail tongs or hooks. The 
machine runs on the floor of the car, but may also have grooved wheels to run 
on the sides of gondola cars with fixed ends. The crew consists of five men, 
with a foreman: 2 on the car, 2 on the ground, and 1 at the hoist. In some 
cases a larger crew is used. This machine and crew will do the work of about 
20 to 30 men loading rails by hand and at about half the cost. It can load 
rails along about two miles of track per day, the work depending in part upon 
traffic conditions. It has been used on the Illinois Central Ry., Chicago & 
Alton Ry., and several other roads. 

The Laas machine used on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. is gen- 
erally similar, but has the tackle blocks and air cylinder (8X72 ins.) on the 
boom, with an air reservoir on the truck or car. As a rule a single pair of rail 
tongs on the hoisting line is attached to the middle of the rail. Two men attach 
the tongs and guide the rail as it swings; two others receive it and place it, 
and a fifth detaches the tongs. The foreman (or another man) operates the 
hoist. The Travis machine used on the Fort Worth & Denver City Ry. has 
a car with a frame of steel I-beams and mounted on four small wheels. An 
upper frame, revolving as a turntable, carries at the front end an upright gal- 
lows frame, with inclined I-beam braces, and having its top 10 ft. 3 ins. above 
the rails. At each side of the frame is a mast of 4-in. gas pipe, pivoted at top 
and bottom, and carrying a 20-ft. boom of 4-in. pipe, the end of which is sup- 
ported from the head of the mast by a topping lift. The drums for the top- 
ping and hoisting lines are operated by a gasoline hoisting engine. The end 
of the hoisting line has two 4-ft. chains attached to the ends of a stretcher or 
bar 6 ft. long, from each end of which hangs a chain with rail tongs. When 
the machine Is operated on fixed-end gondola cars, its track is supported by 
timber horses set on the floor or by timbers laid across the sides. 

The Ware machine used on the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry., for unload- 
ing rails from gondola cars with fixed ends 4^ ft. high, consists of a gallows 
frame set across the car, with the uprights seated in portable pockets hooked 
to the side of the car. From the top bar are suspended two air-hoist cylin- 
ders, whose piston rods carry rail tongs. Hooked to the top of the car, at 
the end are two channel-shaped skids whose lower ends are attached to a cross- 
piece having small grooved wheels which run on the rails. The crew consists 
of eight men on the car (four to each side) : 2 at the hoists, 2 at the tongs, and 
1 at each end of each rail. When the rail is raised it is guided so as to rest 
on a roller on the inner side of the upright, and another roller at the top of 
the skid. The tongs are then released, and the rail is easily pushed out until 
it tips forward and slides down the skid. As the train moves forward, the 
skids moving under the rails lower them to the track. The loading, unload- 
ing and stacking of rails at yards may be conveniently and economically done 
by regular or special equipment. Locomotive cranes, derrick cars, and wreck- 
ing cranes may be utilized, as well as fixed derricks or cranes. They may be 
equipped with air hoists (having either direct attachment or cables), or with 
drum hoists operated by steam, gasoline or electric motors. 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 337 



CHAPTER 20.— DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 

The provision for carrying off the surface drainage of the land traversed by 
the railway comes more properly under the head of construction or engineer- 
ing work than of maintenance or track work. The necessity of providing 
ample waterway at all bridges and culverts is universally recognized, but it 
is not always observed in practice. In the maintenance work, therefore, the 
engineer, roadmaster and section foreman should have in mind what culverts 
or waterways are occasionally found to be of insufficient capacity.. Until 
increased capacity can be obtained, care must be taken that the opening is 
kept free from drift and obstructions and protected against wash, that no fenc- 
ing is placed across it, and that the sides of the stream or the slopes of the 
embankment are protected from wash. This protection may consist of rip-rap 
of rough quarry stones, brush, cribbing of trees and logs, or trees laid on the 
slope with the trunks pointing up stream, and the branches weighted down 
in the water. No fences or wires should be allowed across drainage openings, 
as these check and collect drift which may block the waterway and cause wash- 
outs in time of flood. The foremen should mark flood high-water levels for 
the future use of the engineer in investigating the necessary capacity of open- 
ings. Every opening in the roadbed is to a certain extent a source of danger, 
and the old style of open culvert is giving way to culverts of iron pipe and box 
or arch culverts of stone and concrete, covered by the embankment. For 
methods of calculating the necessary area of waterway at culverts and 
bridges, see a paper by Mr. Geo. W. Bremner (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
Ry.), Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, April, 1906. Also the 
Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association, 1907 and 1908. 

The drainage of ground water from the land is a different problem, which 
may be very serious in wet soil and on sidehill lines. The methods adopted 
will depend upon the character of the soil, the geological conditions, and the 
amount of water to be dealt with. In bad cases, special treatment may be 
necessary to prevent slides. These cases may be where the cuts are in wet 
clay, or where the upper body of material rests on a smooth and sloping stratum 
of rock or hard clay, which not only holds water in the upper body but pro- 
vides a surface upon which the mass may slide if disturbed. In Europe, these 
conditions are often investigated very fully before and during construction, 
and costly works are provided to establish permanent conditions. In this 
country reliance is apt to be put on more superficial investigation and the 
adoption of temporary expedients, with consequent high cost and continual 
trouble in maintenance. The question in each case is how best to remove 
the water and consolidate the treacherous material. Particulars of work of 
this kind at both cuts and banks will be found in "Engineering News," Sept. 
13, 1906; the " Railroad Gazette," March 11 and Sept. 9, 1904; and the Pro- 
ceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association, 1907. 

Soft spots sometimes appear continually, in cuts or banks, requiring period- 
ical filling and surfacing and the cleaning out of ditches. Such cases should 
be carefully investigated, as the filling is evidently only a temporary relief, 
and may make conditions worse. The first thing is to find where the water 
comes from, and to remove it or provide for its escape. The soft material 



338 TRACK WORK. 

may then be dug out. Cinders are generally best for filling, as they will not 
mix with the clay, like stone or slag. Where a firm material underlies the 
sliding material, trenches for tile drains may be cut into and through the for- 
mer. These will then be filled with cinders or gravel. It is not much use 
to put a tile drain in the wet or sliding material, as the movement of the mass 
will distort it, throwing it out of line and filling up the drain. If a cut slides 
in winter or in bad weather, ditching it out will often keep it sliding or make 
it worse. In such cases, as long as the material does not encroach on the track, 
it may be best to leave it, and cut cross drains through the ballast to carry 
the water to the ditch on the other side of the track. On sidehill work, ample 
provision must be made for carrying off the surface water by culverts, ditches 
and drains. A ditch near the top of the cut will intercept much water that 
would otherwise flow down the slope. There should be a good ditch at the 
foot of the slope of cut, and under this may be a tile drain with laterals extend- 
ing under the roadbed and discharging on the downhill side. Drainage is of 
special importance in grade reduction work, and care should be taken to see 
that deepened cuts are well drained. Tile drains may be used to advantage 
when such work is done, to supplement the ditches. 

The width of subgrade should be increased in wet cuts, to give ample room 
for ditches. It will also allow of putting the ditches farther from the road- 
bed, as water will seep into and tend to saturate the latter. In practice the 
cuts are often made too narrow to allow of proper ditches, and expense is incurred 
in subsequent widening or in constant maintenance and in cleaning ditches. 
The slopes, also, are often left too steep, increasing the liability of slides or 
causing a constant falling of surface material into the ditches. If the proper 
width for slopes and ordinary ditches cannot be obtained, as in cuts through 
valuable property, masonry retaining walls may be built near the track, and 
the slopes commenced from the tops of these walls. Ordinary or sheet piling 
is sometimes necessary in the slopes or at the toes of cuts. In soft cuts deeply 
gullied by rain, cribs of old ties are sometimes used, but are unsightly and gen- 
erally of only temporary value. Such cribbing should be higher at the track 
side, sloping back to the bank, so as to afford greater resistance to displace- 
ment, while the edge forms a convenient platform from which to shovel the 
sliding clay into cars. It has been found in cuts through clay with an over- 
lying stratum of earth, that if the material is excavated to a vertical face at 
about the middle of where the ordinary slope would be, when the face sloughs 
off, the earth will cover the clay and protect it from the weather. 

Some wet gumbo cuts on the Canadian Pacific Ry. had to be cleaned out and 
widened with a steam shovel, and then two rows of piles, 8 ft. apart, were driven 
on each side of the track. Sills laid under the roadbed kept the inner rows 
from moving, and inclined braces were put between the inner and outer rows. 
The mud was dug out and coarse gravel filled around and behind the piling, 
through which gravel the water drained to the track ditches. At the Boone 
viaduct of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., a sliding hillside was checked 
by digging trenches 250 ft. to 350 ft. long. These extended in the direction 
of the movement, and were from 4 ft. deep at the lower end to 10 ft. at the 
upper end. They were 5 ft. wide on the bottom, and were filled with 3 ft. 
of one-man rip-rap and 2 ft. of willow brush, covered with backfilling. A 
track along the sidehill slope, and subject to continual slides, was made secure 
by means of surface drains. Wooden box drains were put between the ties 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 339 

at intervals of 10 or 15 ft., and extended up the slope of the hillside, with occa- 
sional diagonal lateral drains leading into them. The best remedy in cases 
of this kind is to thoroughly investigate the conditions and to provide ample 
drainage, with ditches of sufficient capacity to carry off the water quickly, 
and then to provide such auxiliary work as may be necessary. 

On the Chicago Division of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis 
Ry., trouble has been experienced with the slipping of a wet sidehill cut about 
40 ft. deep. The material is a wet yellow clay (standing at about 1 on 1|) on 
a stratum of shale or hardpan. Water soaking through the clay mass gives 
a smooth and slippery or lubricated surface to the shale, and upon this the 
clay slides. The movement was evident nearly ^-mile from the cut. Near 
the cut was a public highway, and this was only kept passable by filling in 
from the top as the earth slipped towards the cut. The road was about 75 ft. 
out of line. Two rows of piles were driven along the lower side of the orig- 
inal line of the road, and two rows of piles were also driven at the toe of the 
slope. The rows were 4 ft. apart, and the piles also 4 ft. apart, the rows being 
staggered. The piles penetrated about 6 ft. into the shale. A layer of brush 
was filled between the two upper rows of piles, and this was covered with 
earth to a level about 2 ft. below that of the road. The road was then back- 
filled to the original line and covered with broken stone. No brush filling or 
other work was done at the lower row of piles. Two trenches about 3 ft. wide 
were then cut in the slope, being excavated into the shale and filled with 
about 4 ft. of loose rock. These works were very expensive, but accomplished 
their purpose in stopping the slides. The track ditch at the foot of the slope 
was made of large capacity, and along it a rip-rap wall 2 ft. high was built 
just outside the ends of the ties to prevent washing of the roadbed by the 
water in the ditch. Three cross drains of 18-in. cast-iron pipe extended under 
the roadbed from this ditch, discharging on the downhill side. There was also 
a line of 8-in. drain tile laid between the tracks. 

A constant trouble in cuts of wet or loose material is the gullying or washing 
of the slopes by rain or drainage water. This may be checked, especially in 
sidehill cuts, by cutting a surface ditch at some little distance from the top, 
so as to intercept the surface drainage. The ditch should be at least 3 ft. 
from the cut, with the earth thrown out on the side next the cut. It may 
be about 18 to 24 ins. deep, 12 ins. wide at the bottom, the size varying with 
the amount of water to be dealt with. The ends should be curved out, or 
led to a culvert or to the ditch at the toe of the adjacent bank, so that the 
water will not wash the face of the bank. If the earth is very soft or porous, 
the ditch may be lined with plank or concrete. Another method is to have 
drains cut diagonally along the slope and filled with bundles of brush or sap- 
lings, broken stone, or semicircular tile. To intercept water draining through 
the soil, trenches about 2 ft. wide and 2 ft. to 3 ft. deep are cut straight up 
the slope and filled with broken stone. The distance between these trenches 
depends upon the amount of water and the character of the material. They 
may be connected by diagonal or lateral drains. Where springs break through 
the slope, drain pipes may be inserted, and a gutter or an apron of stone rip- 
rapping laid from the outlet down to the track ditch. To prevent the break- 
ing down of the corners of cuts and banks, these may be rounded. Mr. D. J. 
Whittemore, Chief Engineer of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., has 
advocated this course, together with the paving of ditches and the sodding 



340 TRACK WORK. 

of slopes. The curves would be of about 6 ft. radius for edge of bank, 10 t't. 
for toe of bank, 15 ft. for top of cut, and 2 ft. for roadbed ditches. Proper 
drainage will generally put sliding under control, and sodded slopes will check 
sliding and prevent surface washing. In Europe, great care is taken with 
the dressing of slopes of cuts and banks to a proper face; they are then cov- 
ered with good soil, and finished by sodding them or sowing grass seed. 

Banks may be drained by ditches not less than 3 ft. from the toe of the slope, 
and material should never be taken from the intermediate berm for filling 
the bank or raising sags. The bottom of the ditch should slope slightly away 
from the bank. Borrow pits near banks should be drained. If there are springs 
underlying the bank, tile drains may be laid from the springs to the side 
ditches, or the earth may be dug out, broken stone and rock filled in, and rock- 
filled trenches made from the hole to the ditches. Special care should be 
taken with the drainage on sidehill work to keep the bank itself and the ground 
upon which it rests well drained. In some cases benching and extra side fill- 
ing or dwarf retaining walls are required to keep such a track in line. Track- 
men should never be allowed to use the material from the top of the bank for 
ballast. The laying and cultivation of heavy soil will do much to consolidate 
and hold the bank. In banks of soft clay, wet spots and pockets may develop. 
The usual remedy is to dig out material near the top and fill in with stone, 
slag or cinders. If water still drains or seeps in, the conditions will not be 
permanently improved until the wet spots are drained and any water inter- 
cepted that may be working along the bank, as upon the old surface of a bank 
that has been raised. Piling may sometimes be necessary at the toe or in the 
slopes of banks of wet clay, to hold them from settling; but this will not be 
sufficient in very wet or unstable material, such as gumbo. With such mate- 
rial, improvement may be effected by spreading out to a slope of 1 on 3, build- 
ing up with good material, putting in drains, and laying a thick bed of good 
ballast. (Western Society of Engineers, June, 1906.) Banks subject to the 
wash of waves, streams or floods should be protected by a rip-rap of rough 
quarry blocks or by trees or mattress work, as noted in regard to floods. 

Swampy ground requires special treatment of the roadbed, and the Cana- 
dian Pacific Ry. has built some sawdust banks across swamps where gravel 
would break through the surface crust. The slopes are Covered with earth 
to protect the material from fire. The Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. 
Marie Ry. crosses a number of swamps in Wisconsin, many of which show 
soundings of 15 to 30 ft. Upon these is made a roadbed about 2\ ft. high 
from ditches cut at a distance of 15 to 30 ft. from the foot of the slopes. The 
material is mostly peat, which, when dried out, makes a very light bank. The 
track was laid with three lines of small poles (3 to 4 ins. diameter) under each 
end of the ties, and only enough ballast was used to bring the track to a good 
surface. The track would crawl under the influence of the heavy consolida- 
tion engines, and in some places ties 10 and 12 ft. long were used; angle bars 
were bolted to the middle of the rail and spiked to two ties. A 12-in. foun- 
dation of 6-in. logs is sometimes built across swamps, being covered with 
bushes and a little ballast. 

Cuts and embankments in sandy districts are often troublesome from the 
effect of the wind in blowing the material away and drifting it over the tracks. 
This not only causes constant work in clearing, but may stall the trains, and 
will result in excessive wear of journals and the machinery of the locomotives. 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 341 

The trouble may be reduced by sprinkling oil, by spreading cinders or gravel, 
and by introducing vegetation. Sand and soil binding grasses are of two kinds: 
(1 ) The larger sorts which are exposed to the severe action of winds and waves 
and have deeply buried roots; these send up large leaf and flower-bearing 
branches and grow in scattered bunches. (2) The others have prostrate 
stems that creep over the surface of the sand and send out long fibrous roots 
at frequent intervals, thus forming close mats over the ground. Along the 
coasts there are the sea-lyme grass along the North Atlantic, marram grass 
or sand weed from Maine to Maryland, and then bitter-panic grass to and 
along the gulf coast. They grow from 2 ft. to 5 ft. in height. There are also 
the St. Augustine and creeping-panic grasses in the South, switch grass, beach 
grass (Florida to California). The marram grass has been used for binding 
the sand dunes near San Francisco and by the U. S. Engineers at Coos Bay, 
Ore. Of inland grasses there are the long-leaf sand grass, brome grass, and 
redfield grass. The former is found from Lake Michigan to the Rocky Moun- 
tains, and south as far as Kansas. The marram grass is also available. In the 
southwest are the alkali grass, fine-top salt grass and grama grass. The prop- 
agation can be effected by seed, but it is better to transplant cuttings of the 
creeping grasses; the cuttings are planted about 2 ft. apart in rows 6 ft. apart. 
Beach grass is used for the protection of roads near Provincetown, Mass. Ber- 
muda grass and other creeping grasses have been tried for slopes of cuts and 
adjacent land in the sandy districts of New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado. 
Soil-binding grasses on loamy or clayey soil form a compact turf. Couch or 
witch grass may be used in the north and middle states for holding embank- 
ments; they are good hay grasses, but objectionable in fallow lands, owing 
to the widely spreading and very persistent jointed roots. Johnson and Ber- 
muda grass are better in the South. The latter is especially adapted for light, 
sandy soil, or knot grass if the land is moist and clayey. When Johnson grass 
is once well established, it is almost impossible to eradicate it. 

On the Cape Cod Division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., 
the slopes of sandy cuts and banks have been protected from rain and wind 
by encouraging beach grass to grow on them. As the grass would not grow 
so well on the slopes of cuts, old ties were sometimes laid on the latter, but 
this was very unsightly. The Southern Pacific Ry. was built in sand through 
a part of southeastern California, and sometimes suffered during high winds. 
This was checked by embedding dry brush in the embankment, with tops 
and branches outward. The railway has also sprinkled the slopes of sand cuts 
with oil, using a frame 30 ft. high (on a flat car) to carry the nozzle; this will 
spray to a distance of 50 ft. from the track. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe Ry. has blanketed the slopes with cinders, gravel, clay, or the cleanings 
from stock cars. On the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Ry., some dif- 
ficulty from shifting sands was overcome by spraying crude petroleum (with 
a heavy asphalt base) over a width of 30 or 40 ft. from the center of the track. 
The volatile constituents in the oil evaporated and left a thin asphaltum crust 
which prevented the sand from being disturbed by wind. The sand beyond 
the oiled zone, when moved by the wind, was carried over the oiled crust and 
across and away from the track. In India, broken brick and stone are used. 
Where the Siberian Ry. crosses sandy plains, the roadbed is protected by rows 
of low scrub bushes, which serve both to prevent the sand from being blown 
away and to consolidate the soil by their roots. 



342 TRACK WORK. 

Subdrainage and Tile Drains. 

Subdrainage is frequently necessary where the roadbed is in damp or wet 
ground, and where trouble is caused by heaving. Tiles and broken stone are 
used for this purpose, the tile being generally the better. Wooden box drains, 
pole drains, or trenches filled with saplings may be used in wet cuts. Good 
track cannot be maintained in wet and soft places without subdrainage, and 
there are many spots in cuts and under banks (especially in sidehill work) 
where water seeps through and where nothing but subdrainage will afford 
substantial relief. The tile drains are usually laid under the ditches on one 
or both sides of the track. On double track, it may be under the middle of 
the roadbed, with laterals about 500 ft. apart. A depth of 2 J to 3 ft. below 
the bottom of ditch is generally sufficient, but the drain should be below the 
frost line to protect the tile from heaving or breakage. The ends of the drains 
discharge into ditches leading to culverts or waterways. In wet cuts the tile 
may be laid in diagonal lines at a depth of about 3 ft., and 6 ft. to 20 ft. apart, 
or to form lateral drains leading to the side drains, while the slopes may be 
drained by tile laid in trenches and connected with the side drains The com- 
mon red clay drain tile without collars is generally used, but vitrified tile with 
open bell-and-spigot joints is used in some cases. The red or porous pipe is 
supposed to admit water through the sides as well as at the joints, but, on the 
other hand, it is believed that the clay soon becomes impervious, so that the 
smoother vitrified non-porous pipe open only at the joints will give equal capac- 
ity and better flow. Cement pipe is also being used. The drain should be not 
less than 5 ins. diameter, and of ample size to carry off all the water freely, 
as there is little difference in the cost of laying. Porous drain tile is usually 
in 12-in. lengths, while the vitrified pipe is in 18-in. lengths. Great care should 
be taken to lay the drain properly, getting tight joints and uniform grade with 
all the fall the outlet will allow. The grade should not be less than 3 ins. to 
100 ft. Tile should be covered with marsh grass, if possible, although hay 
or straw are better than nothing. The joints should be covered with strips 
of sod or turf. The trench is then filled with cinders, gravel or other porous 
material. Stiff clay may be used, but sand or loam laid directly upon the drain 
will work its way into the pipe. The trench, however, may be filled with such 
material. In laying in quicksand or mud it may be necessary to use a plank 
bottom or trough covering as fast as laid, to prevent displacement. Where 
subdrainage is required in wet cuts on, the New York Central Ry., the trenches 
are 3 J ft. deep, with 6-in. or 8-in. drain tile laid in a V-shaped trough of hemlock 
planks 1X6 ins., butt-jointed. The tiles are laid with open joints, covered 
with strips of sod; over this is a layer of gravel, and the trench is filled with 
broken stone. At the top, this is spread over the surface of the roadbed ditch 
to prevent washing by the cross drains laid between the ties. Extensive work 
may be done by an extra gang equipped with the special tools used for ditch- 
ing and tile laying. 

When the drain is laid on only one side of the track, it should be laid on the 
upper or higher side to intercept water that might flow under the roadbed. 
Where a spring underlies the roadbed in a cut, tile cross drains may be laid 
at intervals, sloping slightly towards the sides and connected at each end with 
the tile drains under the ditches. The outlets of all drains should be looked 
after and kept free, especially in wincer, as springs may keep water running 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 343 

in cold weather. Loose stone or a cap of wire netting should be laid at the 
ends to keep out small animals. Both ends of the drain should be kept open 
and free to allow circulation of air through the drain. The cost of laying tile 
will vary from 25 cts. to 60 cts. per rod, according to material; it may be 
even more in quicksand cuts. In general the drains, if of any extent, are laid 
by men experienced in this particular work, and not by the ordinary section 
gangs, as the former can usually do the work quicker and cheaper. In laying, 
the tiles or pipes may be kept in line by stringing them upon a pole about the 
diameter of the pipe. This is left in place until a length of backfilling is done, 
when it is pulled ahead for another set of pipe, its heel remaining in the pipe 
already laid as a guide. 

Roadbed Ditches and Ditching. 

Drainage of the roadbed is an important factor in the maintenance of good 
track. Side ditches are provided for the immediate drainage of the roadbed and 
for carrying away all water that enters the cuts, as described under ' ' Roadbed 
Cross-Sections." These ditches should be of form and capacity suited to 
the conditions in each case, and in soft material should be put a good distance 
from the tracks. In districts with much rainfall, one of the important items 
of track work is that of keeping the ditches clear and properly graded. Earth 
from the slopes and ballast from the roadbed fall into the ditches and grad- 
ually form obstructions which choke the waterway, while in soft material the 
ditches will gradually close up. In the spring, as soon as the frost is out of 
the ground, every section foreman must have his ditches properly cleaned. 
In the autumn he must again overhaul them, clearing out leaves and rubbish, 
and putting them in condition for winter. In doing this work, attention should 
be paid to getting uniform grades, direct line, smooth sides, an even bottom, 
and proper dimensions for an ample waterway. Stumps, boulders or rock 
edges should be removed, as bends around obstructions check the flow and 
are liable to catch floating objects and cause choking of the ditch. In some 
cases a tile drain is laid in the ditch and covered with broken stone. 

The growth of grass, weeds and bushes on the slopes may be encouraged, 
to prevent material from falling into the ditch and also to prevent the water 
in the ditch from saturating and eroding the sides. Where erosion occurs, 
the ditch may be faced with rip-rap stone, or old ties. On curves it may some- 
times be necessary to carry the water along the inside of the curve to prevent 
washing of the roadbed. For this purpose, the outside ditch is dammed at 
intervals and a drain laid across the roadbed to carry the water to the inside 
ditch. Attention must be paid to getting a good discharge from the ditch 
at the end of the cut, so that the water will not wash the adjacent bank, but 
will be led safely to a stream or culvert. Where no natural waterways are 
available for this, special methods must be taken to provide for the water. 
Except by special authority, the water from the ditches must not be diverted 
through private lands, nor must water from natural channels be diverted into 
the railway ditch to protect private lands from overflow. When ditching in 
yards, the foreman should arrange with the yardmaster and do the work at 
a time when the sidetrack next the ditch can be kept clear of cars. Ditches 
may be carried under the approaches of road crossings by square stone drains 
or iron pipe. 

Ditching is usually done by hand and either by the section gang, or an extra 



344 TRACK WORK. 

gang with a work train. The ditch should be set out with a ditching line, 
and commenced at the lower end, so that the work will be drained as it pro- 
gresses. Grade may be given by sighting with a spirit level over stakes 100 
ft. apart, and measuring the required depth at each stake. The material may 
be disposed of directly by casting (or shoveling); or it may be loaded upon 
wheelbarrows, a push car, or a work train for removal. On the Southern 
Ry. a portable platform is used where material can be thrown out of the cut 
by two castings. This consists of two posts 12 ft. long, and two horizontal 
pieces 10 ft. long; the latter extend into the bank and carry the platform of 
five 5-ft. planks 1X12 ins. The four timbers are 2X6 ins., and have holes 
at intervals to allow of adjusting the height of platform. In a deep cut a sec- 
ond platform may be placed above the first. One man on the platform can 
handle about as much material as two men in the ditch. This device saves 
much time and is carried by work trains. The material handled by casting 
should not be left upon the slope of the cut, as it will soon wash or fall back 
into the ditch. 

With fairly easy digging, the cost by casting may be taken at 10 cts. per 
cu. yd. for one cast, or 16 cts. where a platform is used for raising material 
6 ft. at the first cast and 4 ft. at the second. The second cast includes throw- 
ing the material to a proper distance from the edge of the cut. Where wheel- 
barrows are used to remove the material and used in widening banks, the cost 
will be about 16 cts. per cu. yd., with 125 ft. haul. Where material is to be 
carried across the tracks, and the traffic makes it undesirable to lay planks 
for wheelbarrows, the men can carry it in boxes having two straight handles 
projecting from each end. Where the material is loaded on push cars for 
removal, the car must be protected by sending out flagmen while the car is run 
to the end of the cut or the desired point on the bank. It is usually unloaded 
by shoveling, but the cost may be reduced by using a three-sided box on the 
car, so that the material can be dumped. This is one of the best methods of 
working, if it can be done without interfering with trains. In many cases, 
however, wheelbarrows are more convenient. The wheeling planks should 
never be laid close to the inside of the rail, as they may be warped or tilted 
so as to catch the flanges of car wheels. Wheelbarrows having grooved wheels 
to run on the rail head are sometimes used, and are claimed to be specially 
useful where the traffic is heavy. In wheelbarrow work, the foreman should 
put one of his best men in front and a second best man at the rear of the wheel- 
ing gang, so as to get out to the dump and back again as quickly as possible 
If the work is extensive, a work train and extra gang may be assigned to it; 
the earth being loaded on flat cars and hauled to any convenient place for 
deposit. Whether it is best to employ trains, push cars, wheelbarrows or cast- 
ing will depend upon local conditions, including the number of trains during 
working hours and the extent of work to be done. 

Ditching Machines. 

On many railways a considerable amount of money and labor must be 
expended for drainage; and the forming, clearing and enlarging of the side 
ditches are expensive and troublesome items of work in maintenance of way 
As already noted, the work is usually done by hand, either by the regular sec- 
tion gangs or by an extra gang with a work train. This is tedious and expen- 
sive, especially in wet and sticky material, and where the work is heavy or 



DRAINAGE AND DITCHING. 345 

continuous. These conditions have led to the introduction of ditching machines 
in order to expedite the work and reduce the cost of labor. According to a 
report of the Roadmasters' Association, 1904 (" Engineering News," October 
27, 1904), the cheapest method of ditching, where the material is to be used 
in widening embankments, is by a ditching machine that can load and dump 
5 cu. yds. in 2 1 minutes (exclusive of running time), and can be operated by 
three men besides the train crew. Also, if the conditions allow such a machine 
to be used up to a haul of 1,200 or 1,300 ft. in fair digging, or up to 1,900 ft. 
in bad, wet digging. With a longer haul, a machine arranged for loading a full 
train of material, and used in conjunction with a plow and cable or other 
method for quick unloading, can be worked most economically. 

Ditching machines may be dividM into two general classes: (1) Those 
which load a scoop on one or both sides and then run to the end of the cut to 
dump the material; (2) Those which load a full train of material, to be 
unloaded by plow or by hand. The first can be used to advantage only where 
the haul is comparatively short, while the second is economical for a long haul. 

A convenient machine of the first class consists of a flat car fitted with a 
heavy frame supporting two derricks at the side (or two derricks on each side 
for single-track work). The derrick chains support the front and back bails 
of a ditching scoop of 1 to 3| cu. yds. capacity, and a chain from a horizontal 
bail in front of the scoop is fastened to a beam projecting from the front of 
the car. This chain does the pulling, the others regulate the depth of cut, 
and the derrick regulates the distance from roadbed to ditch. There is a man 
at each derrick, and the crew consists of about 8 men, or less if the machinery 
is operated by steam or compressed air. The machine will work in dry cuts 
when they have been plowed, but it works best in wet weather, when the mate- 
rial is soft. The car should be strong and well braced, and have the spring 
hangers duplicated or reinforced, as it is subjected to severe strains. To pre- 
vent jerking, there should be no slack between the engine and the car. Cars 
of this kind are used on a number of railways, and can be fitted with a ditch- 
ing plow, a ditching scraper, or a mold board for dressing ballast slopes (as 
noted under " Ballasting "). The machinery may be enclosed, and the cabin or 
body provided with a blacksmith's forge, tools, etc., for making repairs. 

Some machines of the second class resemble a light steam shovel mounted on 
a turntable on a frame which travels along the floors of the cars. They weigh 
about 20 tons and handle |-yd. or |-yd. buckets, the excavating capacity being 
from 200 to 600 cu. yds. in ten hours. The reach is about 20 ft. from the center 
of track and 3 or 4 ft. below the rails. The machine may have propelling gear 
or may haul itself along the train by a cable attached to one of the cars. To 
give a steady foundation, especially when the machine is at the end of a car, 
a stout post may be set under the sill of the car, resting upon a tie. The 
Mahoney machine is for use on a work train fitted with a rapid-unloader plow 
and cable. A frame traveling along the cars has a 25-ft. boom pivoted near 
the bottom of the frame, while the rear end of the boom rides on a curved guide 
extending from the center of the car to the ditch. The boom carries a 1-yd. 
or 1^-yd. drop-bottom scoop, and is operated by a cable from the engine. In 
starting, the machine is at the rear end of the train, and the bucket is lowered 
to position. The train then pulls ahead until the bucket is filled, when the 
boom is swung up and dumps its load on the car. The plow cable is used to 
haul the machine along the train as the cars are loaded. There is an engine- 



346 TRACK WORK. 

man for the unloader engine, a man to trip the bucket door and to adjust the 
scoop before the train moves, and a third man to couple up the cable for mov- 
ing ahead. With this crew and a train crew it is said that the machine can 
do the work of 100 laborers. 

Ditches are sometimes cleaned out by means of a wing snow plow cr spreader 
car (see "Ballasting"), the necessary cutters being attached to the wing or 
spreader. The same machine may be used for trimming ballast slopes, and 
similar work. On the Intercolonial Ry., the wings of a snow plow have been 
fitted with cutters of f-in. steel, 13 ins. deep, 9 ft. long. The first cut is made 
with the wings half open, cutting the ballast slope. The second cut is made 
with the wings spread to their full extent, forming the berm at the level of the 
subgrade and plowing the material outibf the cuts and down the bank. The 
machine is hauled by a locomotive, and can clean 20 to 25 miles of track in a 
day, making a cut on each side 3 ft. to 9| ft. from the rail and to a depth of 
2 ft. below the top of the rail. The crew consists of two men to extend or close 
the wings, and two men to raise and lower the cutters at crossings and switches. 
Such a machine is specially valuable on single-track roads with limited section 
forces. 



CHAPTER 21 —TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 

The maintenance of way includes the various kinds of work required to keep 
the track in safe and proper condition for traffic. The details vary with the 
climatic conditions; and also vary with the character of the track and the 
amount of traffic, being specially hard under conditions of light track carrying 
heavy traffic. If the road has been carefully located and built, with easy 
curves, well-arranged grades, and substantial track, then the maintenance- 
of-way department can maintain a good track at small expense. If, on the 
other hand, the road has been laid out carelessly, and built with a main view 
to cheapness, and if it has narrow cuts and banks, a superfluity of curves, 
and long steep grades used unnecessarily, then there will be continual trouble 
to keep the track in reasonably fair condition. Many railways now recognize 
the principles of economics, and in building, improving and maintaining their 
lines they are applying these principles with some regard to traffic conditions. 
With such a system, material economy may be expected in the labor and expense 
of maintenance. It is not sufficiently recognized by executive officers that 
where light track carries heavy traffic, and is in the hands of cheap, incom- 
petent labor, the increased cost of maintenance may exceed the interest on the 
investment for new material and reasonable wages. Heavier and stiffer rails, 
which distribute the weight of trains over a greater length of track and give 
but slight deflection, materially reduce the work of maintenance, as noted 
under "Rails" and "Track Inspection." The cost of the work varies from 
$300 to $1,000 per mile, and the following table shows the distribution of labor 
cost for maintenance work on the Delaware Division of the Erie Ry. in 1894: 

Per mile. Per c't. Per mile. Per c't. 

Surfacing $151.46 37.8 Helping other departments. . $45.68 11.4 

Renewing ties 45.68 11.4 Construction and new work. . 4.81 1.2 

Other track repairs 90.16 22.5 • 

Snow and ice 14.43 3.6 Total $400.70 100.0 

Wrecks, slides, etc 48.48 12. 1 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 347 

From 60 to 75% of the damage and wear to track is caused by the engines 
or engine mileage, and the balance by the trains, with their far greater number 
of wheels. This is due to the greater wheel loads of the locomotives, the closer 
concentration of these loads, and the destructive effects resulting from bad 
counterbalancing, slipping of driving wheels, use of sand, etc., to say nothing 
of the wear of frogs and switches by badly worn driving-wheel tires. The 
car is merely a passive rolling weight, and while flat spots in car wheels or the 
general use of very heavy car loads may aggravate the destructive effect of the 
wheels, it is not probable that the proportion of damage due to the train would 
approximate that due to the engine wheels. Freight trains are usually more 
severe upon the track than are passenger trains, as the engines of the former 
are more liable to be pulling hard, while the cars ride harder owing to the spring 
rigging being more rigid than on passenger cars. Day cars weigh about 30 
to 60 tons, and sleeping cars 50 to 70 tons. The lighter car on four-wheel 
trucks gives 7,500 lbs. per wheel, while the heavier car on six-wheel trucks 
gives 11,700 lbs. per wheel. These weights are distributed by two trucks with 
a wheelbase of 6 to 12 ft. each, and giving a total wheelbase of 40 to 60 ft. 
Freight cars have a wheelbase of 20 to 35 ft. (with 5 ft. to 6 ft. for each truck); 
they weigh 15 to 25 tons empty, or 30 to 80 tons with full load. These give 
wheel loads of 3,750 to 20,000 lbs. per wheel. Locomotives have driving- 
wheel loads of 8 to 12 and even 15 tons, and impose loads of 65 to 100 tons 
on a driving wheelbase of 14 to 17 ft. The total load on the length of track 
covered by this wheelbase must be considered, as well as the concentrated load 
per axle ' or per wheel. The loads given are merely static loads, and their 
effect as dynamic loads when the trains are in motion must also be taken into 
consideration. At high speeds the counterbalances in the driving wheels 
may have a very destructive effect on the track. Rails, frogs and switches 
are also subject to injury from engines with badly worn tires. All such cases 
of damage should be promptly reported, and the transportation department 
should adopt strict rules as to the speed at which "dead" engines may be 
hauled. There is a certain relation between the cost of maintenance of track 
and rolling stock, defects in either one having a tendency to cause or increase 
defects in the other. 

Most railways have rules as to methods of maintenance work, but the road- 
masters and foremen cannot always follow them, but must be governed by 
conditions. One principal reason for this is the lack of system in regard to 
employing track forces. Not unfrequently orders are sent out to reduce forces 
at the time when work is in full swing. This must have a detrimental effect upon 
the work and upon the men, as the foremen and laborers become discouraged 
at having to do the hardest part of the work with a small gang. Under such 
conditions of uncertain employment, also, it is difficult to get good men to 
take service with the track gangs, and much of the work must be done by extra 
gangs of inexperienced foreign laborers. Under such conditions, good and 
economical work in maintenance-of-way cannot be obtained. The principal 
part of the regular maintenance work is that of keeping the track in proper 
line and surface, both of these features being subject to constant disturbance 
under heavy engines and traffic, while climatic conditions also have a disturb- 
ing influence. This work includes tamping, bolting, spiking, etc. The switches 
and turnouts also require considerable attention, and ditching is an important 
feature which has already been discussed. In addition to this there is the 



348 TRACK WORK. 

mowing and clearing of right-of-way, dressing of ballast, and general policing 
and inspection. The routine work is varied by such extra or special work 
as ballasting, renewing ties and rails, putting in turnouts and sidings, tile 
drainage, etc. In case of any important work being undertaken that may 
affect traffic, the operating department should be notified in advance. 

The regular work should be done systematically, and not at scattered points 
along the sections. Standards should be adopted and followed as closely as 
practicable. The amount of time and labor which may properly be expended 
on the appearance of the track depends largely upon the financial conditions. 
Hand-dressed ballast, turfed slopes, etc., can be expected only on compara- 
tively wealthy roads. Neatness should be seen on every road, as it involves 
no expense, but is rather conducive to economy. Mere ornamental work, such 
as nicely dressed but poorly tamped ballast, is evidence of carelessness or 
incompetence. It may seem unnecessary to remark upon the necessity of 
good work, but even on leading roads, track carrying fast and heavy traffic 
may be seen with loose ties, low joints, loose spikes, battered frogs and switches, 
rail joints with bolts missing, ties misplaced, ballast untidy and unevenly 
tamped, etc., and work done to look well. It is not always possible for the 
roadmaster or engineer to get what he considers desirable or even necessary. 
He may consider tie-plates to be more effective than rail braces in maintain- 
ing gage on curves; but if his road will not supply the plates, he must use the 
braces to the best advantage. He may also have bad sags in the grade line, 
causing trouble with freight- train couplers; but if he is unable to get the mate- 
rial necessary for filling, he must do his best to ease off the track at the ends 
of the sag to give a more even approach. 

In the general work on the section, the roadbed slopes and ditches must 
be maintained according to the standard plans, and if the original construc- 
tion does not conform to these standards, they should be aimed at in the work 
of maintenance. In some cases the standard dimensions (as for ditches, etc.) 
may not be sufficient under special or local conditions, and in such cases they 
should be exceeded so as to give the required capacity. Material taken out 
in widening cuts or in ditching should be hauled away and used for widening 
banks, being shoveled clear of the ties and below the level of the bottom of 
the ballast, so as not to interfere with the drainage. The ballast must be kept 
free from weeds and in proper slope, being promptly restored to shape when 
broken down by stock or trespassers. Center and grade stakes should be tested 
and reset every three or four years, and on sharp curves and transition curves 
the center stakes (as well as the curve in the rails) should be tested once a 
year. The track must be maintained in line, gage and surface, for any deficiency 
in one affects the others. Besides the maintenance in detail, the condition 
of the division as a whole must be seen to. The profile and alinement should 
occasionally be tested, especially where maximum grades limit the hauling 
capacity, as any increase in the grades or curves, or improper compensation 
of grade, may seriously affect the train service or the economy of operation. 

One of the greatest causes of bad track, hard riding track, and damage to 
rails, is the low rail joint. When a joint has once become low it rapidly gets 
worse unless promptly attended to. If the ballast under such a joint is dirty 
or bad, it should be cleared away, and good ballast put in and well tamped. 
The Southern Pacific Ry. requires that after new rails are laid, and after exten- 
sive redriving of spikes or new spiking, the roadmaster must examine the 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 349 

rail for nicks, hammer marks or defects. If these are serious, angle bars must 
be bolted to the rail. "When a broken rail is found it should be at once spiked, 
and, if possible, a pair of splice bars placed at the break and bolted or spiked. 
Trains should be flagged until the broken rail has been securely spiked and 
spliced or a new rail put in. An investigation should be made and a report 
prepared in each case of rail fracture. Switches should be frequently exam- 
ined, to see that the switch rails have the proper throw; the switch rods adjusted 
to give the proper position of the rails, connecting pins in place and secured, 
and slide plates oiled and free from dirt, stones or other obstructions. Spring- 
rail frogs must also be looked after and kept free from obstructions. "Where 
a track circuit is used in connection with the block system, etc., care must 
be taken that the bond wires at joints are not cut or broken. If any are acci- 
dentally broken, they must be at once repaired by the foreman, and a man 
sent to look to the signals affected. 

In many items of maintenance work, the amount of the work has little, 
if any, relation to traffic tonnage or track mileage. These include mowing 
and clearing right-of-way; maintaining fences, signs, cattleguards and road 
crossings, and the cleaning of ditches. The cost of such items may be 
regarded as fixed charges. The wear of rails, fastenings and switches is directly 
influenced by traffic, but the principal feature of maintenance work thus 
influenced is the constant work of keeping the track in line and surface, and 
which is comprised under the general term of "surfacing." It has been sug- 
gested that maintenance-of-way might be done by contract, but this is a class 
of work that it is much safer and better to have done by the railway company's 
men and under its own direct control. In this connection it may be noted 
that where contract work involves any connections with or interference with 
main track, the railway company usually reserves control over the watchmen 
and the work at such points. (See "Permanent Improvements.") Payment 
of section men on the piece-work system has also been suggested, but in view 
of the varied and shifting character of the work done by each man, the appli- 
cation of this does not appear to be practicable or to offer any advantages. 
Thus in tie renewals, each man will do more or less handling and carrying, 
or general helping, and it would not be economical (even if practicable) to 
assign certain men of an ordinary section gang to attend exclusively to certain 
items of work. In renewing ties, the work includes such items as removing 
spikes, loosening ballast, jacking up rails, pulling out old ties, carrying and 
placing new ties, spiking, tamping, dressing, and the removal or stacking of 
the old ties. The time and energy expended in devising a piece-work system 
to meet these conditions could be spent to better advantage in developing 
and introducing a record system which will insure an accurate record of the 
time worked by each man and the actual work done by the gang each day. 
Several attempts have been made to average the daily capacity of a section 
man in different classes of work, and the number of days' work of one man 
required to perform certain items of work. These are of use in a way, but 
cannot be relied on for actual results in practice, owing to the extreme and 
unrelated variations of the factors of track, traffic and labor. Some figures 
prepared by Mr. H. M. Church, of the Chicago Great Western Ry. ("Railway 
Review," March 18, 1905), are condensed in Table No. 26. 

Very little has been done in the application of machinery to track work. 
Pneumatic surfacing machines (for blowing fine ballast under the ties when 



350 TRACK WORK. 

raised), pneumatic and electric tamping machines, pneumatic rail drills, and 
hand or electric rotary wrenches for putting in screw spikes, have been tried. 
A section car with a 12-HP. gasoline engine driving a shaft with couplings 
for flexible shafts, has been introduced on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 
Ry. This operates rail drills, spike-hole augers, and wrenches for screw spikes 
It has been suggested that the work and the handling are too rough for machines 
but this is not the case. It would, however, be better to have a small force 
of skilled men permanently employed (as in Europe) and operating machines, 
than the large forces of unskilled and ignorant labor now often employed, 
and constantly changing. Apart from mechanically operated tools, the labor- 
saving equipment used in track work includes rail-handling machines, weed 
burners, self-propelling section cars, and ditching machines. 

TABLE NO. 26.— AVERAGES OF LABOR FOR MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY. 

(A. Average Work of One Man for a Ten-Hour Day.) 

Renewing Ties. — Main track: 8 ties in stone ballast; 10 in gravel; 15 in earth ballast. 
Sidetrack: 15 ties in gravel, cinder Or earth ballast. Switch ties, 8. 

Surfacing (including raising, tamping, lining and dressing). — In stone ballast (with tamp- 
ing pick), 35 ft.; 50 ft. in gravel (with tamping bar); 100 ft. in gravel (with shovel); 300 
ft. in earth. 

Scurfing Roadbed (2 acres per mile; twice a year). — In stone and earth, 14 mile; J^ mile 
in gravel. 

Clearing Right-of-Way (100 ft. wide, less roadbed; 10 acres per mile). — Mowing, Vio mile. 
Burning, 1 mile. 

Cleaning Ditches. — 500 ft. 

(B. Relative Labor Cost of Surfacing One Mile of Track.) 



-Main Track --, r— Branches- 



Stiffness Stone Gravel and Stiffness Gravel and 

Rail. of rail, ballast, cinder ballast, of rail, cinder ballast, 

per cent. days. days. per cent. days. 



60-lb. 64 122 105 100 

75-lb. 100 97 68 150 
85-lb. 128 75 53 



i bar, 105 
< shovel, 53 
( bar, 71 
( shovel, 35 



In tunnels, the work of maintenance is done under special difficulties. Where 
traffic is heavy, and the conditions are unfavorable, the surfacing, renewing 
of rails and ties, etc., is not only difficult and dangerous, but slow and expen- 
sive. Under such conditions it may be desirable and economical to introduce 
a special and more permanent type of track construction, as described under 
" Roadbed." In short, dry, well-ventilated tunnels the difficulties will be 
at a minimum. They will reach their maximum in long tunnels where smoke 
and gas make it impossible for men to work until some time after a train has 
passed. Where the traffic is heavy the men cannot work to advantage, as 
they have to be continually getting off the track and seeing that tools, etc., 
are clear of the rails. In damp tunnels, the life of rails is likely to be reduced 
by corrosion and other influences, and it may pay to paint them before they 
are laid. Ties and rails are handled with difficulty, tools and materials are 
easily lost and mislaid, the quality of the tamping is not easily seen, and it 
is difficult for the foreman to sight the rails and level boards. The work should 
be lighted for a length of 150 to 200 ft. Portable electric lights, large oil lamps 
or torches, and the Wells or similar flaming lights may be used. There are 
special difficulties also in track work on elevated rapid-transit railways, where 
much of the work must be done at night, when traffic is at a minimum The 
maintenance of track on bridges and trestles is of a special character. When 
the track is found out of line or surface at such structures, the roadmaster 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 351 

should make an investigation and notify the officers of the bridge department. 
Temporary repairs should then be made, if necessary, and "slow" signals put 
up until the track has been inspected and rectified. 

Protection of Track Work. 

All work must be done with due regard to the safety of trains and workmen. 
Hand cars must be run with caution, and slowly in foggy weather and through 
towns or near grade crossings. They should not be used in foggy weather 
unless the place where the men are to work is more than a mile distant. They 
must not be run within 20 minutes of the time of a regular train, nor in the 
wrong direction on double track. It is best to start directly after a train (care 
being exercised as to trains following closely), and on single track to then run 
the car at full speed to such a point as a train in the opposite direction may 
be expected. If there are curves and cuts on the line, obstructing the view 
of the track, a man may be sent ahead as far as he can see the car and also 
see farther along the line. If he signals that there is no train approaching, 
the car can be run up to him at full speed, but if he signals that a train is approach- 
ing, there is ample time to take the car carefully off the track. If the car is 
left near a road crossing while the men are at work, the wheels should be locked, 
but it is best not to leave it in such a place. Rails should not be carried on 
the hand car except in cases of emergency. Loaded push cars must be oper- 
ated under the protection of flagmen, and where they run through switches 
these must be thrown by the foreman, who is responsible for their use. Hand 
cars and unloaded push cars must be lifted from one track to the other at 
switches. 

Before disturbing the track for rail renewals, etc., in such a way as to make 
it unsafe for traffic, the foreman must send out a watchman with a flag and 
torpedoes, these signals being put in both directions on single track. Some 
roads require the flags to be set at a distance of 24 telegraph poles, and the tor- 
pedoes at 32 poles from the work. On the New York Central Ry., a green 
flag (or lamp at night) is set 3,000 ft. from the work; and a white flag (or 
lamp) 30 ft. beyond the work indicates to the engineman that he has cleared 
the limits and can increase speed. Where the track, culvert or bridge repairs 
will last more than four days, a warning sign is erected 3,000 ft. from the spot. 
This is a green board 15X36 ins., lettered in white: "Reduce speed to — 
miles per hour"; the required speed is lettered on a sheet-iron plate set in a 
pocket on the board. At a train length beyond the work is a similar sign, being 
a white board lettered in black "Resume full speed." A green lamp is hung 
on the first and a white lamp on the second sign. The Southern Pacific Ry. 
requires that when work is being done on track or bridges that makes it unsafe 
for trains to pass, or when it is necessary to stop a train, a man with a red flag 
(or lamp) must be stationed 90 rails or 15 telegraph poles from the point at 
which the train must stop Torpedoes must also be placed, and not removed 
unless the flagman's signal is answered by the engineman. A yellow flag (or 
lamp) at the same distance is a signal to trains to run slowly on account of 
track repairs or defective track. If a flagman cannot be spared, the flag stick 
may be driven firmly in the ground in a conspicuous position. The Louisville 
& Nashville Ry. requires a red flag and torpedo at 18 poles (2,700 ft.), and 
a green flag at 24 poles (3,600 ft.), the man to work near the red flag. The 
green flag may be omitted for only temporary obstructions. If trains must 



352 TRACK WORK. 

stop, a red flag and one torpedo are placed; if they are only to slacken speed, 
a green flag and two torpedoes are used. A man should be put in charge of 
the "stop" signal, being provided with tools for doing track work in its vicin- 
ity. Sometimes this is done only when the flag cannot be seen from the place 
where the gang is working. The man should work at some little distance 
within the flag limit, so as to be ready to attract the attention of the engine- 
man if he should fail to observe the signal. The same signals are used in case 
of any obstruction on the track, lamps replacing the flags at night. 

Special precautions should be taken on long trestles and in tunnels, and in 
both cases refuges should be provided at intervals. In tunnels these are 
recesses about 7X4 ft., and 2 ft. to 3 ft. deep. Ordinarily they may be 200 
ft. apart on each side, staggered as to position. Where the traffic is very heavy, 
however, they may be about 50 ft. apart, and either staggered or opposite. Care 
must be taken to put out "slow" signals for* trains, and the foreman must allow 
the men ample time to get clear of the track in advance of a train. When 
important work is being done, some form of visual or audible signal may be 
installed in the tunnel, and operated by the flagman to warn the gang of the 
approach of a train. Where the block system is in use, a temporary signal 
in the tunnel may be operated from the circuit of the automatic signals, or 
by the signalman in the nearest tower of the manual block system. 

When one gang of trackmen, bridgemen, etc., passes another, the foreman 
of the passing gang must ascertain what signals the working gang has put 
out. A repair gang must not work between another gang and the latter's 
flagman or signals. If it is necessary for a section gang to work in such a 
position, as between an extra gang and the flag of the latter, a flag should be 
placed in the middle of the track, 100 ft. beyond the section gang (between 
it and the other gang), to warn enginemen that there is a second gang at work. 
No work that will obstruct the track or interfere with the passage of trains 
must be undertaken in foggy weather, during a snow-storm, or in times of 
exceptionally heavy traffic (except in case of emergency). The foreman must 
have his gang clear of the track, and the track in safe condition 10 minutes 
before the time at which a regular train is due, except when the train is 30 
minutes late, or if permission is given by telegraph or written order. In either 
case he must protect the gang by means of flagmen. He must be ready for 
extra trains at any time, and must look out for signals carried by the trains. 

Train Signals. — Two green flags by day indicate the rear of the train, and 
if these are not shown it is evident that some of the cars have broken away 
or the train has parted. At night, the markers are two tail lamps on the rear 
car (showing a green light at front and side and a red light to the rear). There 
is also a red light on the rear platform of a passenger train and on the cupola 
of a freight-train caboose. When the train is standing on a passing siding, the 
tail lamps must show green at rear, front and sides. Two green flags by day 
(or lights by night) on the engine indicate that another section of the train 
is following on the same schedule time. The engine of the last section of any 
train carries no such markers. Two white flags by day (or lights by night) 
indicate an extra train. A white light on the platform of a passenger car, 
roof of freight car or rear of tender, indicates that the train or engine is back- 
ing, the engine then carrying green flags or red tail lights on the bumper beam. 
Two white lights are carried on the rear of a yard engine at night, except when 
it has a headlight at each end. In signaling by hand, the indications with 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 353 

a lamp or flag are as follows: Swung horizontally across the track, "Stop." 
Raised and lowered vertically, "Proceed." Swung in a short circle across 
the track when train is standing, "Back up." Swung at arm's length acrc«s 
track when train is running, "Train parted." One torpedo means "Stop." 
Two torpedoes 100 ft. to 200 ft. apart mean "Reduce speed and look out for 
stop signals." 

Season's Work. 

General improvements, tile drainage, reballasting, etc., can best be car- 
ried on from late spring to late autumn. All such work should be planned 
beforehand, so that (for instance) the track may not be disturbed for reballast- 
ing just after the section gang has completed surfacing. Work trains and 
floating gangs for ditching, ballasting, widening cuts, etc., and special gangs 
on new interlocking plants, rearrangement of yards, repairing or building 
structures ; etc., may be worked at any time from the end of one winter to the 
beginning of another. For the ordinary work on the sections, no set rules or 
program of procedure can be formulated, as the requirements vary in different 
sections of the country, and with varying conditions of track and traffic. 
In general, however, the year may be divided into four seasons, and the work 
done during these seasons is practically as outlined below. The foreman 
should plan out his work in advance, and with the assistance and approval 
of the roadmaster. 

Spring. — As soon as the winter is over, and the frost out of the ground, the 
work of reducing and removing the shims should be commenced. The frost 
will, of course, remain longer in the roadbed in cuts than on exposed banks. 
Soft spots in the roadbed must be noted for improvement by filling or drainage. 
Ditches must be cleaned out to give free passage for melting snow and in readi- 
ness for the rainy season. All spikes must be driven tight, bolts tightened, 
switches examined, cattleguards and road crossings cleared and repaired, 
ditches cleaned, fences repaired, portable snow fences taken down and piled, 
rubbish and old material cleared from the right-of-way and burned, and sign 
posts and telegraph poles straightened. Low joints are raised, and the neces- 
sary lining is done to put the track in good condition previous to the more 
extensive work later in the season. Sidetracks and yards may be overhauled. 
When the weather is settled, and all bad or low spots are fixed, the gang is 
then increased to its maximum number, and the work of renewing ties is com- 
menced, the ties having previously been distributed on the section. Most 
of the time should be devoted to this, all ties being thoroughly tamped as soon 
as they are in place. The track should be lined, and low joints raised, as this 
work progresses. On some roads the tie renewals are done quickly at the 
beginning of the season, while on others this work is spread out through the 
season. The former is by far the better plan. As soon as this work is com- 
pleted, the work of thorough surfacing preparatory for the heavy summer 
traffic is then commenced. The lining is done first, on account of the bad line 
resulting from the tie renewals, but the surfacing should follow very closely. 
The gaging is done at the same time. Ballasting is done sometimes before 
and sometimes after the new ties have been put in. The latter method involves 
less disturbance and leaves the track in good condition after the surfacing. 

Summer. — Surfacing and rail renewals may be done at any convenient time 
between spring and winter. The new rails are sometimes laid before the ties 



354 TRACK WORK. 

are renewed, so that the new ties will be properly spaced; but usually it is 
better to put the ties in first and have them thoroughly tamped, especially 
if there are many renewals. A general inspection of spikes, bolts, nuts and 
nut locks is then made. All worn, bent, broken or improperly driven spikes 
are removed, the holes plugged, and new spikes are driven. Broken or loose 
bolts are replaced. Switches and switch connections, frogs, guard rails, etc., 
need careful inspection. As fast as the regular surfacing is completed, the 
ballast should be dressed to the standard cross-section, and the toe of the slope 
lined to a "grass line" about 7 ft. or 9 ft. from the rail. The ballast may be 
scraped or scurfed three or four times to kill the weeds and keep the track clear. 
The drainage, correction of slopes, and general work not interfering with the 
track itself can best be done during the summer. Spare time can also be spent 
in trimming up yard tracks, and clearing yards and station grounds. 

Autumn. — Weeds should be cut at least once a year, and oftener if necessary 
to keep the track clear. The best time for this is just before seeding. The 
grass on the right-of-way should be mowed, bushes cleared, and the piles of 
brush burned. In some cases the right-of-way is burned over instead of mowed, 
especially where there is liability of fires from engine sparks. Where fires 
cause trouble, a fire guard may be formed by plowing a narrow strip about 
50 ft. from each side of the track. Burned or decayed trees likely to fall near 
the track should be removed. Old ties, etc., may be burned, and other old 
material cleared up. About a month before the commencement of the winter 
or rainy season the track should be given a general surfacing (including tamp- 
ing up low joints and centers, lining, and gaging). This should be started at 
the farther end of the section and worked steadily to the other end. The 
track itself should be put in condition at the same time, and the spikes and 
joints seen to. Ditching must be then undertaken before the stormy or rainy 
period, the ditches being cleaned out and given the necessary width and grade. 
The more thoroughly this work is done, the better will be the condition of the 
track during the winter. Trenches should also be cut under switch rods and 
interlocking work to prevent water or snow collecting and freezing. Culverts 
and waterways must be cleared of brush and obstructions, and any signs of 
scour or undermining looked for, while streams should be examined above 
and below the culverts and any obstructions removed. After this there is 
plenty of work to be done in repairing fences and gates, repairing and erecting 
snow fences, and stacking additional portable snow fences where they will be 
needed. Track signs and telegraph poles have to be inspected, and cattle- 
guards and crossings cleaned up. Where the snowfall is heavy, the inside 
planks of farm crossings may be removed, so as to avoid the danger of blocked 
flangeways. Signs for flanger cars may also be put up at road crossings. Shims 
may be sorted by sizes; tools sharpened and repaired; and snow shovels, 
brooms and salt got ready. Yards and sidetracks may profitably be cleaned, 
drained, surfaced and repaired before the snow falls. 

Winter. — With reduced track forces, the section gangs are kept busy inspect- 
ing the track and switches and making such small repairs as gaging, tightening 
bolts, etc. This work will occupy the time in fine weather or until the snow 
comes. After the ground is frozen, the time is principally spent in blocking 
up track and taking care of snow. During snow-storms, the switches, frogs, 
and guard-rail flangeways must be kept clear; also, all signal and interlocking 
connections. In heavy snow-storms, the section men must work in clearing 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 355 

the track and help the snow gang or shovelers. During fine weather, rails, 
ties, lumber, fence material, etc., may be distributed, ready for spring work. 
Heaving of the track by frost has now to be expected, and proper precautions 
must be taken to keep the track in surface by shimming. The ditches should 
be examined as soon as any thaw sets in, and kept clear of ice or packed snow, 
so as to allow free passage for the water. Extra forces may be required for 
night duty, to keep switch connections and interlocking plants in working order. 

General Realinement. 

The true alinement of track is essential for economy of maintenance and 
for the easy and safe running of trains. Kinks or bends in tangents and irreg- 
ularities in curves cause an unpleasant surging motion of the cars and nosing 
of trucks, which in aggravated cases may contribute to a derailment. When 
the road is in operation, the track centers soon become destroyed or displaced, 
and the effect of the traffic is to cause the track to shift more or less both on 
tangents and curves, and especially at the ends of curves if transition curves 
are not used. In spite of the routine work of lining on each section, there will 
gradually develop considerable changes from the original alinement, includ- 
ing swings on tangents and modifications of curves. The varying ideas and 
ability of individual men will thus result in giving a line which is not satis- 
factorily true and has an appreciable effect upon the trains. 

Where a railway has been in service for some years with only such lining 
as is done in detail by the section foremen, it is likely to have many irregu- 
larities in line, due to the influences above noted. It may then be desirable 
to give a thorough realinement of a division or a long stretch of road, and to 
set up permanent monuments from which measurements can be taken to check 
the alinement in tne future. Center stakes may be set every three or four 
years, and those on sharp curves tested once a year. Iron plugs, 24 ins. long, 
may be used to mark curve centers. In some cases monuments, consisting 
of granite blocks or posts, are set at the P.C. and P.T. (and P.C.C.), or at inter- 
vals of about 500 ft. around the curve. In any such thorough realinement 
of a piece of track, the transit should be used, and the track centers marked 
by tacks in stakes, as on new work. Short sharp swings or bends in tangents 
should be corrected, but long swings are not serious. In such work as this, 
it is not necessary to give mathematically straight tangents or exact curves. 
In fact, such refinement might often involve an amount and cost of work in 
shifting the track that would be far beyond any practical advantages, and 
might in many cases result in throwing the line off the existing roadbed. This 
is especially the case with long easy curves, and these may have to be com- 
pounded in relining them, in order to adjust them to the existing work. The 
aim is to obtain practically straight tangents (free from sharp bends) and 
curves of such regularity that trains will ride easily upon them. 

With sights of 1 to 5 miles, as on long tangents, the center line may be sighted 
from the transit upon a foresight target 36X18 ins., painted red and white, 
and placed over the track at a water tank, etc., at a sufficient height to clear 
trains. Center stakes and tacks may then be put at intervals of about 750 
ft. (or opposite every fifth telegraph pole). The transit is then placed over 
the gage side of the line rail at the starting point, and a foresight taken on 
a rod set at the gage side of the rail and attached to a track gage, whose center 
line is over the center tack in one of the stakes. Intermediate sighting is 



356 



TRACK WORK. 



then done on a small target on a second track gage, which is moved along 
about 50 ft. at a time. A lining gang for this work would consist of about 
three men ahead of and five behind the moving target. A useful backsight 
target to expedite transit work in lining curves, etc., in maintenance-of-way, 
is shown in Fig. 204. It is driven into the stake or tie just back of the tack 
marking a point, and its use saves the time otherwise lost by the whole party, 
when a man is sent back with rod or pencil to give a backsight. Three men 
with a few of these targets can work as fast in rerunning curves and tangents 
as four men without them. They give a well-defined sight, even at long dis- 
tances, and stand so low that passing trains do not knock them out. Another 
target is of ^-in. iron, of triangular form, 3 ins. wide on top, and 4J ins. high 
(including a J-in. point which is driven into the tie). 



P 2 




id 



*¥ 



Fig. 204. — Backsight Target for Lining Track. 



The following method of lining track preparatory to ballasting has been 
used by Mr. R. A. Rutledge on the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe Ry. The endeavor 
is to get the tangents as nearly straight as possible, but to leave easy swings 
where exact lining would require an excessive amount of work. The transit 
being set near a curve point, the line of track is obtained, and then produced 
to the next intersection by the following method: Two points are located 500 
or 1,000 ft. apart, according to the clearness of the atmosphere and the accu- 
racy of the object glass. The transit is next set over the second point and a 
backsight taken on the first, after which a third point is located the same dis- 
tance ahead by reversing the transit on it with great care. The line is thus 
continued forward to a point near the P.C. of the next curve, and, at each point 
located, the distance to the right-hand rail is measured and recorded. Inspec- 
tion then shows whether this is the line that best fits the track. If not, a 
simple calculation will show at which point to swing the line, the idea being 
to get a tangent that will fit the track as it is on the ground and save as much 
relining as possible. When the line is decided on, a calculation is made as to 
how much each point, already set, has to be moved to get it on this line. They 
are then measured in, using a tape graduated to hundredths. 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 357 

The transit is set over alternate points on the selected line, and run each 
way by foresights, in this way getting as near a straight line as can be run, 
and at the same time reducing the track work to a minimum. On curves, 
the intersection points are obtained either by running the tangents to their 
intersection, or by running in long chords and calculating the curve point 
if the intersection is difficult of access. After establishing the curve points, 
the curve is run in and temporary points are established at each station. The 
distance from each temporary point to the outside rail is measured and re- 
corded, after which (by calculating the external for the curve at the given 
degree, and for another curve either one minute more or less) it can be seen 
whether the curve can be improved by flattening or sharpening it. In all 
the work the reduction of track work is kept in mind. This method makes 
work for the instrumentman, but the work of a party of three engineers may 
save that of a track gang of 50 to 100 men. Other methods are described in 
"Engineering News," Dec. 26, 1901; Feb. 13, March 20 and April 10, 1902. 

Lining. 

This term is generally applied to the detail lining of track from time to time 
by the section gangs. It should be done, as a rule, after the surfacing (or 
raising), and should be finished up each day to leave the track in good condi- 
tion. If the track is badly out of line, this work may be done before the sur- 
facing. All kinks in rails should be corrected with the rail bender. In the 
work of lining, where line stakes are set, the foreman sets his gage on the 
rails at each center stake, and the men throw the track until the center mark 
on the gage is over the center mark on the stake. When this has been done 
at four or five stakes, the men go back and throw in the intermediate points, 
the foreman lining them in by his eye. Where there are no center stakes, the 
practice on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. is that the foreman 
lines his track by eye, keeping a sufficient distance from the lining bars to 
enable him to have a good view of the rail. Occasionally when tangents or 
curves become badly out of line and the foreman is unable to remedy it by 
eye, the engineers are called upon to run a line with the transit. In the more 
extensive work, such as ballasting and new tracks, stakes are set and the lining 
is done as above described. 

For short sights, as in bent rails, the foreman should bring his eye close to 
the rail, but for longer sights he should stand up at some distance from the 
work, so as to avoid putting a swing in the track. In all work of this kind ; 
one line of rail is taken as the "line rail," and all lining is done on it, the other 
rail being conformed to the line thus given in the subsequent operation of 
gaging. After proceeding ahead for some distance, the foreman should turn 
and sight back as a check upon the accuracy of his work. For double track, 
the foreman may have a special gage for lining the inside rail of the second 
track from the track already lined, all measurements being made from the 
gage side of rail heads. For accurately lining a long stretch of track, he may 
sight by means of a rod or target fitted to a track gage, and having the center 
line directly over the inside of the rail head or at the center mark on the gage. 
The rod may be set vertically by means of a graduated arc on the gage. Three 
sighting boards may be used, resting on the rails, and having lugs or brackets 
to fit against the inside of the rail heads. At the center of each board is a 
vertical flat bar with its face on the center line. Two boards are set on the 



358 TRACK WORK. 

straight track at either end of the swing. The third is set at different points 
between them, and the track is thrown until the middle sight is in line with 
the two end sights. The distant sight may have a small target to render it 
easily distinguishable at a distance. The Bailey sighting blocks are described 
under "Surfacing.'' 

The track is usually thrown to line by from six to ten men with bars, half 
of the men being at each rail. The bars are stuck firmly in the ballast at an 
angle, and resting against the rail. As the foreman gives the word, all the 
men heave steadily, the movements being repeated until the track is in cor- 
rect line. In lining after surfacing, care must be taken that the bars are not 
at too great an angle, or they will raise the track in moving it, and so spoil 
the surface. The work is severe, and on branch lines with small forces, or 
on main lines at seasons when the section gangs are reduced, it is necessarily 
left until such time as the force is increased or is temporarily recruited by 
men from other sections. In some cases it may be necessary to send a float- 
ing or extra gang to do the work. To obviate these difficulties a lining jack 
has been introduced, having a horizontal traverse on a base plate fitted with a 
rack. The jacks are Used in pairs. Sufficient ballast is removed from between 
two ties to allow the base plates to be pushed under the rails, where they are 
firmly bedded. The jacks are then slid along the plates till the lifting claws 
are under the rails, and the track is raised until the ties are just clear of the 
ballast beds (but not enough to allow material to fall in beneath them). If 
the ballast is heavy it may be loosened around the ends of the ties. The 
levers are then set to work pawls engaging with the horizontal racks in the base 
plates, and the jacks are thus given a lateral movement. Both jacks should 
be set outside the rail, in which case only one does the work of throwing the 
track, the other being used to raise the track and serving to support it as it is 
moved. Two men with two jacks can throw track for lining. The jacks may 
also be used at grade crossings that have been thrown out of line by the creep- 
ing of the rails; this is heavy work and ordinarily requires a large gang of 
men with bars. The jacks may be used for ordinary track work, the base 
plates being placed only when track is to be lined. Track may also be lined 
with ordinary jacks, being raised a little higher on the inner side by a jack 
set at an angle, so that the track will slide off to its new position. This, how- 
ever, is open to the objection of liability of dirt getting under the ties and spoil- 
ing the surface; it also requires the jack on the lower side to be placed inside 
the rail. 

Lining Curves. 

A curve should be maintained uniformly at its proper degree from end to 
end. Continual lining and work, or neglect, very often results in sharpening 
a curve at various points, so that it will ride badly. The curves should be 
staked out and tested periodically with the transit, but the foreman should 
also check them. To do this a cord is stretched with the ends touching the 
gage side of the head of the outer rail, and the distance from the middle of 
the cord to the rail head is carefully measured. This distance in inches divided 
by the middle ordinate for a given length of chord of a 1° curve gives the degree 
of the curve tested. The middle ordinates for different chords (or measured 
strings) for a 1° curve are given in Table No. 27. With a 62-ft. chord, each 
inch of middle ordinate represents 1° of curve. This table also gives the nee- 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 359 

cssary ordinate for bending rails to a curve of given degree, as described under 
"Bending Rails." In lining curves, the foreman takes a cord 62 ft. or 100 ft. 
long, and at a part of the curve which seems to be true, he measures chords 
along the gage side of the outside rail (or outside of inner rail if the rails are 
worn), and measures the middle ordinates. Having thus ascertained the 
middle ordinate, or having obtained it from such a table as Table No. 27 or 
No. 28, if he knows the degree of curve, he commences at the point of curve 
(or point of circular curve if there is a transition curve) and measures chord 
lines from each middle ordinate, thus getting ordinates at intervals of 31 or 
50 ft. These should be recorded and averaged (if not uniform), and the curve 
lined to the proper ordinate throughout. The outside rail should be taken 
as the line rail, beginning some distance back on the tangent, if this is not 
the line rail on the adjacent tangent. The line rail should be thoroughly- 
spiked, so that it will remain in position for lining the gage rail. When the 
curve has been checked, the ballast should be cleared away from the ends of 
the ties on the side to which the track must be thrown in correcting the line. 
Lining with a cord is not satisfactory for transition curves, and these should 
be properly staked out by an engineer. Then the foreman has simply to keep 
to the permanent established line instead of trying to find the line for himself. 

TABLE NO. 27.— MIDDLE ORDINATES FOR CHORDS OF VARIOUS LENGTHS. 
Length of Middle ordinate Length of Middle ordinate 

chord. <— for 1°. . chord. r for 1°. , 

30 ft i-in. 0.25 62 ft 1 in. 1.00 

44" 4-in. 0.50 100" 2f ins. 2.625 

50" f-in. 0.625 215" lft 

W T hile much mathematical and instrumental work is expended in the laying 
out and rectification of railway curves, yet the everyday work of maintain- 
ing the curves in proper alinement is largely a matter of rule-of-thumb prac- 
tice, in spite of the important relation of curve alinement to the safe and smooth 
running of trains. The Smith curve gage is an instrument by which the sec- 
tion foreman can readily check the accuracy of his curves. It consists of a 
bar 5 ft. long, at each end of which is a transverse saddle to rest on the rail. 
Over each saddle is a flat seat on which a removable graduated scale (at right 
angles to the rail) is fitted when the instrument is in use. At the center of 
the bar is a casting having a bearing for two horizontal grooved collars, to 
which are attached the ends of No. 22 copper measuring wires. When not 
in use, the wires are coiled on a 3J-in. grooved wheel. To the end of each 
wire is attached a scale, graduated for curves up to "24°, and with a sliding 
piece which is adjusted to the exact length of chord. The instrument is made 
to measure 25-ft. chords. 

The operation for lining curves with this instrument is shown in Fig. 205. 
A stake is driven in the middle of the track at the point of curve A and another 
at B, 25 ft. back on the tangent. The man with the instrument places it with 
the center point over the center of the first stake A. The rear man sets the 
pin at the end of his wire over the center of the rear stake B. The instrument 
man then shifts the bar until the rear wire is over the center mark on the scale 
at the rear end (when the bar will be parallel with the tangent). He then 
lines in the front man until the front wire crosses the mark of the given degree 
of curve on the scale at the front end of the bar. The front man then drives 
a tack at this point C, either in a stake or on a tie, and the three men move 
forward 25 ft. With the instrument at C, and the rear end of the wire at A 




360 TRACK WORK. 

(point of curve), the instrument is swung until the center mark on the rear 
scale is in line with the wire, and the front man is then lined in until his wire 
crosses the front scale again at the mark of the given degree of curve. The 
operation is repeated around the curve, and gives center marks at 25-ft. intervals. 
To tell whether a curve is in proper and uniform alinement, the instrument 
is placed on the outer rail of the curve with its center pin against the gage 
side of the rail head opposite the point of curve, as at W, Fig. 205, while the 
front and rear men also place the pins at the ends of the wires against the gage 
side of the rail head, as at X and Y. The instrument is set parallel with the 
tangent by bringing the rear wire over the center of the scale at the rear end, 
and the graduation at which the front wire then crosses the front scale is noted, 
showing the degree of curve. The instrument is then shifted to Y, with the 



C. Line of Track _rv 

~$~ ~ ' & P|C 

Tangent 

Inner Ra il 

Ens. News. 



Fig. 205. — Method of Using a Curve-Lining Instrument. 

ends of the wires at W and Z. The bar is swung until the rear wire crosses 
the center mark on the rear scale, and the graduation at which the front wire 
crosses the front scale is again noted. This operation is repeated around the 
curve. The graduation (or ordinate) shown by the front wire will be the same 
at each point if the curve is true. Otherwise the several readings are added 
together and the sum is divided by the number of readings, which gives the 
proper degree for the curve, and to which it must be adjusted. Where ease- 
ment or transition curves are used it is a difficult matter for the trackmen 
to check or adjust their alinement, but this is rendered much simpler by the 
instrument in connection with a table of offsets. 

Gaging. 

The combined influence of the traffic, the wear of rail heads, and the tie 
cutting and spike loosening at the base of the rail, is to increase the gage of 
the track, and this must be corrected periodically. It is usually done imme- 
diately after lining, but it is not generally considered necessary to correct 
the gage where the widening is not more than |-in., providing that this widen- 
ing is uniform for a considerable distance. Track that is in bad condition 
in this respect may be gaged by a few men working immediately ahead of the 
surfacing gang. The work consists in lining the " gage " rail by measurements 
from the "line " rail, the lining having already been done. A track gage is 
set at various points, the spikes of the gage rail are drawn, the rail thrown 
in against the lug on the tool, and the spikes are driven to hold it in its new 
position. 

Surfacing. 

A common and troublesome cause of bad riding track is an irregular surface, 
with sags, low joints, bent rails, and short depressions and humps in the road- 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 361 

bed. These defects are due to heavy loads and traffic, light rails, weak fast- 
enings, poor ballast, insufficient tamping, rails out of level transversely on 
tangents, and insufficient work of maintenance. The remedy for this is sur- 
facing, or putting the rails and track in a uniform plane. The work usually 
includes lining and gaging also. In the general surfacing done each year, 
the track should be raised only just enough for proper tamping, to bring up 
the low parts to a uniform surface, the track being raised out of a face only 
every four or five years. Great care is required to prevent the section men 
from raising it too much, with the idea of letting traffic settle it. No raise 
must be made in tunnels or under structures with a headway of less than 22 
ft. In stone, slag or coarse gravel, a thorough tamping can rarely be done 
without raising the track about 1 in. In sand, earth, cinders or poor gravel, 
a raise of J-in. to 1 in. may be made by tamping without disturbing the bed 
of the tie. The work should be done immediately after tie renewals in the 
spring, and again before the winter. It should also be looked to immediately 
after the laying of new rails, so as to prevent the rails from being surface bent 
by trains running over them when they are not uniformly supported, as it is 
almost impossible to take out such vertical kinks. When new rails are laid, 
the track should be raised enough to allow all ties to be tamped to give an 
even bearing. The freezing of water in the ballast or roadbed in winter causes 
"heaving," the effect of which is to raise the track irregularly. As the frozen 
ballast cannot be tamped, shimming or blocking has then to be resorted to 
in order to bring the track to surface. The cost of surfacing averages about 
$150 per mile per year, increasing about 1% with each 12° of curvature. 

Surfacing should be commenced at one end of the section and carried on 
continuously to the other end, each day's work leaving the track in finished 
condition. Two men should work ahead of the gang to tighten all spikes, 
so that the ties will come up when the rails are raised. One of the men holds 
up the tie with a bar while the other drives the spikes. The bolts should also 
be tightened. The foreman sights the line rail, and when this has been raised 
and tamped to surface, the track gage is laid on the rails and the other side 
of the track raised. The gage should be set at each joint and at the middle 
of each rail. The final tamping must closely follow the raising, so that the 
surface will be maintained under traffic. If the track is not to be raised to 
grade stakes, it should be carefully examined by the foreman and raised to 
the level of the high points. If there are only a few high points it may be 
better to lower these than to raise long stretches of track. The raising is done 
by jacks or bars. The former are preferable; they hold the track more securely 
at the required elevation and are less likely to throw it out of line in raising. 
On the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., the rules require that in 
the general surfacing the track should never be raised above the level of the 
given grade, and particular attention is paid to raising at the ends of bridges. 
In the ordinary track surfacing, as done by the section foreman, where there 
is no grade given, he takes his level board and determines his high rail. After 
noting the low spots in this he raises the opposite side to the level, with his 
level board, raising the joints first and the centers and quarters as may be 
necessary. The raise should never extend beyond such length as the gang of 
men can care for between regular trains. In surfacing on curves, the inner 
or lower rail is taken as the grade rail and the process carried on in the same 
way as on tangents. After the track has been put up and thoroughly tamped, 



362 



TRACK WORK. 



it is put to perfect line as far as the section foreman is able to do this with his 
eye. The ballast is then filled and dressed to the standard cross-section. 

The track level and gage should be freely used in surfacing. The track 
level indicates local defects in transverse surface, but it is difficult to deter- 
mine the general condition of the plane of the surface. The eye cannot detect 
a general irregularity in this plane, and the practice is to sight one rail into 
a uniform plane, and then to bring the opposite rail up to the same plane by 
means of the track level. One way is to use a sighting board and blocks. On 
the New York Central Ry. the board is 8X11 ins., 12 ft. long; it is painted 
white, with a 2-in. black stripe at 5 ins. from the bottom. On some roads 
it is black, with a white line. This is placed on the rails at a point beyond 
the part to be raised, where the track is already in proper surface. The fore- 
man has a wooden block or iron target 5 ins. high, which he places on one rail 
at a point three or four rail lengths from the other end of the part to be raised. 
A similar block is placed on the rail between the board and the first block. 
This second block is moved from point to point, and the track is raised at 
each point until the top of the block is sighted by the foreman in line with 
the first block and the stripe on the board. Each of the two blocks (or targets) 
may be mounted on the middle of a track level; sighting shows the longitudinal 
surface, and the level bubble shows the transverse surface. 

The Bailey system of sighting for surface and line uses three sights or 
blocks, as in Fig. 206. Each sight has an upright bar, with a foot to rest on 



6u!de Block 




Jack Block 



foremans Block 



ti**Sgfo 




Fig. 206.— Sighting Block. 

the rail and held by a side piece clamped against the rail head by a thumb screw. 
Across this is a horizontal arm with a target at each end. The foreman's block 
has the targets below the arm and painted black. The intermediate or jack 
block is similar, but with a graduated arm for use in lining curves. The guide 
block has the targets above the arm, painted white and black. In setting 
the blocks, a pocket spirit level is used to get the arms horizontal. For sur- 
facing, the sight is taken over the tops of the arms on the first to the lower 
edge of the black stripe on the third block. The other block is set between 
them and the track raised to bring the arm into the line of sight. For a long 
sag in a stretch of track, a number of sights may be taken, the arm of the jack 
block being raised on the bar to bring it into line. Its position and the amount 
of elevation required are marked on the rail so that the track can be raised 
the proper amount after the sighting is done. In lining, the sight is taken 
along the ends of the targets. On curves, the two end blocks are set G2 ft. 
apart with the jack block midway between them. A small red target is then 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 363 

fitted on the graduated arm of the jack block at the distance of the middle ordi- 
nate for the curve, and the sight is taken over this target. 

In surfacing or raising, the track should never be brought up above the level 
0£ grade stakes or of bridges in the expectation that the traffic will settle it 
down to the exact grade. If the raise is at all heavy, the joints are raised 
first, then the centers, and then the quarters; but if it is light, the joints are 
raised first, and then the thirds or "long quarters/' which will bring the centers 
up properly. The track level is then used at all joints and centers, and the 
opposite rail brought up as required. The raise should extend only over such 
a length of track as can be tamped between trains, and neither side should be 
fully tamped until both sides have been brought to surface. With a raise 
of 2 ins. or more an incline or run-off should be formed at each end to give an 
easy-riding approach for trains. For extensive surfacing where the track is 
to be raised 2h or 3 ins. and the traffic is not heavy, the work may be done 
by a gang of 30 men with a foreman and assistant foreman. When the raise 
is over 3 ins. and the traffic is heavy, a gang of 40 or 50 men may be worked. 

The lowering of humps or high places to surface is troublesome, and it 
may be necessary to shift the ties. In this case the ballast is shoveled out 
between ties I and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, etc.; and ties 1, 3, 5, etc., are shifted 
into the spaces thus formed. The old beds of these ties are then leveled off 
as required, and the ties shifted back into position. Ties 2, 4, 6, etc., are then 
knocked into the open spaces, and have their beds leveled off in the same 
way. They are then put back. The ties should be well tamped, and the 
lowered piece of track tested for surface after some trains have passed over it. 

With earth and other poor ballast, the section gang has to be continually 
surfacing, as the material will not give a uniform support under traffic, but 
some parts will go down while others remain firm. If the force is sufficient, 
the track should be surfaced and tamped in the usual way; but if the sec- 
tion is long and the number of men allowed is small (which is frequently the 
case on such roads), then there is not time enough to fully tamp all low ties 
and low spots to proper surface. In such cases the tamping must be done 
partly from above by the trains, instead of merely from below by the tamp- 
ing bars. The jacks or raising bars are put under the part to be raised, as far 
from the finished part of track as is possible without causing the rail to sag 
between the jack and the finished track. The low track is then raised above 
the finished or desired surface by an amount varying from f-in. for small lifts 
to 1£ or 2 ins. for lifts of 4 to 5 ins. Earth is then shoveled under the ties and 
tamped. The jacks are then removed, the track sighted for surface, and rec- 
tified if necessary. The track should be lined up before the first train passes. 
The train will drive the ties down to surface, and after it has passed, the surface 
should be finally sighted. The ballast is then shoveled under the ends of the 
ties, and tamped and dressed to shape for proper drainage. The best surface 
will be obtained if one or two men do all the filling, so as to secure uniformity. 
In work under such circumstances it is simply a question of how to keep the 
track in reasonably good running condition, without regard to appearances. 
Good men who are familiar with the work, however, will devise useful methods 
for themselves. New men, perhaps accustomed to good ballast and large gangs, 
may find it difficult to get satisfactory results. 

The Patterson surfacing machine is intended to do away with tamping, 
which necessarily disturbs the old bed of the tie to some extent. A blower 



364 TRACK WORK. 

using compressed air or driven by hand is mounted on a hand car or on a frame 
which runs on one rail and is clamped to it when at work. The machine con- 
sists of two vertical pipes, one connected with the blower by a hose, and the 
other having a hopper on the top for the ballast. The pipes unite in a shoe 
at the bottom, and to this is fitted a thin flat horizontal nozzle with variable 
width of opening. The material used is f-in. screened stone or gravel. The 
ballast is cleared away from the ends of the ties and the track raised to sur- 
face. The nozzle is then inserted under the end of a tie and the blower put 
in operation, driving the fine material into all the cavities and packing it solid. 
This method can be used for a raise of £-in. to 1^ inst. In a test on the* New 
York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., a gang working in the usual way surfaced 
5 ft. per man per hour, while with the machine the average was 8 ft. In one 
year, the stretch surfaced by hand required 36 hours labor for maintenance 
while that surfaced by machine required only 2 hours. The machine has also 
been used on the Bessemer & Lake Erie Ry. for surfacing track laid with 
steel ties. 

Raising Track. 

About once in three to five years the entire track will require to be raised 
out of face or brought up to a new surface. This is often done by extra gangs 
of about 70 men. At such a time (as well as in raising out of sags of any con- 
siderable depth) grade stakes should be set to give the elevation of the top of 
the rail, and ballast should be distributed for raising the track. (Chapter 
19.) In raising, jacks should be used under each rail, and both sides of the 
track brought up and tamped simultaneously. It is bad practice to raise 
and tamp one side first, and then bring up the other side by the track level. 
The raise should not exceed 6 ins. at any one lift, the 6 ins. of ballast being 
well tamped, and then another raise made. The jacks should be set about 
2 ft. from the joints, so as to bring them up level and avoid bending the splice 
bars. They should never be set on the inside of the rails. The track may 
be raised about £-in. or f-in. above grade (according to the quality of the bal- 
last) and well tamped, on account of the tendency of new track to settle. Every 
foreman has his own ideas as to the proper course to pursue in tamping a raise, 
but a good plan is to first tamp the joint and shoulder ties, then the center 
tie, the two quarters, and the intermediates; finishing off again at the joints. 
An incline or "run-off" should be made, connecting the old with the new level, 
this being long enough to allow trains to ride easily over it, and to prevent 
the bending of the rails. If the work is extensive and the section gang is assisted 
by a floating or work-train gang, a part of the regular gang should follow behind 
the raising gang, to finish the tamping, surfacing and dressing. 

In work of this kind on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry., when it 
necessitates extra gangs and where it is necessary to raise the track several 
inches, jacks are used under the rail and both sides of the track are brought 
up and tamped simultaneously. After the grade stakes have been set for the 
top of rail, the foreman uses two sighting boards and a sighting bob. The 
sighting boards are placed at some of the grade stakes and the intermediate 
joints are raised to the level; the bob being placed on the joint that is being 
raised and the foreman sighting across the two boards. The men follow behind 
and shovel-tamp the track as fast as both sides are raised. This work is done 
between trains and protected by a flagman, and a suitable run-off is made 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 365 

to allow the safe passage of trains. The jacks are always used on the outside 
of the rail and never within three ties or about 4 ft. from joints, in order to 
avoid bending the angle bars. The track is never raised more than 6 ins. at 
a lift. In such work as this the foreman determines by experience how much 
above grade the track should be raised at that time, as in the first raising 
of the track a little is always allowed for settlement. Under no circum- 
stances is the finished track left above grade. In extensive ballasting, when 
the track has been raised to the proper level, the joint ties and quarter ties 
are tamped at the same time, to avoid placing too much strain on the joint 
ties after the jacks have been taken out, which would have a tendency to 
bend the angle bars. In a day or two after the heavy raising has been done, 
a smaller gang is sent back and raises the track again to grade, thoroughly 
bar-tamping, relining and filling in to the standard cross-section. 

Tamping. 

It is not sufficiently well understood that the accuracy and permanence of 
surface, as well as the general efficiency and economy of maintenance-of-way, 
depend to a very large degree upon the proper tamping of the track. This 
has been shown very clearly by the investigations made by Mr. Cuenot on 
the Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean Ry. (France). In view of the fundamen- 
tal importance of this matter it is not difficult to see why deformation of track 
(with the constant work necessary to keep it within limits) is so serious and 
widespread a trouble on American railways. The tamping of ties is skilled 
labor, but as a rule in this country it is not done by skilled laborers perma- 
nently employed. On the contrary, it is done by inexperienced and transient 
forces of the cheapest grades of common labor, whose efforts are largely gov- 
erned by "sheer strength and awkwardness" One of the important require- 
ments is that the ballast must be tamped more thoroughly at each end of the 
tie than at the middle, the work being concentrated within a length of about 
12 to 15 ins. on each side of each rail. This gives a firm and solid bearing. If 
thorough tamping is continued under the middle of the tie it will cause a center- 
bound track. Under this condition, the tie becomes more solidly supported 
at the center than at the ends, as this part of the roadbed receives a compara- 
tively small proportion of the loads exerted by the traffic. This may result 
in a tendency of the track to rock laterally (with perhaps an unpleasant or 
dangerous effect upon the trains), and in a distortion of the proper line and 
surface. In some cases ties may be broken. The tilting or rocking of track 
from this cause is also suggested as a common cause of spreading rails, as it 
may result in greatly increasing the pressure and shocks of the wheels against 
the heads of the rails. One advantage of certain designs of compound ties 
(see "Ties") is that with a large bearing surface under each rail and a com- 
paratively small surface for the middle or connecting portion, it is almost impos- 
sible for the track to become center bound. When track has once become 
center bound, the most effective remedy is to give a slight raise to the entire 
track and to see that the tamping done after this raising is comparatively light 
at the middle of the track. 

The only way to maintain track in good surface is to have the ties well and 
thoroughly tamped. The men should work in pairs, both men of a pair being 
of about the same strength and activity. In some cases each pair does the 
entire tamping of one tie. Tamping picks are used for stone, slag, or coarse 



366 TRACK WORK. 

clean gravel. Tamping bars are used for earth, cinders and ordinary gravel. 
In tamping with bars there should be an equal number of men 0,11 each side 
of the tie, standing opposite one another and striking in unison, so as to pack 
the material and not drive it out at the opposite side of the tie. Shovel 
handles make fairly good substitutes for bars in light work, or loose material. 
Shovel blades, however, should never be used for tamping, except at the middle 
of the tie in loose ballast or for the first placing of sand and gravel. The shovel 
has not the force or weight necessary to pack and consolidate the material 
sufficiently to sustain heavy loads and traffic. This may be stated very emphatic- 
ally, though many trackmen working in gravel or earth ballast believe other- 
wise. 

The joint ties should be tamped first, and then the shoulder ties. Both are 
tamped somewhat harder than the others, but never higher, as that will tend to 
cause the splice bars to crack under traffic. The object of tamping the ties next 
to the joint ties with extra care is to prevent the upward deflection of the joint 
when a wheel is over the second tie, which deflection often causes the splice bars 
to crack downwards from the top. As already noted, the most thorough tamp- 
ing should be directly under and for a few inches on each side of the rail, and 
tamping from the ends will assist in getting a good firm bearing under the 
rail. Each tie should be fully and properly tamped before the men leave it, 
and it is bad practice to tamp the ends only and leave the center to be tamped 
later. This second tamping is quite likely to result in center-bound track. 
The ties at frogs, switches and crossings should be specially well tamped. 
Tamping machines have been tried to a small extent. The Collet machine 
used on the Paris, Lyons & Mediterranean Ry. (France) is mounted on a truck 
or push car and operates a bar with a reciprocating movement. Four machines 
are used, two on each side of each tie. 

Renewing Ties. 

The new ties are usually distributed by work trains at convenient times 
during the winter, so that all may be on the ground soon after the frost is thor- 
oughly out of the roadbed. The distribution is done under instructions from 
the roadmaster or foreman as to the places for unloading and the number 
unloaded at each place. The foreman should know how many ties are to be 
deposited on each mile. For small lots or during a dull season, the ties may 
be distributed from local freight trains. In some cases the ties are not dis- 
tributed along the section from the cars, but are unloaded in lots at certain 
points and thence distributed by push cars. The ties to be renewed should 
have been marked conspicuously, and only the marked ties must be removed. 
The work should be done before or immediately after new rails are laid, so as 
to give a good substantial bearing to the rails, all new ties being thoroughly 
tamped. All old ties left in the track should have open spike holes plugged. 
The work should be commenced as soon as possible after the frost has left the 
ground, as the ballast is then loose, while the men can work to better advan- 
tage than in the summer. Then by the time the heavy summer traffic begins, 
the new ties will have become well settled, and the track will require but little 
maintenance. If the ties are put in late, and the season is wet, they do not 
get properly tamped, so that they may have to be shimmed in the winter. The 
renewal of shims and fixing up of the roadbed in the spring then delays the 
new work of tie renewals. When the work is once commenced it should be 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 367 

pushed steadily along and completed as soon as possible. Continual renewals 
of a few ties at a time all through the season prevent the track from being 
well settled and consolidated. This continual disturbance results in an increase 
in maintenance expenses and train expenses. (See Chapter on "Ties.") 

In renewing ties, the spikes are first drawn from the ties to be renewed in a 
certain length of track, and the men then work in pairs. Each pair takes a 
tie, loosens the ballast, pulls out the old ties, puts in the new tie and tamps 
it to a firm bearing. When a number of new ties have been put in, some of 
the men go back to spike and gage them, leaving the track in good condition 
at the end of the day. The old ties should also be removed and piled, and 
the track dressed and trimmed each day before quitting work. The practice 
on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Ry. is as follows: The track fore- 
man examines his ties and marks those that are to be taken out by chopping 
a small piece from the corner on one end. He also marks on the rail where 
he wishes the new ties to be located. In preparing to remove the old ties, 
the ballast is dug out to the necessary depth below the bottom of the ties, so 
that the old one may be pulled out without trouble. After the old tie is out, 
the bed is leveled off to a depth sufficient to admit of the new tie being pulled 
in. After the new tie is put in position it is held up to the rail and thoroughly 
tamped; in this position the rail is raised (not to exceed i-in.) to allow for 
settlement. As soon as the tie is tamped, the spikes are driven and the track 
brought to gage. The section gang is divided into pairs, as above described, 
and two men do the spiking and gaging. In the latter part of the day the 
whole gang turns back and gives the new ties a thorough tamping; they 
also fill the ballast between the ties and dress the track to its ordinary condi- 
tion. 

If a general renewal can be made, the best result will be obtained by lift- 
ing the track with jacks sufficiently to allow the old ties to be removed with- 
out destroying the bed, and then placing the new ties on the old beds and 
resurfacing the track. When only two or three ties are to be removed from 
under each rail, and the track is in general good surface, it is not desirable to 
disturb the roadbed or raise the track. In that case, the ballast may be dug 
out between these ties so that they can be removed without disturbing the 
remainder of the roadbed. On roads with heavy and fast traffic all track 
should be surfaced and tamped on the same day the ties are put in, for the 
reason that if the roadbed is dug deeper in some places than in others the ten- 
dency will be to settle unevenly, resulting in rough and unsafe track for fast 
trains. Track of this kind should be resurfaced in the course of eight or ten 
days, when all new ties and low places should be carefully retamped. Some 
roads require that the ballast beds must be loosened and new ties tamped to a 
firm bearing. This must not be attempted on the old bed, as the general sur- 
face of the rails would thus be raised. 

Gravel ballast is cut away from the ends of the ties and loosened along their 
sides. The spikes are then drawn, and the rails raised by jacks just enough 
to allow of the old tie being knocked out and a new one slipped in on the same 
bed. The ballast should not be dug out under the tie, unless the new tie is 
of greater thickness (which it should not be), as the less the tie beds are dis- 
turbed, the better for the maintenance of the track surface. This general rule 
may, however, be modified where only one or two ties are to be renewed in 
a rail length, but in this case a loosening of the side of the tie bed will usually 



368 TRACK WORK. 

enable the old tie to be taken out and the new one put in without much dis- 
turbance of the bed, and without the disturbance of the adjacent track which 
is incidental to raising by jacks. With stone, slag, or coarse gravel ballast* 
which is liable to fall onto the tie bed when the tie is removed, it is necessary 
to dig out the ballast at one side of the tie, and to knock the tie sideways into 
this trench. Some foremen prefer this plan with earth or common gravel, 
but the amount of digging required is liable to disturb and loosen the ballast. 
This plan, however, may be employed when two adjacent ties have to be 
renewed. If the ties are not uniform, the larger ones should be selected for 
the joints and for curves; and the wider end should be placed under the outer 
rail on curves. The ties should be properly spaced, placed square across the 
track (or radially on curves), and their ends should be lined at one side of 
the track. It is rarely economical to turn old ties, except where tie-plates 
are to be applied, and then it is probably better to turn the ties than to adze 
out new seats on the old worn faces. 

If the traffic is heavy, each tie should be tamped and have the outside spikes 
driven at once. Otherwise, a number of ties may be renewed in succession; 
one man going ahead to cut the earth or gravel from the ends of the ties, two 
men pulling spikes, and two men raising the track with jacks. If only one 
jack is to be had, the rail first raised should be blocked up, and the jack then 
put under the other rail. When 20 or 30 ties have been thus put in, three 
men are sent back to do the spiking, one holding up the ties with a bar and 
two driving the spikes. The new ties should be tamped each day as put in, 
the tamping being done thoroughly with a bar or pick. The ballast is then 
filled in between the ties and dressed to proper shape?. If the new ties are 
shovel-tamped, or only partially tamped with bars, and then left to be finished 
a few days later, the old ties will be disturbed, and a soft spot probably caused, 
especially if rain falls before the tamping is done. The second tamping, also, 
is likely to cause center-bound track. No train should be allowed to pass over 
untamped track, the foreman taking it for granted that it is safe. 

At the end of each week the ties removed should be properly piled on the 
right-of-way, at a convenient distance from the track if they are to be loaded 
on cars, or midway between the track and the fence if they are to be burned. 
They should not be left in the ditches or scattered about the right-of-way. 
Ties may be burned in small piles of 5 to 10, or in large piles of 50, but the 
former is usually the better and safer plan. The piles should not be near the 
track, as the intense heat is injurious to the paint and varnish of cars. Large 
piles should be burned in damp weather to reduce the danger from fire, and 
in all cases the burning piles should be watched to prevent fire from spread- 
ing to fences, fields, etc. 

In a few cases the practice has been adopted of renewing all ties at once. 
That is, each year a certain length of track on each section or division has all 
ties removed and new ones put in. The remainder of the track receives ordi- 
nary maintenance. The objection to this is that ties have a very varying 
life, so that on the portion re-tied a large number of good ties must be removed, 
while on the other portions a number of poor ties will be left in place. The 
proper way is to renew all ties that need renewal, which means that every 
year two or three ties in each rail length will have to be renewed. W T here 
the old ties have been cut by the rails, the rails must be raised by the new ties 
or the old bed cut down slightly to maintain the existing level. The Phila- 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 369 

delphia & Reading Ry. specifically provides that ties must be removed only 
as they become unfit for service, in the manner known as spotting, and not 
in continuous sections. 

Adzing Ties. 

When ties have been badly cut by the rails, the rail seat must be cut level 
(or "spotted ") with an adze, in order to form a proper bearing for the old 
or new rails, or for tie-plates. The trackmen have usually to rely upon their 
eyes in getting a level and even seat, and while practical men are very expert, 
yet as the ties are more or less covered with dirt and sand, and the men are 
hurried, the work is often imperfectly done. This is especially the case where 
an inferior class of labor is employed. In trimming ties preparatory to laying 
new rails, some roadmasters assign a few expert men exclusively to this work, 
as the ordinary laborers are apt to do insufficient adzing on hard ties and to 
cut too deeply in soft ties. Mr. G. M. Brown, when Chief Engineer of the 
Pere Marquette Ry., invented a machine for grooving the ties to the required 
depth, the grooves forming a gage or guide to the men in adzing the ties. A 
frame in front of a flat car, supported by an axle with 20-in. wheels, had a shaft 
with four sets of saws cutting four grooves about 2\ ins. wide. The depth 
of cut was regulated by a screw. The shaft was driven by an engine on the 
car. The end of the frame was suspended from a derrick on a car in front, to 
allow the saws to clear the rails at turnouts, etc. (See also "Change of Gage.") 

Setting Tie-Plates. 

In preparing to lay tie-plates on the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg Ry., 
as many spikes are withdrawn and as much adzing is done as possible before 
the rails are moved. When the traffic permits, the rest of the spikes are 
withdrawn, the rails are thrown out, spike holes plugged, and seats adzed 
and, leveled. The men work in gangs of three. One sets the gage and places 
the tie-plate in position. The other two have wooden mauls weighing 16 or 
18 lbs., with ordinary spike-maul handles about 36 to 38 ins. long, to drive 
the plate down so that its flanges or claws will have a firm hold in the wood. 
When a sufficient number of plates have been thus set, one of the gangs can 
be sent back to throw in the rails and spike them, the spike holes in the plates 
giving the proper gage. A lighter maul may be used, if its face is large enough 
to cover the tie-plate, but some men prefer an even heavier maul. If the plates 
have longitudinal flanges, the first blow at least should be struck from a posi- 
tion at right angles to the flanges. 

Considerable economy in track work may be insured by placing the plates 
on new ties for renewals before the ties are put in the track. This can be done 
by the section men in bad weather or during the winter. In using the tool 
Fig. 179, for this purpose, the adjustable head, C, is clamped in such a posi- 
tion on the bar that tie-plates of the size to be used will be in position for the 
proper gage of track when they are set with their ends butting against the faces 
F and G. When set in this way, the flat blades of the two heads will fit on 
the seats for the tie-plates. The tool is then set on the tie to test the sur- 
face of the seats, and these are adzed or dressed as required to give an 
even and level bearing. The tool is then turned over and set with the faces 
F and G resting on the tie. One tie-plate is put in position, being gaged 
and squared by fitting against the face F and the blade B. This plate is 



370 TRACK WORK. 

then driven down by means of the wooden mauls. The tool is put back in the 
same position, fitting against the plate, and the second tie-plate is then placed 
and set in the same way. The tool is frequently used for testing the level and 
surface of the rail seats of the ties when tie-plates are not to be used. The 
several operations are effected easily and rapidly. On the Boston & Maine 
Ry., the tie-plates are applied when the ties are on the track and ready for 
renewals. The tie is first tested as to face by a bar having flat plates to rest 
at the rail seats, and the tie is adzed until these have a true bearing. The 
tie-plate gage is then placed on the tie, with its center fitted to a center mark 
on the latter. The two tie-plates are set in rectangular frames at the ends 
of the gage, and on each one is set a 2-in. steel striking block 7|X4| ins. These 
are struck with sledges. 

Relaying Rails. 

This work has been very fully described in Chapter 19. It is usually extra 
or special work, and not done in connection with the routine of track main- 
tenance. The methods of unloading new rails and loading old rails on the 
track are described in the same chapter. 

Shifting Rails on Curves. 

On track having numerous sharp curves, the service of the rails may be 
extended by transposing the inner and outer rails. The rails are disconnected 
to form strings of about 600 ft. in length (disconnecting at the short rails on 
the inside of the curve). They can be moved lengthwise by bearing with 
bars against the ends of the angle bars, or by pulling with a locomotive. The 
inside spikes should be drawn, and in relaying to gage (on account of worn 
heads), the inner rail may be set in i-in., and the outer one i-in., or according 
to the wear of the side of the head. 

Bending Rails. 

On all curves of over 2°, the rails should be bent to the proper curve before 
being laid. If they are laid straight and then merely bent by spiking, the curve 
will be irregular (especially at the rail ends), and the rails will have a constant 
tendency to straighten. Bending rails by springing or striking with sledges 
or dropping them on blocks should never be permitted, as such methods are 
more likely to form kinks than a true curve, and are also liable to break or 
injure the rails. If no rail bender is available, a lever and curving hook may 
be used, as described under "Tools." The rail should be curved in a proper 
rail-bending machine, and care taken to have the uniform curve continued 
right to the ends of the rail, as it is often found that the work is done less care- 
fully at the ends, with the result that a kink is formed at each joint. Where 
a roller rail-bending machine is used, some roads pass all rails through this, 
to bend the rails for curves and to take out any kinks or bends in rails for tan- 
gents. (See "Renewing Rails.") For tracklaying or extensive renewals of 
rails, the work can be more rapidly done by a power-operated machine at the 
division or material yard than on the track. Slight kinks in curved rails in 
the track may be detected by testing the curve with a cord (see "Lining 
Curves "), and then taken out by extra spiking. In curving the rails the 
middle ordinate of a 30-ft. rail will be almost exactly J-in. for each degree of 
curve. The side or quarter ordinates are always three-fourths of the middle 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 



371 



ordinate. Table No. 28 gives a list of middle ordinates for different lengths 
of rails and different degrees of curvature, varying by |-in. The Southern 
Pacific Ry. and some other roads use tables varying by rfc-in. The middle 
ordinate (M) of a 30-ft. rail, the quarter ordinates (R) of a 30-ft. rail, and the 
middle ordinate (S) of a rail of any other length (T) may be obtained by the 
following formulas: 

M= 0.02 X Degree of Curve. R=MX0.75. S=MX@ 2 . 



TABLE NO. 28.— MIDDLE ORDINATES FOR CURVING RAILS. 



Degree of 
curve. 



K-- 

1 . . 

IK.. 

2 . . 

2V 2 .. 

3 . . 
SK.. 

4 . . 

Wi. . 

5 . . 
b}A. . 

6 . . 
6K-. 

7 .. 
7K. . 

8 . . 
8V 2 .. 

9 . . 
9V 2 .. 

10 . . 

ioy 2 .. 
n .. 
nv 2 .. 

12 . . 

12^.. 

13 .. 
13^.. 

14 .. 

UK-'. 

15 .. 

15A- . 

16 .. 



Length of rails (feet).— 

10. 12. 14. 16. 18. 20. 22. 24. 
Middle ordinates (inches). 



26. 



28. 30. 



33. 



K 



i 

X 
4 

i 
i 

4 

X 
% 

A 
H 

3 8 



a 
a 

K 
K 
K 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
A 
% 
A 



A 
K 
A 
K 
K 
K 
A 
A 



K 

a 
a 

H 
K 

X 
X 
X 



A 



K 
K 
K 

A 
K 

Vs 
A 
Vs 
K' 
X 
X 
X 
X 



30-ft. rail: 



A % 
17°, 4 ins. 



A 
A 
A 
X 
X 
X 



K 

A 
A 
A 
H 
A 
A 
A 
X 
X 
X 
X 



1 

l 

l 

l 

IK 

IK 



A 
A 
X 
X 
X 



K 

A 
K 

A 
A 
X 
X 
X 
X 
A 
A 
l 
l 
l 

IK 
IK 
IK 
IX 

m 

IX 

IK 

1A 



A 
A 
X 
X 



A 
K 

A 
A 
X 
X 
X 
A 
A 
A 
l 
l 

IK 
IK 
IX 
IX 
\A 
IX 
IK 
\A 
\A 
1A 
IK 
IK 



X 
X 



A 
A 
A 
X 
X 
A 
A 
l 
l 

IK 
IK 
IX 
IX 

m 

\A 

IK 

IK 

va 

IK 

IX 

IX 

IK 

V/ s 

2 

2 



X 

A 
A 
A 
A 
A 
X 
A 
A 
l 
l 

IK 
IX 
IX 
\A 
\A 
IK 
IK 
IK 
IX 
IK 
2 
2 

2K 
2A 
2X 
2K 
2K 
2A 



X 
X 
A 
l 

IK 
IK 
IX 
IK 
IK 
IK 
IK 
IX 
IX 
IK 
2 

2% 
2K 
2X 
2X 
2K 
2K 
2K 
2K 
2K 
2K 



X A 



X 
A 



1 
IK 

IX 

m 

IK 
IK 

m 

IX 

IK 

2 
2 

24 

2X 
2V % 

2K 

2K 
2K 
2X 
2K 
3 

SK 
ax 

SX 



X X 



A 
A 
A 
1 
l 

IK 
IX 
IX 
IK 
IK 
IX 
IK 

2 

2V 8 

2X 

2V 8 

2K 

2A 

2X 

2K 

3 

3 

SK 

3X 

3X 

SK 

ax 

3X 



X 
A 
l 

IK 
IX 
IX 
IK 
IX 
IK 
2 

2K 
2X 
2K 
2X 
2X 
2K 
3 

SK 
3X 

SK 
SK 
sx 
sy s 

4 

4K 

*X 



18°, 4M ins.; 19°, 4A ins.; 20°, 4%e ins. 



Cutting Rails. 
Where much cutting is to be done, as in fitting switch work, etc., a hack saw 
or portable track saw should be used. When a rail must be cut on the track, 
a common practice is to nick it all round with a cold chisel and then to lift 
up the end of the rail and drop it so that the nicked part will strike upon the 
cutting block, a tie, or a piece of rail. This is a most improper way to treat 
steel rails, and is likely to result in a rough end or a kinked, split, or even broken 
rail. It is also dangerous to the men. A better plan is to mark all round the 
rail with a chisel, then lay the rail along the ties, holding one end down with 
a tie and putting the cutting block underneath, 4 or 5 ft. back from the cut. 
A bar is then placed across the rail at a point ahead of the cut, one of the track 
rails being used as a fulcrum and one man bearing hard down upon the bar. 
Another man then holds the chisel in the cut at the bottom of the web (or 
lower fillet), while a third man strikes the chisel a sharp blow with a hammer 
or sledge. If the rail does not promptly break, the chisel may be held on 
the other side of the rail for a second blow. The rail should be carefully meas- 
ured for the exact position of the cut, and a pencil line ruled as a guide for 



372 TRACK WORK. 

the chisel, so that the cut may be made neatly and cleanly at the required 
place. The chisels should be sharp, and a deep cut should be made. It is a 
good plan to cut across the top of the head with a hack saw. Short pieces 
may then be broken off by striking with a sledge, but for longer pieces a rail 
bender may be used at the chisel cut. In any case the rail should be straight- 
ened after being cut, as it is likely to be kinked in the operation. The edges 
«)f the head should also be filed if necessary to make a neat and smooth joint. 

Spiking. 

All main tracks should have at least four spikes in every' tie, the two outer 
*pikes being nearer one edge of the tie (on double track this should be the 
side first struck by the train), and the two inner spikes near the other edge. 
None of the spikes should be less than 2 J ins. from the edge of the tie. This 
arrangement is designed to hold the tie square with the track and prevent slew- 
ing, but is a practical detail not infrequently neglected, the spikes being often 
placed in line across the tie. Double spiking is sometimes required on curves 
where rail braces or tie-plates are not available, the extra spikes being required 
on the outside to resist the lateral thrust from the wheels. Spikes should not 
be driven until the ties are in position, properly spaced, and square across the 
track. If this is not attended to, the spikes will not hold the rail properly 
when the ties are shifted to position. The tie should be supported by bars 
while the spikes are being driven, but should not be lifted from its bed. Too 
often, however, one or two men hold up the tie so as to raise it while the spike 
is driven, so that the tie then hangs from the rail by the spike. In spiking 
new rails they should be adjusted to position by a track gage, while enough 
spikes are driven to secure them. 

The spiking should be done carefully, each spike being set vertically and 
driven straight down, with its shank touching the edge of the rail base. The 
spiker should bring the maul down with a long swinging stroke, striking squarely 
on the head of the spike, and keeping his hands well down, so that the handle 
of the maul will be approximately horizontal. He should not set the spike 
sloping from or towards him, as it reduces the hold of the spike head on the 
rail, while the head may very likely be broken by the last blow of the maul, 
and the spike will be bent by being pulled out. The spike should not be set 
a little distance from the rail and then struck on the back to drive it sideways 
into position, as this will enlarge the hole in the tie, weakening the hold on 
the spike and forming an entrance for water and moisture to rot the interior 
of the tie. Neither should it be driven slanting to or from the rail, for the pur- 
pose of tightening or widening the gage, but the rail should be thrown to line 
with a bar and then properly spiked. The last blow on the spike should be 
struck lightly, so as to avoid breaking the head of the spike when it comes 
to a bearing on the rail. At joints, the spikes should be driven in the slots 
of the angle bars, except on bridges, where free play is usually allowed for any 
creeping of the track, so as to avoid strains on the structure or its floor system. 
In warm weather, the spike should be driven against that side of the slot 
farthest from the end of the rail, thus allowing for contraction of the rail in 
colder weather. 

In pulling spikes, care should be taken not to bend or break them, loosen- 
ing tight spikes by giving them a tap on the head before applying the claw- 
bar. When old spikes are drawn, the holes should be filled with wooden plugs. 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 373 

Long spikes should be used where thick shims are placed between the rail and 
the tie, and used also for fastening road crossing planks to the ties. The sec- 
tion men and trackwalkers keep continual watch of the spikes, but it is a good 
plan to send two men over each section, twice a year, to drive down every 
spike. They also replace all spikes which are broken, are not snug against 
the edge of the rail, or are not in proper position in the slots of the angle bars. 

Bolting. 

Rail joints should have the bolts screwed up tight as soon as put on, with 
nut locks or washers in place, but the bolts will usually have to be gone over 
again and tightened up with a wrench in a few weeks. The men should not 
put long handles on the wrenches. With this increase in leverage, careless 
men may stretch or strip the threads of the bolt or nut, so that the tightness 
and security of the joint will be impaired, even if the bolts are not made entirely 
useless. A strong, firm pull on an ordinary wrench is all that is required. 
The nuts should be slackened and retightened in the spring (before warm 
weather), and in the autumn (before cold weather), so as to insure proper 
freedom for the expansion and contraction of the rails. If held too tight, 
the rails may shear the bolts or buckle the track. All broken or damaged bolts 
should be replaced at once, and each joint kept fully bolted and fitted with 
the proper nuts, washers or nut locks. In removing bolts, while too much 
time should not be lost in trying to get off a rusty nut, care should be taken 
to see that the men do not get in the habit of saving time and trouble at the 
expense of damaging good bolts by knocking off the nuts and ends of bolts 
with a hammer, thus rendering both nut and bolt good only for scrap. If 
the bolts are comparatively new, the nuts may be loosened by tapping and 
the use of oil. When the nut has been taken off and the bolt removed, the 
nut should be screwed on the bolt to prevent loss. The nut and bolt should be 
thrown into a box or keg, and not left lying in the ballast. In some cases 
heavy clamps are used to force the splice bars into place instead of relying on 
the bolting for this. 

Shimming 

When the ballast is frozen it cannot be tamped, and if the track is heaved 
by frost, the surface is made uneven both transversely and longitudinally. 
This must be tested by a level for the former and by sighting or the use of 
a long straight-edge for the latter. Wooden plates or shims must then be 
placed on the low ties, to bring the rail up to proper surface. The upper face 
of the tie should not be adzed to lower the rail, unless this is absolutely neces- 
sary, but the shims should be placed on the lower ties. Shimming is also 
required with ballast which is so soft after heavy rains that tamping cannot be 
done, the ballast and roadbed being so saturated that no other method of 
surfacing is practicable. In some very bad cases, or in accidents, blocking must 
be used under the ties, but this should be avoided when possible. The fore- 
man must see that the blocking is not forgotten and left in place, but that 
it is taken out when the shims are removed, or when the ballast has dried 
out sufficiently to give the track a proper bearing. As the frost comes out 
of the ground and the ground settles, thinner shims must be substituted for 
the thicker ones, to prevent surface bending of the rails. The shims should 
never be left in place after the spring, and as fast as they are removed the 
extra spike holes in the ties should be properly plugged. 



374 TRACK WORK. 

The shims may be cut by the section men, but it is better to use those cut 
by machinery at lumber mills or the car shops, and having two spike holes 
bored diagonally opposite one another. They are about 6 ins. wide, and the 
length should be at least 18 ins., so as to give ample room for spiking and keep- 
ing the spikes clear of the angle-bars. The thickness is from ^-in. to 2 ins., 
and long spikes must be used for those over 1 in. thick. If a raise of more 
than 2 ins. is required, a piece of 1-in. to 3-in. plank should first be spiked to 
the tie by boat spikes, the plank being about 2 ft. long, or as long as the tie 
if both rails have to be shimmed. Upon this plank should be placed shims 
to bring the rail to the required level, these being fastened by long spikes pass- 
ing through shims and plank into the tie. In some cases, every shim is the 
full length of the tie, except where the rails are out of level. With a lift of 
2 ins. or over, the shim should be long enough to carry a rail brace. If it is 
short, a hardwood block or a piece of plank may be used as a brace, having one 
end resting on the tie (and backed by spikes) and the other end wedged firmly 
against the web of the rail. A long spike is then driven close to the rail head, 
passing through the brace and shim. This bracing of the rails is especially 
necessary on curves. Where tie-plates are used, the plates must not be taken 
off, but the shims placed on them. If the shimming is high, a tie-plate may 
be placed on its top. The tie should be adzed to give a level seat for the shims. 
Spiking should be attended to as fast as the shimming is put in, and if a whole 
rail length is to be shimmed, the joint, center and quarter ties should first be 
shimmed and spiked. Where the trouble occurs continually, the ties will soon 
be damaged by the excessive spiking and respiking. The Central Ry. of New 
Jersey uses 7-in. spikes, f-in. square under the head and f-in. in the body. 

Shimming is but a makeshift way of providing a practicable and safe track 
under conditions that should not be allowed to exist on well-built railways (and 
should be remedied permanently). Nevertheless, it is required more or less 
on nearly every railway, and often where heavy traffic is carried. Even if 
not required on the main track, it may be necessary with the lighter construc- 
tion of branches and sidings. The proper remedies are drainage, the replacing 
of saturated or otherwise bad material with cinders, slag, or gravel, and the 
application of a heavy bed of good ballast. Under unfavorable conditions 
of ballast and roadbed, a heavy frost may raise the track as much as 3 ins. 
in one night, and the heaving will not be regular or uniform. In severe cases, 
a second tie on top of the original tie is sometimes required. Although the 
work is temporary it must be done with great care to insure safety to traffic. 
The shims should be well placed and secured; the rails well spiked and braced; 
and proper run-offs provided so that trains may ride easily in passing from 
the unaffected track to the heaved and shimmed track. The work must also 
be carefully watched, as the heaving and subsequent settlement 'are uncer- 
tain and irregular. A cold night may cause excessive heaving, while on a warm 
sunny day the track may drop to its old level. 

Moving Track. 

In building additional tracks or improving alinement, it may be desirable 
or necessary to shift the existing track to another part of the roadbed. This 
may be done in either of three ways: (1) Tearing up the track and relaying 
it on the new location; (2) Sliding the track bodily in sections; and (3) 
Throwing the track with bars or by machine. Considerable work of this kind 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 375 

has been done in the four-tracking of the New York, New Haven & Hartford 
Ry. In one place, where the new roadbed was 6 to 9 ft. above the old one, 
the two old tracks were shifted bodily 20 or 30 ft. on skids to the new roadbed, 
the old bed being then raised by rilling to correspond with the new grade. 
The length of this stretch of track was 8,930 ft., including two bridges, at which 
the track had to be cut. On the open line, the track was cut at lengths of 
five rails by unbolting the splices. Planks were spiked along the ties to keep 
them properly spaced, and each length of track was then slid laterally on six 
skids made of rails spiked to stringers, 6X8 ins. The force aggregated 260 
men, distributed as follows: A foreman with 35 men first raised the tracks 
ready for skids (using six jacks to a five-rail length), and drew all spikes from 
worthless ties, so as to leave them behind and avoid handling useless mate- 
rial. A foreman with 150 men then moved the lengths of track by block and 
tackle to the top of the new bank, unloaded ballast and roughly surfaced the 
track. A foreman with 75 men then made the connections between the lengths, 
and lined and surfaced the track. A work train ran back and forth distrib- 
uting material. The skidding and lifting by the second gang averaged about 
three minutes per length of track. Work was commenced at 7 a.m., and the 
track was turned over to the operating department by 5 p.m. The second 
track was afterwards moved in the same way. The initial cuts were made 
where the new bank was only 2 ft. above the old bank, and the end pieces of 
track between the undisturbed track and the first lengths to be moved were 
thrown to the new alinement by lining bars. In some cases, owing to the 
curves and bridges, some of the five-rail lengths had to be moved longitudinally, 
even as much as 3 ft. For this purpose the skidding gang of 150 men had 
75 bars; these were, placed horizontally under the rails and held by a man 
at each end of each bar. The section of track was thus readily raised and 
moved forward or backward by easy movements. The lengths on the bridges 
were left until the last, the spikes being then drawn and the rails carried over 
and spiked to the floors of the new structures. 

Under ordinary methods, the spikes would have been drawn, rail joints 
disconnected, and ties and rails carried about 25 ft. and relaid in the new posi- 
tion, as in new tracklaying. This would involve much more delay, and some 
considerable loss and breakage of bolts and spikes, though this might, of course, 
be reduced by carefully planning and laying out the work, in the same way 
as was done for the "skidding" method. On the other hand, the skidding 
is likely to result in surface or line kinks in the rails, bent splices, and displaced 
spikes, making it difficult to put the track in proper condition for service in 
its new location. If the track is for only temporary use, or for work trains, 
as on parts of the work above described, the skidding method may be adopted 
to advantage. For permanent work it would generally be better to build the 
new tracks complete in the usual way, then make connections with the old 
tracks at the ends, and abandon the old tracks, which can then be removed 
and the roadbed improved or rectified as required. In grade revision and 
track-elevation work, sections of track on the old level are sometimes tilted 
up on the ends of their ties and then pulled up the bank to the new position by 
derrick cars and cables (see ''Permanent Improvements"). 

It is sometimes considered that for a short move it is most economical to 
throw the track by means of lining bars. Stakes should be set for the new 
alinement. and driven so as to be below the base of rails. The length of rails 



376 TRACK WORK. 

on the new and old alinement should then be carefully measured with a steel 
tape, so that rails may be cut to fit if there is any difference. The new grade 
should be leveled and ballasted, the ballast being given an incline on curves, 
so that when the track is thrown it may be at once ready for traffic. If the 
track is to be thrown for a distance less than the length of a tie, then the part 
of the old roadbed which will be included in the new bed should be dug out 
below the ties. If the distance is greater, this need not be done, but the bal- 
last should be loosened between the ties. Where the rails are cut, there should 
be six men (three cutting and three drilling). Having first disconnected the 
rails and removed the spikes on the side opposite to that towards which the track 
is to be thrown, two or three gangs, working one behind the other, should throw 
the track. They should not move it more than 12 ins. at each throw, so as to 
avoid bending rails and splice bars or twisting the ties. Other gangs should follow 
with the lining and surfacing as soon as the first part of the track is in its new 
position, but before the tamping is done, two or four men with sledges should 
tap the ties to proper spacing and square with the rails. Trains should be 
flagged to pass slowly over the new track until it is thoroughly finished and 
in substantial condition. The work may be done at once, in a time of light 
traffic, or gradually (between trains) during the week, proper curve connec- 
tions being maintained at each end and all trains being flagged. 

Track-throwing machines may be used where there is much work of this 
kind to be done. The Bierd machine used on the Panama Ry. resembles 
a self-propelling railway derrick car with a 35-ft. lifting boom moving in a 
vertical plane, and a 28-ft. shifting boom moving in a horizontal plane. A 
chain sling on the hoisting tackle is hooked to both rails and the track slightly 
lifted. The cable from the shifting boom has a hook which is attached to 
the inner rail, and as this boom is swung it throws the track bodily. The move- 
ments are made at intervals of 15 ft., or two to each rail length, and the track 
can be moved 4 ft. without injury. For a greater throw, the machine runs 
over the track again, but the lifting is only necessary for the first move. This 
machine is used in throwing track for double tracking and straightening; also, 
in shifting the tracks on the dumping grounds for the cars from the canal exca- 
vation. The Creese machine is a heavy flat car with a stout 30-ft. pole pro- 
jecting from one corner and carrying a wheel which runs against the web of 
the opposite rail. The pole is adjusted to position by a cable and turnbuckles, 
and is stiffened by braces against the car. It can throw or shift the track 6 
to 36 ins. This machine has been used on the Pennsylvania Lines and the 
Baltimore & Ohio Ry. Switches, frogs and crossings can be shifted on skids 
by gangs of men with bars; or by a locomotive and rope. Derrick cars can 
also be used for work of this kind. 

Fencing. 

On new construction the fencing is very generally done by contract, the 
railway company delivering the material loaded on cars to be distributed as 
required, and its engineers setting stakes for line and corners. The work may 
be done by a gang of 20 to 50 men, depending upon the character of the fence, 
the nature of the ground, and the speed required. Along existing lines the 
erection of new fences or the reconstruction of old fences is generally done 
by special gangs. The section gangs have only to do ordinary repairs on the 
fences or to build small lengths of fence. On the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi- 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 377 

cago & St. Louis Ry., each division has from one to four gangs (about 4 men 
to a gang) to do nothing else but build and repair right-of-way fences and 
repair wing fences. The posts and wire are distributed by local freight trains. 
On new construction, where the fence work is very important, the materials 
are handled by work trains. The standard fence has posts 20 ft. apart, with 
31|-in. woven-wire fencing and two strands of barbed wire at the top. On 
the Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry., a regular fence gang of a foreman and 6 
men is employed for about six months of the year, being paid by the hour. 
The gang can build about a mile of woven-wire fence per week (420 hours). 

The Louisville & Nashville Ry. has on each division a fence gang of from 
6 to 10 men. With 55-in. woven-wire fence and posts 18 ft. c. to c, the 
cost of erection is from 2\ to 2| cts. per lin. ft. In setting fences, the distance 
from the center of the track may be measured by a tape, and the line given 
by a cord or chain 100 ft. or 200 ft. long, having tags at the post spacing. When 
this is stretched, a small hole is cut at each tag as a mark for the post hole 
men. On curves, the position of each post may be measured from the center 
of the track by two men with a tape or cord, a mark being made or stake set 
for the post. For strand-wire fencing, posts (temporarily braced) may be 
set at intervals of 40 to 80 rods (6C0 to 1,320 ft.), and one wire stretched as 
a guide for the intermediate posts. The painting or posting of advertisements 
on board fences is objectionable, and should be prohibited. 

Strand wire is delivered in rolls, and may be laid by placing the roll on a 
vertical revolving drum on a wheelbarrow or truck. The wires are attached 
to a straining post and set up by a stretcher, but in the absence of this tool 
a lining bar may be used, placed diagonally, with the top inclined towards 
the anchor post, and the wire being looped around the bar. In summer the 
wires must not be drawn too tight. Woven-wire fencing is delivered in rolls 
of 20 to 40 rods, weighing 10 to 16 lbs. per rod. The fence is unrolled flat 
upon the ground, with the bottom wire against the posts. The end is then 
lifted up, and with the stay wire vertical the line wires are bent around the 
end post, being well stapled at the back of the post so as to hold the fence 
securely. The fence is then raised to a vertical position, being held tempora- 
rily by staples lightly driven. When the other end is reached, the stretching 
tool is used to pull the fence tight. It is then permanently secured by staples 
on the posts, but these must not be driven so as to grip the wire, it being neces- 
sary to allow the line wires to move freely in expansion and contraction. In 
low spots, the bottom wire should be stapled to the bottom of the post; and 
at high points the top wire stapled to the top of the post, allowing free move- 
ment for stretching in either case. With board fences, the alternate posts 
may be set 16^ ft. apart, and a line of boards nailed along them will serve as 
a guide for lining the intermediate posts. The boards should be on the farm 
side of the posts. The materials and labor per mile for a four-board fence 
with posts 8 ft. apart, and a five-wire-strand fence with posts 16£ ft. apart, 
are about as follows: 

Board Fence. Strand-Wire Fence. 

660 posts. 330 posts. 

1,320 boards, 1X6 ins., 16 ft. long, 10,560 26,400 ft. of wire at 340 lbs. per strand, 
ft. B. M. 2,200 lbs. 

660 battens, 1X6 ins., 4 ft. long, 1,320 75 lbs. staples. 

ft. B. M. 27 days labor for one man. 

250 lbs. nails. 
65 days labor for one man. 



378 TRACK WORK. 

Clearing Right-of-Way. 

All grasses, weeds and brush on the right-of-way and under trestles should 
be cut at least once a year, and preferably twice a year. This should be done 
in the months which are most suitable (according to the latitude), and before 
the seeding time of the plants in the autumn. This is not always practicable, 
however, as at that time labor may be scarce. After the grubbing, cutting 
and mowing, the material should be raked into heaps and burned as soon as 
it is dry. Old ties, splice bars, tools, etc., found during this clearing up should 
be properly disposed of. The mowing and cutting are sometimes omitted, 
the right-of-way being cleared by burning, sometimes not until after the early 
frosts. In this case, as well as in burning piles of brush, care must be taken 
to keep the fire under control (avoiding such work in windy weather) so that 
it does not spread to fields, fences or bridges. The foreman must see that 
it is thoroughly extinguished when the men leave work each day. If the brush 
on the right-of-way is allowed to grow too long, it is liable to catch fire in dry 
weather, such a fire being hard to check or stop. Reports of locomotives 
which throw sparks badly, and of fires started by sparks from locomotives, 
should be made by the section foremen and roadmasters. The spark arresters 
of locomotives should be examined frequently in hot, dry weather, when stand- 
ing crops, weeds on the right-of-way, etc., are liable to catch fire. Where the 
right-of-way is covered with good grass, this may be mowed and used or sold 
for hay under the direction of the roadmaster. 

Clearing and Burning Weeds. 

The grass and weeds in the ballast and along the sides of the roadbed must 
be cut and killed periodically. The Southern Pacific Ry. requires that dur- 
ing the grass-growing season only so much grass and weeds must be removed 
as is absolutely necessary to keep the rails clear. At the end of that season 
the grass must be cut accurately to sod lines and the roadbed then kept clear 
between these lines until the beginning of the next growing season. On many 
railways where inferior ballast is used and the section gangs are small, this 
work is very troublesome and expensive, especially as the work should be 
done in the autumn, when it is hard to get a sufficient force of labor and there 
is other work to be done. This is particularly the case on prairie lines. The 
work is necessary not only for appearance, but to keep the rails clear and to 
prevent fires. It may have to be done three or four times in a season. 

On parts. of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., with earth ballast, the 
heavy growth of grass and weeds is cut with light steel shovels every six weeks 
for about six months. It is cut only between the ties outside the rails, and as 
far inside as can be reached with a shovel slipped under the rail. This costs 
$7.50 per mile each time. In October, the grass is cut clean both inside and 
outside the rails at a cost of about $12.50 per mile. The total cost is about 
$35 per mile per year. On some prairie lines the cost is as high as $50 per 
mile per year, including cutting to a grass line 7 ft. from the rail. It is tedious 
and tiring work, especially with shovels. The men can work more conve- 
niently with sharp, long-handled scuffle hoes, and with this tool one man can 
scurf or clean about 500 ft. of track in a day. The sprinkling of common 
salt (one barrel to 600 or 800 ft.) has been found effective, the work being 
done on a rainy day. The weeding should be done between "grass lines" 
7 ft. or 8 ft. from each rail. The line may be set out by a cord and stakes. It 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 379 

may also be marked by a cutter and plow handle on a bar parallel with the 
rails and hinged to a timber bolted across a hand car. The trimming outside 
the ties may be done by cutters on a ditching machine, as already described. 

In order to reduce the trouble and expense of this work where conditions 
of vegetation and labor are unfavorable, various weed-killing machines have 
been introduced. One of these, tried on the Illinois Central Ry., had an electric 
generating plant supplying current to a " brush " of copper wires suspended across 
the track. Two trips were required, and while the treatment was effective) 
its cost was prohibitory for general work. Devices to divert the exhaust steam 
and gases from the smokebox of a locomotive by a pipe leading to a discharge 
nozzle across the track, have not proved satisfactory. Spraying with a strong 
solution of brine has been tried on the Oregon Short Line and other roads, 
but while it effectually kills the weeds, it has been found to cause (in some 
cases) a slime on the rails, which led to slipping of the engine wheels and cor- 
rosion of the rails. The rails can probably be protected by proper shields, 
however, as is done with the oil-spraying machines used to prevent dust on 
loose ballast. This application of oil also checks the growth of weeds. The 
Illinois Central Ry. has recently used a hot chemical solution (212° F.) sprayed 
upon the track from a car fitted with tanks and heaters and compressed-air 
apparatus supplying six nozzles. The composition is kept secret by the com- 
pany handling it, but is said not to be dangerous to the men. The car can 
be run at a speed of about 10 miles an hour, and for ordinary growths a single 
application (with about 500 gals, per mile) is sufficient. A similar method 
has been used on the Guayaquil & Quito Ry., in Ecuador, where the luxuriant 
tropical vegetation required 1,600 gals, per mile, sprayed by steam or com- 
pressed air from a car run at a speed of 4 or 5 miles an hour. In this case, 
precautions had to -be taken against poisoning, the solution being composed 
as follows: 1 lb. arsenical acid to 5 gals, of hot water, 1 lb. of nitrate to 6 
gals, of water. The solutions are made separately in tanks having capacities 
in ratio of 5 to 6, and then mixed in a third tank ("Engineering News," March 
2, 1905). 

The method of burning weeds by the intense heat of oil or gasoline burners 
carried close to the track by special weed-burning cars has been employed 
on a number of roads, and has proved effective and economical. It was first 
introduced by the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie Ry. about 12 years 
ago. Crude oil was then used, with a consumption of about 30 gals, per mile. The 
burners are just above the rails and the oil is sprayed by jets of steam or com- 
pressed air; an iron shield or pan diverts the flame and heat down upon the 
track. Side aprons extend outside the rails, and the burners and shields are 
carried by a frame which can be raised to clear crossings, bridges, etc. The 
machine used by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. is a 50-ft. steel flat 
car with the necessary equipment, including two brake pumps to charge an 
air receiver at 70 lbs. pressure. A light crude oil is used, with a consumption 
of about 8 gals, per burner per mile. There are four burners and the shield 
spreads the flame to a width of about 10 ft. and a length of 15 ft. Any fire 
left in the track is extinguished by steam jets from the locomotive pushing the 
car, or by a gang of men following. The speed is 4 miles per hour, or 3 miles 
with thick coarse weeds. The cost of operation is $50 per day, and 20 to 30 
miles can be covered, making $2.50 to $1.66 per mile. The Lamb machine, 
tried on the Illinois Central Ry., uses gasoline fuel, with 36 burners arranged 



380 TRACK WORK. 

in two rows. The cost is estimated at $3 to $4 per mile for one trip, with $2 
per mile extra if a second trip is required. The machine is run at a speed of 
3 to 4 miles per hour. 

In all the cases mentioned above, the machine is pushed over the track by 
a locomotive, but the Union Pacific Ry. is using self-propelling machines. 
A cast-steel bed plate forms the underframe, and is mounted on two axles. 
A gasoline engine is used, with a two-speed transmission gear; the machine 
is run at 3 to 6 miles an hour when at work, or 20 to 25 miles per hour when 
going to and from work. At one end are three cast-iron aprons, the outer 
ones being hinged so as to be swung up (parallel with the rails) to clear bridges 
or cattleguards, or lowered to conform to the slope of the ballast. The aprons 
cover a width of about 15 ft. There are 75 burners. The gasoline passes 
through pipes in the aprons, and in this way is vaporized so as to produce suffi- 
cient pressure to give a strong flame, compressed air being used only to force 
the gasoline out of the tanks. The machine is operated by an engineman, con- 
ductor and helper, and can burn over about 20 miles of track per day. It 
is found best to make two trips, as complete destruction at one trip would 
involve a slow rate of travel and a high fuel consumption, owing to the amount 
of water in the plants. If the weeds are subjected momentarily to an intense 
heat, the plant life is destroyed, so that they do not take any more water from 
the ground. After one or two days they will be dead and dry, and are then 
readily ignited and burned as the machine passes. About 20 gals, per mile 
is the average for each trip, with a total cost of $2.70 for fuel, wages, etc.; this 
makes $5.40 per mile for the completed work. On some roads a man follows 
on a velocipede to look out for ties that may have caught fire, but there is 
very little trouble of this kind. 

Policing. 

This work includes the general maintenance of the roadway in neat and 
proper condition, and is to be attended to continually. Weeds must be kept 
cut, and trimmed to the grass line; ballast properly sloped and dressed to 
a toe line; ditches cleaned; rubbish picked up, and spare material properly 
placed. Combustible material must be kept cleared from around bridges, 
trestles, signal posts, etc. Dirt and gravel must be removed from bridge seats 
and trestle caps, and care taken to prevent ballast from working over onto 
the bridge abutments or falling into streets below. Large loose stones may 
be neatly piled around the bases of signal posts, sign posts, etc., to keep vege- 
tation from growing. All trees that are in danger of falling on the track, or 
that interfere with the passage of trains or obscure the view, must be removed 
or trimmed. If they are on private land, and the owner objects to such work, 
a report must be made as to the circumstances. 

All old track material, material from cars, old ties, rubbish, etc., must be 
picked up and removed from the track, all scrap being carried to the section 
tool house to be sorted and properly disposed of. New material, such as rails, 
ties, etc., must be properly piled or stacked; no such material should be piled 
within 8 ft. of the track. Care should be taken to have a neat and tidy appear- 
ance of the section; with track full spiked and bolted; switches clean and 
well oiled; cattleguards and road crossings in good condition; fences in 
repair and wing fences at cattleguards kept whitewashed; ballast evenly 
and uniformly sloped and free from weeds, and sod line cleanly cut (usually 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 381 

7 to 10 ft. from center of track or 12 ins. from ends of ties). Sidetracks and 
yards should be kept free from weeds and rubbish, old paper, scrap, etc. 
Station grounds also must be kept neat. Signs must be upright and in good 
repair. Section houses must be clean and tidy, with tools, track material, 
scrap, etc., properly sorted and placed. Some foremen will complain that they 
cannot do their work properly and spare time to keep the road looking neat, 
but it is very easy to do both if the men work systematically. It is much easier 
to keep the line neat than to have a periodical cleaning up at long intervals. 

Means should be taken to keep people from walking along the track or 
using the railway as a public path. This is specially necessary near cities, 
where the traffic is heavy. In such cases, where people habitually walk on 
the track, a liberal covering of coarse broken stone or slag, or even cinders, 
may be laid upon the ballast between the rails and tracks and upon the berm 
at the edge of the roadway. Section foremen, crossing watchmen, etc., should 
order trespassers off the road. This matter is far too often neglected, and 
railways are themselves partly responsible in not checking the habit which 
the public has acquired of treating the track as a public way. 

Station Grounds and Buildings. 

In order to have a good reputation for the road on the part of the public, 
it is very desirable that the grounds at stations should be kept clean and tidy 
and free from rubbish. On some roads this work is delegated to the station 
agent, who has his men attend to it, and the Boston & Maine Ry. awards annual 
prizes to the agents having the most attractive grounds. As a rule, however, 
this is part of the section gang's work. The latter is the better plan if the force 
is sufficient, and if the work is done by direction of the roadmaster. The 
station agent should- not be given authority to employ the section men for this 
purpose when he thinks proper. On roads making a feature of lawns and flower 
beds at stations, a special force is sometimes kept to attend to them. Many 
roads now employ landscape gardeners, and the Boston & Albany Ry. has on 
each of its principal divisions a gardener with 5 to 12 men, who grade, plant 
and seed the grounds, and take care of them. These men cut the grass with 
lawn mowers, and do the weeding, trimming of shrubbery, etc. They also 
attend to places where the banks are graded and seeded. This force is included 
in the roadway department. The Pennsylvania Ry. also employs landscape 
engineers and a force of gardeners in making and maintaining attractive grounds. 

The Chicago & Northwestern Ry. has on its principal division a florist, 
with assistants to care for the flowers, etc. A greenhouse is provided. The 
station agents attend to watering the lawns, and the roadmaster details a man 
once a week to cut the grass. On the Michigan Central Ry., greenhouses and 
land for gardening are provided at Niles for the maintenance of station grounds 
on a division of 170 miles. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. has a land- 
scape gardener, and in some towns of the smaller class, the city authorities 
cooperate in this work, as it is to their interest to have an attractive appear- 
ance at the station. Many roads have adopted the policy of making "parks" 
at stations, sodding the ground and planting trees. It is specially desirable 
to have attractive grounds and pleasant surroundings at important stations 
and at junctions, where passengers may have to change trains or to stop over 
for connecting trains. Virginia creeper and Boston ivy make good creeping 
plants. Shrubbery is generally preferable to flowers, as the latter last so short 



382 TRACK WORK. 

a time. The arrangement should not be too formal in design. The slopes of 
banks and cuts near stations may be covered with grass and kept trimmed. 

In ordinary cases, however, much may be done by the foremen and station 
agents. The agent especially should see that the grounds and platforms are 
kept free from old papers and other rubbish. A plot of turf, cinder or gravel 
pathways, a flower bed, a creeper on the building or on a pile of rockwork, 
can be had with little trouble, and will have a good effect upon the general 
appearance of a station. The approaches and surroundings on the town side 
of the station should be cared for, as well as the grounds on the railway side. 
The platforms and fences should be kept in good repair. No hydrant pits, 
hose boxes, or other obstructions over which persons may stumble, should be 
allowed within the limits of passenger-train stops at stations. 

The yards, spaces between tracks, etc., at stations should be neatly leveled 
and covered with ashes or gravel, and should be kept in order by the section 
gangs. Strict rules should be made and enforced against the scattering of 
ashes and cinders from engines (which should be dumped at specified points), 
and the sweeping of rubbish and dirt from the station or cars upon the track. 
Every station should have a can or bin for waste paper and rubbish, which 
should be emptied at intervals into a dirt car; similar receptacles should be 
provided at yards or places where cars are cleaned. At large terminal yards 
one man may be kept busy clearing up paper and rubbish. It is a good plan 
to have station inspectors to see that the stations, waiting rooms, closets, 
section boarding houses, etc., are kept in proper and sanitary condition, and 
that the grounds are properly cared for. Cleanliness and neatness should be 
enforced in every case, but the standard of appearance will, of course, vary 
according to the financial condition of the road and the size of the force. 

Old Material. 

In all renewals, and the periodical policing of track, cleaning up of yards, 
etc., it must be borne in mind that new material must be pr6perly used and 
cared for, and not wasted, and also that no old material should be simply 
thrown away as useless. Even if really useless for railway purposes, the old 
material has a certain selling value, which is wrongfully lost to the company 
if the material is thrown away. These remarks apply also to the wreckage 
and scrap resulting from train accidents and the burning of cars. Record 
must be kept of the disposal of all scrap and old material. The roadmaster 
should examine the scrap occasionally, as a check upon men who may get in 
the habit of throwing away serviceable material and sending requisitions for 
new material that should not be needed. 

Old rails should not be left hidden in the grass and weeds of the right-of- 
way, but properly piled for shipment, as they may be used for sidetracks or 
branches, sold for scrap, or even rerolled into "new rails" of somewhat lighter 
section. Old rails may be sorted into three classes: (1) Rails suitable for 
relaying in main line, which are usually only the best rails from tangents; (2) 
Rails suitable for sidetracks; (3) Scrap rails, or any which will not give 20 
ft. suitable for sidetracks. Old ties have rarely much value, but if thrown 
away, sold, burnt, used for cribbing, etc., all unbroken spikes should first be 
pulled, and when ties are burned the ashes should be raked over for spikes. 
In piling old rails, the splice bars and bolts should all be removed, good splice 
bars sorted in pairs and broken bars kept separate. Nuts and bolts, if good, 



TRACK WORK FOR MAINTENANCE. 383 

should be kept together, but broken bolts should have the nuts removed and 
kept separate. Many spikes thrown away or put aside as scrap might be 
used over again if properly driven in the first place and properly drawn. Fore- 
men should be careful to see that all track and car material, etc., is picked up 
regularly, and that their men do not get in the habit of flinging old bolts, spikes, 
etc., down the bank. In removing bolts, the nuts should be unscrewed properly, 
the bolt taken out, and the lock and nut put back on the bolt. If, however, 
the nut is so rusted or wedged on the bolt that it will not unscrew, it is more 
economical to knock off the nut with the end of the bolt in it, with a sledge, 
than to waste time in forcing the wrench. Only good discipline can insure the 
exercise of proper judgment as to when to knock off nuts in this way. Care 
should be taken not to hit the head of the rail. 

At the section tool house the scrap should be sorted and piled (as described). 
This work, with the cleaning of serviceable scrap, removing nuts from broken 
bolts, etc., can be done in wet or stormy weather when the men cannot work 
on the track. All large pieces of iron or lumber must be neatly piled on plat- 
forms or sills. Car scrap, drawbars, couplers, etc., must be kept separate from 
track scrap. Brass scrap should be kept in a locked box. The scrap should 
be collected monthly by the store department, a car being sent out for this 
purpose. The general scrap pile at the shops may afford material available 
for use. Stub ends of f-in. to 1-in. bolts may be used for making track bolts 
in a bolt-heading machine equipped with suitable dies. Nuts may be com- 
pressed in the same machine and retapped. Plates and shapes may be used 
for various purposes, and old boiler tubes make good fence rails for station 
grounds or posts for fences and track signs. Rods, tubes, bars, etc., may also 
be available for reinforcing concrete. Splice bars may be sheared to length 
and stamped in a bulldozer to form rail braces. In some cases it may be 
economical to put in a set of small rolls to bring odd sizes of bars or rods to 
standard sizes for bolts, etc. A shear may also be used for cutting up rods. 
At the same time, articles made from scrap may be more expensive than new 
articles. Judgment and calculation will show how far this matter may be 
carried with economy. The scrap pile should be watched, and not allowed 
to form a receptacle for good or usable material. 



CHAPTER 22.— GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 

Gage. 

The gage of track is the transverse distance between the inner sides of the 
rail heads. It should be measured at J-in. or f-in. below the top of the heads, 
in order to clear worn corners and also to allow for rail heads having sloping 
sides. The gage of 4 ft. 8 J ins. is now practically universal or standard in 
this country. At one time there was a considerable mileage of 4 ft. 9 ins., 
but this has been mainly eliminated. It allowed undue side play of wheels 
set for the standard gage (especially at frogs and switches), and resulted in 
trouble from chipped wheel flanges and damaged guard rails, with consequent 
increase in cost of maintenance. In the early days of railway construction in 
this country, there was little uniformity as to gage of track, each line being 



384 TRACK WORK. 

regarded as an individual and isolated enterprise, and nobody dreaming of 
the eventual linking up of the various lines into great connected systems, with 
interchange of traffic. In the northern states many railways were built to 
the English gage of 4 ft. 8| ins.; the Camden & Amboy Ry. was 4 ft. 9 ins.; 
the Ohio gage was 4 ft. 10 ins., and various lines were of 5 ft. 6 ins. and 6 ft. 
gage. In the southern states, the usual gage was 5 ft., as recommended by 
Mr. Horatio Allen for the South Carolina Ry. As the principal lines were 

4 ft. 8£ ins. gage, future development necessitated a change to effect uniformity, 
and on some of the broad gage lines this was effected by laying a third rail. 
In 1885 and 1886, several thousand miles of 5 ft. gage on southern railways 
were changed to 4 ft. 8J ins. The narrow-gage craze is now a matter of history, 
and resulted in the building of several important lines of 3 ft. gage. Their 
isolation among standard-gage connecting roads, and the necessity for the 
through transportation of cars, led to these lines being changed, and it has been 
conclusively shown that there is practically no economy due to any but an 
extremely narrow gage. There are now no lines of more than 4 ft. 8§ ins. 
gage; but there are some short and local lines of 2 ft., 3 ft., and 3§ ft. gage. 

The 4 ft. 8J ins. gage originated in England, but the manner of its origin is 
somewhat indefinite. It seems probable that the old colliery wagons had a gage 
of 5 ft. over the wheels; flat rails and L-shaped rails (with the flanges some- 
times inside and sometimes outside) were laid to carry these wagons. When 
edge rails and flange wheels were used, the width of 4 ft. 8| ins. between rails 
was adopted to fit existing conditions of cars and track. A gage of 7 ft. was 
used by some railways, but with the growth of the railway system the neces- 
sity of uniformity became apparent, and the fierce rivalry (or the "battle 
of the gages") led to a Government inquiry in 1846; this resulted in the adop- 
tion of 4 ft. 8| ins. as the standard gage. This is the standard for the greater 
part of Europe, but in Russia it is 5 ft.; in Ireland, 5 ft. 3 ins., and in Spain, 

5 ft. 6 ins. Other countries have various standards, and have usually secon- 
dary lines of narrower gages, from 24 ins. to 42 ins. Thus in South America 
there are important lines of 5 ft. 6 ins., 5 ft. 3 ins., 4 ft. 8| ins. and 3 ft. 3| ins.; 
South Africa has 3 ft. 6 ins. as its standard, but various minor lines have nar- 
rower* gages. India has important systems of 5 ft. 6 ins. and 3 ft. 3f ins.; 
Japan, 3 ft. 6 ins.; China, 4 ft. 8? ins.; Australia has 3 ft. 6 ins., 4 ft. 8£ ins., 
and 5 ft. 3 ins. In fact, India and Australia have serious difficulties due to 
this multiplicity of gages, and the necessity of transferring freight and pas- 
sengers at interchange points ("Engineering News," Nov. 15, 1906). 

Change of Gage. 

The work of changing broad gage lines to standard gage in this country 
has been described in the Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, 
October, 1884; the Journal of the Western Society of Engineers, June, 1887; 
"Engineering News," Aug. 25, 1892; and the "Railroad Gazette," June 7, 1907. 
All this work has long been completed, but occasionally a piece of narrow 
gage has to be widened to standard gage ("Engineering News," Sept. 13, 1894). 
A piece of work of this kind was the widening of about 125 miles of 3 ft. gage 
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. in 1902. During previous years 
the bridges had been strengthened and widened, stations moved back, ties of 
standard size laid, and 66-lb. rails substituted for the lighter rails. The widen- 
ing was effected by moving both rails 10^ ins. outward. Before the change 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 385 

was made, all ballast was leveled to about 1 in below the base of the rails, 
and old spikes or stubs at the new rail seats were removed. The rail seats 
were then spotted or trimmed by a machine similar to that already described 
under "Maintenance," and pushed over the line by a locomotive at the rate 
of 12 to 15 miles per day. A transverse shaft carried for each rail seat a group 
of four circular saws set diagonally so as to sweep over the entire space of 9 
ins. between the outer saws After this, the outside spikes for each line of 
rails were partly driven in every third tie, the position being determined by 
a gage made of a bar of |-in. iron, with one end bent up to rest against the 
web of the old rail, and having a handle on the flat part. The new spike was 
driven against the end of the bar. On the day before making the change the 
old spikes were removed, except five or six for each rail. About 500 section 
men were engaged for the actual changing of the rails in one day, and on the 
previous night or early in the morning, gangs of 16 to 20 men were distributed 
at intervals of four miles by narrow-gage trains. These gangs had ample tool 
equipment and each man was supplied with three lunches. Each gang also 
had a narrow-gage push car or hand car (distributed in advance) for carrying 
clothes, food and a water barrel. The spikes were removed, rails pushed out 
against the outer spikes already set, and new spikes driven. The work was 
completed in about 9 hours. All sidings and turnouts necessary for service 
were changed by the same gangs and at the same time. Less important sidings 
were left to be changed a few days later. Standard-gage trains followed the 
work and picked up the men as each section was completed. 

Grades. 

The maintenance work on grades may be increased very considerably if 
the traffic is heavy. This is owing largely to the increase in wear of rails result- 
ing from the use of sand in ascending, and the application of the brakes in 
descending; and also to the general displacement and disturbance of the track, 
and the creeping of rails, all of which are aggravated on steep grades. In 
addition to maintaining good track on the grades, care must be taken to main- 
tain the grades uniform at the prescribed rate. Surfacing and ballasting 
may result in breaking up the grade line by sags and high points in such a way 
as to materially increase the actual grade in places. For this reason, the 
engineer or roadmaster should occasionally run a line of levels over the divi- 
sion, especially on heavy grades, as any such changes in a maximum grade 
may have a serious effect in reducing the hauling capacity of the locomotives. 

In view of the relatively high cost of maintenance-of-way, but more particu- 
larly the higher cost of operation, it is economy to keep the grades down 
as much as possible in construction, especially for heavy traffic. On the Erie 
Ry. great expense was incurred in order to keep the grades down to 1.14%. 
The South & Western Ry. was built (1906-1908) to give a direct route from 
the Virginia coal fields to the southeastern manufacturing districts and ports. 
Although it crosses the mountain ranges (instead of working around them), 
the maximum grade was limited to 0.5% against the heavy southbound traffic, 
and 1.2% for the lighter northbound traffic. On many railways the traffic 
has outgrown the original grade conditions; in such cases the roads are either 
operated at a disadvantage or great sums of money have been expended in 
grade revision (see "Permanent Improvements"). On the other hand, heavy 
grades may wisely be used for light traffic or for temporary use (as to avoid 



386 TRACK WORK. 

the immediate construction of heavy permanent works), and also under special 
conditions where reduced train loads or assistant engines may be employed. 
The ruling grade is that which limits the maximum weight of train; it is not 
necessarily the maximum grade, as heavier engines or pusher engines may be 
used for the maximum train on the maximum grade. 

Virtual or Momentum Grades. — Under certain conditions, the momentum 
stored in a moving train may be utilized to assist it in ascending a grade. For 
operation, the grade is virtually easier than the actual constructed grade. 
Momentum grades must be used with great care on new lines, and are rarely 
warranted as a means of saving in cost of construction. In such cases it might 
be a considerable time before the track and roadbed would be in condition to 
permit the speeds assumed in connection with momentum grades; in the 
operation of the line, therefore, what was assumed to be a momentum grade 
would be the actual ruling grade. Momentum grades are more applicable 
to and more generally used in improvement work and grade revision, and 
sometimes with a view to their elimination when traffic conditions require. 
Thus in the improvement of a division where grades were reduced from 1% 
to 0.6%, momentum grades were used freely, but the general grade line was 
so arranged that the momentum sections could be eliminated by raising the 
heights of embankments when financial and traffic conditions might warrant 
the expenditure. In some of these cases the momentum grade was continued 
to the last theoretical foot of height. In another case, the desired reduction 
of grades from 1.25% to 0.7% was found to be economically impossible; but 
by the use of 1% momentum grades the trains were successfully operated 
with the full tonnage for 0.7%. In planning the reduction of grades on the 
Ontario & Quebec Division of the Canadian Pacific Ry., in 1900, it was found 
that by the use of momentum grades, it would be necessary to reduce only 
about 30% of the original grades exceeding the new ruling grade of 0.6%, or 
to rebuild only 10% of the line. To reduce them all to the actual grade of 0.6% 
would have required the rebuilding of 30% of the line. With momentum 
grades, it is important not to include stopping points, severe curves, grade cross- 
ings and signals within the limits for acquiring and utilizing the momentum 
in the train; otherwise, a train may not be able to acquire the assumed momen- 
tum or to utilize it on the ascending grade, and may thus become stalled. This 
matter is discussed in works on railway location and in "Engineering News" 
of Nov. 22, 1900, and April 28, 1904. 

Compensation of Grades for Curvature. — When curves occur on heavy 
grades, the grade should be so reduced that the combined train resistance 
due to grade and curve will not exceed that due to the maximum grade allowed 
on the tangent. This reduction is variously taken at 0.03 to 0.05% per degree. 
Thus with a maximum grade of 2% on tangents, and a rate of compensation 
of 0.04% per degree, the maximum grade on a curve of 6° would be 1.76%. 
The amount of elevation lost by compensating the grade is found by multi- 
plying the degree of central angle of the curve by the rate of compensation, 
and this elevation divided by the length of grade will give the rate by which 
the tangent maximum must be increased to introduce the compensation with- 
out a final loss in elevation. The change in grade may commence at the nearest 
even station, and not necessarily at the P.C. or P.T. The reduced grade usu- 
ally extends beyond the curve. To avoid too great a loss in elevation or too 
heavy a grade on the tangent, it may be necessary to modify the rate of com- 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 387 

pensation, but this will depend largely upon traffic conditions. The com- 
pensation should in general be introduced even upon easy grades, especially 
those which approach the rate of ruling grade, in order to provide for future 
increase in train loads or reductions in grades. For curves of 10° or over, the 
rate of compensation may be reduced. A rule in general use at one time required 
an increase in compensation on sharp grades, but Wellington's " Economic 
Theory of Railway Location" (which gives perhaps the best exposition of this 
subject) shows that this was based upon the erroneous assumption that curve 
resistance increases with the degree of curve. On a curve immediately above 
a regular stopping place, the compensation may be 0.10%, to allow for trains 
that have not acquired speed. On a curve immediately below a stopping 
place, the rate may be reduced to about 0.03%, but in Prof. Webb's "Rail- 
way Construction" it is stated that no compensation need be used under such 
conditions, as the resistance due to the curve will correspondingly reduce the 
work required from the brakes in stopping a train. (" Engineering News," April 
23 and June 11, 1908.) 

There is a great diversity of practice, which is based largely upon opinion 
and experience, and there is much need for careful experiments in order to 
give some definite knowledge as to the requirements under modern condi- 
tions of rolling stock and traffic. On the Northern Pacific Ry., a compensa- 
tion of 0.03% was found insufficient; 0.04% gave fairly good results, but 
was not quite sufficient with curvature frequently changing in direction, while 
on very long curves in one direction, the rate was somewhat in excess of require- 
ments. This was noticeable only on long trains, and the condition of the cars 
had a good deal of influence upon it. The Illinois Central Ry. has adopted 
0.04%, and increases this 0.1% at stopping places. On its Indianapolis South- 
ern line, 0.04% was used when the length of curve was equal to that of the 
maximum train, and 0.03% when its length was not more than half that of 
the maximum train. On the Louisville & Nashville Ry., 0.03% has been 
found insufficient where a great many curves occur close together, and in future 
the compensation will be 0.05%. In compensating at stopping places, the 
practice is to reduce the grade 0.2% in addition to the compensation for curva- 
ture. On the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., compensation for curvature 
on maximum grades is generally at the rate of 0.035%. In some cases this is 
reduced to 0.03%. It is not the practice to compensate for curvature near 
stopping places, but if such stops are on maximum grades, the grade is reduced 
0.1% to 0.2%. On the Philadelphia & Reading Ry., the compensation is 0.04% 
per degree, and this applies also to stopping places. On the Canadian Pacific 
Ry., the compensation is 0.04% on ordinary work, but in tunnels this is 
increased to 0.06%, on account of the probability of damp rails. 

Vertical Curves on Grades. 

The angles formed by the junction of grade lines may be rounded off by 
vertical parabolic curves. The advantages of these in relation to the opera- 
tion of train service are of greater importance at sags than at summits. The 
length recommended is 200 ft. on each side of the vertex. On the Northern 
Pacific Ry. the length was not less than 50 ft. for each change of 0.1% in rate 
of grade on summits, and 0.05% in sags. This made the curves 200 ft. long 
in sags for each change of 0.1% in grade. On the New York Central Ry., the 
length is 200 ft. for each 0.1% change in rate of grade where the average change 



388 TRACK WORK. 

is about 0.5%, or 100 ft. where the average change is about 1%. On the Vir- 
ginian Ry., vertical curves are used wherever there is a break of more than 
0.2% in the grade line. The Illinois Central Ry. on new work uses vertical 
curves where the adverse grades are 0.25% or greater. They are from 400 
ft. to 2,000 ft. in length, according to conditions and grades. The Louisville 
& Nashville Ry. uses them when the difference of the grades is 0.2% or more. 
The length at summits is half the change of grade (in tenths) multiplied by 
100 ft.; at sags it is made equal to the change of grade (in tenths) multiplied 
by 100 ft. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. uses them at all breaks 
of grade where there is a variation of 0.3% or more. Generally a circular 
curve is used which will give a variation in the rate of grade of about 0.10 at 
summits and 0.05 at sags. 

Corrections for grade elevations in laying out these curves, prepared by Prof. 
Nagle, were given in "Engineering News," Nov. 26, 1896, and Table No. 29 
gives the vertical distance from grade line to curve at different points along 
the curve. The length of curve should be about 600 ft. at summits, and 800 
to 1,200 ft. at sags. The curve chosen is a parabola, because of the ease with 
which any correction may be found when the correction at the vertex, or meet- 
ing point of grade lines, is known. Two properties of the parabola are utilized: 
(1) That ordinates from tangent to curve vary as the square of the distance 
from the point of tangency; and (2) That the curve bisects the vertical inter- 
cepted between the vertex and long chord joining the P.C. and P.T. In Fig. 
207, HG (=T) is the correction at distance X from A; CD ( = M) is the cor- 




Fig. 207. — Vertical Curves for Grade Intersections. 

rection at the vertex, and 2L is the length of the curve in stations; then the 
property first referred to gives the relation in formula (1). 

To find M, produce AC to F to meet a vertical through B, the end of curve. 
Call the algebraic difference of grades d, then will FB = Ld, and since CD = 
JCE by the second property, M = £FB, or M = JLd. The length of curve, 2L, 
may be fixed by the circumstances of the case or may be found by assuming 
a certain rate of change of grade per station, the rate of change increasing with 
d. Call this rate of change R, then for L in stations the formula is (2). To find 

(1) T=M-g (2) L=^|- (3) T!=^^5i = iR 

the correction at a point one station distant from the P.C. at A, insert the 
value of d in the formula M = ^Ld, and the resulting value for M in the first 
formula, x being one station; the result is in formula (3). At two stations 
from A, T 2 =2R; at three stations, T 3 =4JR; at half a station, T^=-^R, etc. 
Table No. 29 gives values of T for points 50 ft. apart for a few values of L and d. 
These corrections must be added when the algebraic difference of grades is 
minus, and subtracted when the algebraic difference is plus. 

Curves. 

A considerable proportion of the railway mileage is composed of curves, 
especially on lines where excessive curvature has been introduced through bad 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 



389 



location or to reduce tne cost of construction. Curves are objectionable from 
both the operating and the maintenance standpoints, and it is particularly 
important to avoid or eliminate them on long ruling grades. The train resist- 
ance due to curves is higher at the ends of the curve, from the fact that in 
entering and leaving the curve the trucks have to be shifted to and from the 
radial position. This is the case even where transition or easement curves 
are used, and one advantage of improving the alinement is in reducing the 
number as well as the sharpness of the curves. The operating cost due to 
curvature is estimated to average $1 per degree of curvature per daily train 
per annum under ordinary conditions; this increases under conditions of heavy 
traffic and high speed, and for curves of over 3° to 5°. The cost of mainte- 
nance is increased on curves, owing to the increased wear of rails and the gen- 
eral disturbance of the track. It is estimated that each 12° of curvature per 
mile adds 1% to the cost of labor in surfacing and general maintenance work. 
Not only are the rails themselves worn, but the lateral pressures exerted by 
the wheels tend to slide the rails outward and also to overturn them (revolv- 
ing on the outer edge of the base). This causes wear and necking of the outer 
spikes, the pulling up of the inner spikes, and a marked cutting of the ties 
under the outer edge of the rail. Tie-plates improve these conditions, but 
in general there will be continual respiking and redriving of old spikes. This 
again results in increased injury to the ties and a consequent reduction in life, 
and increase in material and work for tie renewals. The lateral pressure also 
tends to shift the track in the ballast. On curves, therefore, the maintenance 
work will be increased in nearly all its departments. 

TABLE NO. 29.— CORRECTIONS FOR VERTICAL CURVES. 

Algebraic 

difference 

of grades, 

per ct. 

0.3 

0.4 

0.5 

0.6 

0.7 

0.8 

0.9 

1.0 

1.1 

1.2 

1.3 

1.4 

1.5 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

1.9 

2.0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2.5 

2.6 

In passing around curves, the outer wheel has to travel a greater distance 
than the inner wheel in the same time, but as both are rigidly secured to the 
same axle, there can be no check to the rotation of either one. The result 
is that the outer wheel tends to slide ahead bodily, swinging from the inner 
wheel as a center and with the axle as a radius. With two axles in a truck 
frame, the truck tends to swing horizontally around the inner rear wheel as 
a center. The combined effect of the difference in length of path traveled 



Rate- 




















of change 




He 


irizontal distance from vertex in feet. 


— , 


per station, 


0. 


50. 


100. 


150. 


200. 250. 300. 


350. 400. 


ft. 
0.075 








feet. 






0.15 


0.08 


0.04 


0.01 









.1 


20 


.11 


.05 


.01 













.125 


25 


.14 


.06 


.02 













.15 


30 


.17 


.08 


.02 













.175 


35 


.20 


.09 


.02 













.20 


40 


.23 


.10 


.03 













.225 


45 


.25 


.11 


.03 









. . • 




.25 


50 


.28 


.13 


.03 









. . - 




0.1833 ... 


83 


.57 


.37 


.21 


0.09 0. 


02 






.20 


90 


.63 


.40 


.23 


.10 


03 


. . ■ 




.2167 ... 


98 


.68 


.44 


.24 


.11 


03 






. 2333 . . . 


1.05 


.73 


.47 


.26 


.12 


03 


. . • 




.25 


1.13 


.78 


.50 


.28 


.13 


03 


• . • 




.2667 ... 


1 . 20 


.83 


.53 


.30 


.13 


03 






.2833 ... 


1 . 28 


.89 


.57 


.32 


.14 


04 


. . « 




.30 


1.35 


.94 


.60 


.34 


.15 


04 






0.2375 ... 


1.90 


1.46 


1.07 


.74 


.48 


27 0.12 


0.03 





.25 


2.00 


1.53 


1.13 


.78 


.50 


28 .13 


.03 





. 2626 . . . 


2.10 


1.61 


1.18 


.82 


.53 


30 .13 


.03 





.275 


2.20 


1.68 


1.24 


.86 


.55 . 


31 .14 


.03 





. 2875 . . . 


2.30 


1.76 


1.29 


.90 


.58 


32 .14 


.04 





.3 


2.40 


1.84 


1.35 


.94 


.60 


34 .15 


.04 





.3125 


2.50 


1.91 


1.41 


.97 


.63 


35 .16 


.04 





.325 


2.60 


1.99 


1.46 


1.02 


.65 


37 


16 


.04 






390 TRACK WORK. 

by the inner and outer wheels and the variation of the axles from a true radial 
position results in a lateral sliding of the inner wheels across the rail. Thus 
the flange of the outer wheel of the first axle of a truck bears against the out- 
side rail, while the flange of the inner wheel of the second axle presses against 
the inside rail. The first tends to cut the outside rail, but the second merely 
presses against the inside rail. The greatest wear of the outside rail is on 
the side of the head, which has to guide the wheel flanges. The corner and 
side of the head gradually wear to conform to the section of wheel fillet and 
flange. The side therefore wears to a sloping face, and this wear becomes 
greater as the slope approaches that of the wheel flange. The inner rail does 
not get cut or worn in the same way, as the edge of the wheel flange runs from 
it instead of towards it, but the lateral slipping on top and lateral pressure 
against the side tend either to crush the metal so as to deform the head, or 
cause it to flow and form a lip or fin beyond the original line of the side of the 
head. This crushing and flow may also be caused in the outer rail. The use 
of locomotives with long rigid wheelbase increases the destructive effect, but 
it is in many cases aggravated by the failure of the car trucks to promptly 
swing to the radial position in entering curves. This may be the result of 
a stiff or heavily loaded center-bearing (causing the center plates to bind), 
or of a loaded car body bearing heavily on the side-bearing from its own dead 
weight or by its tilting as it enters the curve before the trucks have time to 
swing to their proper position. This holds the trucks in such position that 
the wheel flanges run hard against the outer rail. 

Rails on curves may be double spiked, or (for curves of 4° and over) have 
braces on the outside to resist the lateral pressures already mentioned. The 
use of metal tie-plates is also important, as they prevent the cutting of the 
tie and make the inside and outside spikes act together. They, however, 
reduce the friction between the rail base and its support, and do not resist the 
lateral thrust of the rail base unless provided with shoulders. These appli- 
ances reduce the work of maintenance on curves. On heavy curves the gage 
may be maintained by the use of bridle rods or tie bars, holding the base of 
the rails like switch rods, there being from two to four bars to a rail length. 
These are very little used, however. On sharp curves, the gage should be 
widened, as noted farther on, and a guard rail is sometimes laid inside the 
inner rail to prevent derailment. A point to be considered in questions of 
widening gage, guard-rail space, minimum radius, etc., is the length of lap 
of the wheel flanges below the rail head, and this is given below, the flange 
depth being taken as 1^ ins. 

Wheel diameter. Lap. Wheel diameter. Lap. 

30 to 34 ins 12 ins. 54 to 60 ins 16 ins. 

35 " 40 " 13 " 61 " 68 " 17 " 

41 " 46 " 14 " 69 " 76 " 18 " 

47 " 53 : ' 15 " 

The curvature is not usually reckoned by the radius (except in the case of 
very sharp curves), but by the number of degrees of central angle subtended 
by a chord of 100 ft. The radius of a 1° curve with a 100-ft. chord is 5,730 
ft. (or, more exactly, 5,729.65 ft.), and the radius (on center line) or the degree 
ot any curve may be obtained by dividing 5,730 by the degree or radius respec- 
tively. In Fig. 208, diagram 204 shows the various nomenclatures used in 
curve work. The " central angle" (A) is the angle contained within the radial 
lines to the extremities of the curve, or the P.C. (point of curve) and P.T. 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 



391 



(point of tangent). The "degree of curve" (B) is the portion of the central 
angle which is contained within radial lines to a chord 100 ft. long on the curve. 
The "angle of intersection" (C) is the exterior angle at the intersection of 
the two tangents produced, and this angle is equal to the "central angle" 
(A). The "angle of deflection" (D) is the angle contained within the tan-, 
gent produced and a 100-ft. chord on the curve. Taking X as the length of 




A Central Angle. (=C) 

B Degree of Curve. 

C Angle of Intersection. (=A) 

D Angle of Deflection. 






0-. _D_ Tangent jf Transition Curve 





'(PC) 

C IP.T.C.) 




Fig. 208. — Curve Diagrams. 

curve in feet, Y as the degree of curve, and Z as the central angle, the rela- 
tions may be obtained by the following formulas: 

Z 



(4) X= 



ioo|, 



(5) Y=100 



X' 



< 6) z -H 



Table No. 30 affords a handy means of ascertaining the degree of a curve 
in the track (see "Lining"). It is based upon that arc of the outer rail which 
is cut off by a chord tangent to the gage side of the inner rail, the middle ordi- 
nate being the gage of the track, as in Fig. 208 (diagram 204, A). The length 
of the arc may be measured by rail lengths on a short curve, or by feet on 
a long curve. To find the degree of the curve, stand at a joint on the outer 
rail and sight across the gage 'side of the inner rail to the outer rail. Then 
count the rails between these points, or measure the chord AC, or arc ABC, 
and the degree of curve will be found in the table. Methods of ascertaining 
the relative lengths of the inner and outer rails on curves are given under 
" Maintenance." 



392 TRACK WORK. 

TABLE NO. 30.— CURVE FUNCTIONS. 

No. of Length of > 

Degree Radius 30-ft. rails Arc Chord Central 

of of center in ABC, AC, angle, 

curve. line, ft. ABC. ft. ft. Degs. Mins. 

1 5,730 15.5 463.5 463.4 4 38 

2 2,865 11 328.6 328.4 6 34 

3 1,910 9 268.1 267.9 8 02 

4 1,433 8 232.5 232.2 9 17 

5 1,146 7 208.0 207.7 10 24 

6 955.4 6.3 190.0 189.7 11 22 

7 819.0 5.8 175.8 175.5 12 16 

8 716.8 5.5 164.8 164.5 13 08 

9 637.3 5.2 155.2 154.8 13 54 

10 573.7 4.9 147.5 147.1 14 40 

11 521.7 4.6 140.6 140.1 15 22 

12 478.3 4.5 134.8 134.3 16 04 

13 441.7 4.3 129.5 129.0 16 42 

14 410.3 4.1 124.8 124.3 17 20 

15 383.1 4.0 120.6 120.1 17 56 

16 359.3 3.9 116.8 116.3 18 30 

17 338.3 3.8 113.3 112.8 19 04 

18 319.6 3.7 110.3 109.8 19 38 

19 302.9 3.6 107.4 106.8 20 10 

20 287.9 3.5 104.7 104.1 20 40 

For spurs and industrial branches, or temporary work, it is often convenient 
to lay out a curve without waiting for the use of an instrument, and in Fig. 
208, diagram 205 shows how to set out a circular curve. The tangent approach 
is first carefully lined up and a stake, B, set at the P.C. and another, A, 100 ft. 
back on the tangent (both on center line of track). The tangent is then lined 
in for 100 ft. beyond the P.C. at A, giving point C. The 100-ft. tape or cord 
is then held by one end at A, while its other end is moved inward from C for 
the distance given in Table No. 26 as the tangent deflection on a chord of 100 
ft. for a curve of the required degree. This gives point D on the curve, and a 
stake is set at this point. The chord AD is then extended to E, 100 ft. The 
tape being held at D, its free end is moved inward from E for the distance 
given in the table as the curve deflection on a chord of 100 ft. for a curve of 
the required degree. This gives another point F on the curve. The curve 
deflection EF, GH is always twice the tangent deflection CD, LK. The points 
H and J on the curve are set out in the same way from F and L. If the curve 
ends at H, as shown, then from the point L the tape will be swung in for the 
distance previously used for the tangent deflection CD, and this will give a 
point K on the tangent, 100 ft. from the P.T. at H. Intermediate points on 
the curve may be set out by measuring the middle ordinate for each 100-ft. 
chord, as given by the table, thus marking the points M, N, R. Table No. 31 
gives the tangent offset CD (Fig. 208, diagram 205) for a tangent BC and chord 
BD, both 100 ft. long, and also the middle ordinate of a chord 100 ft. long, so 
that the table may be used in setting out curves by offsets or ordinates. In 
the former case it must be remembered that the curve offsets EF, GH, etc., 
are double the first or tangent offset. 

In tracklaying, as well as in location, it is often desirable to ascertain the 
divergence of a curve from its tangent, and this is given by formula (7), pre- 
pared by Mr. Muenscher: 

(7) X= 0.875 N2D. (Example) 0.875 X5 2 X 6= 131.25 ft. 

X is the offset, or distance of one end of a curve from a tangent passing through 
the other end; N is the length of the curve in chords of 100 ft.; and D is the 
degree of curvature. Thus the divergence of a curve of 6° from its tangent 
in a length of 500 ft. will be as shown. By making D equal to the difference 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 393 

of the degree of curvature of two curves of different radius, but having a com- 
mon origin, X will be their divergence from each other at the end of N sta- 
tions. In tracklaying, if X = the gage of track, and D = the degree of curva- 
ture of a turnout track (or corresponding to a given number of frog), N will 
be the lead of the main track. If X is half the gage, N will be the lead of the 
crotch frog, and if X is the throw of a stub switch, N will be the free length 
of the switch rail. The formula is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, 
and is of great use in field work, with the aid of a table of actual tangents for 
a 1° curve. For example, suppose a 5° curve to the right, 8 stations long, 
has been located, and its extremity falls 28 ft. too far to the right to throw 
the tangent on the best ground. Making X = 28 would give D = J°, showing 
that a 4° 30' curve starting from the same origin would pass through the required 
spot. Suppose that in the same case the new curve is to commence 200 ft. 
back of the first one; then the required divergence from the tangent will 
be 0.875X8 2 X5-28 = 252. Substituting this value for X and making N = 
5X2 gives D=2.88=2° 53'. 

TABLE NO. 31.— CURVE OFFSETS AND ORDINATES. 

Degree of Tangent Middle or- Degree of Tangent Middle or- 

^--curve— offset,* ^— dinate,^ ^curve-^ offset,* — dinate,-^ 

Deg. Mins. ft. ft. ins. Deg. Mins. ft. ft. ins. 

1 ........ 0.873 0.218 2 l A 7 6.105 1.528 18k£ 

1 30 1.309 0.327 ... 7 30 6.540 1.637 

2 1.745 0.436 5% 8 6.976 1.746 2i ' 

2 30 2.181 0.545 ... 8 30 7.411 1.855 . 

3 2.618 0.654 8 9 7.846 1.965 23M 

3 30 3.054 0.763 ... 9 30 8.281 2.074 

4 3.490 0.872 10]^ 10 8.716 2.183 26kf 

4 30 3.926 0.982 ... 10 30 9.150 2.293 . 7 

5 4.362 1.091 13 11 10.585 2.402 29 

5 30 4.798 1.200 ... 12 9.453 2.620 31U 

6 5.234 1.309 15% 15 13.053 3.277 39W 

6 30 5.669 1.418 ... 20 17.365 4.374 52^ 

* The offsets around the curve are double the length of the first and last or tangent offsets. 

Transition Curves. 

One of the great difficulties in track work is to maintain an easy riding track 
at the connection of tangents with curves where circular curves spring directly 
from the tangents. This is especially the case where speeds are high. The 
cars will pass as easily and smoothly round a well-laid curve as along an equally 
well-laid tangent, but there is an unpleasant lurching at each end of the curve, 
due to the sudden change of direction from rectilinear to circular motion, 
and to the sudden change in position of the trucks, as already noted. The 
effect of this lurching is shown by the increased wear of the rails and disturb- 
ance of the track at this point, indicating that a lateral force is exerted which 
has to be resisted in guiding the train along the track. In very many cases 
an attempt is made to remedy this by some form of transition or easement 
curve connecting the tangent with the curve proper in such a way as to make 
the change gradually. Where a circular curve is laid out to start directly 
from a tangent, the foreman will usually shift the ends to make an easier 
riding track. This is done by throwing the track inward by means of lining 
bars, so that the curve is practically extended 100 ft. onto the original tan- 
gent. The curve is therefore flattened at this point, which is an advantage 
in giving an easy change from the tangent to the true curve. It is true that 
this necessarily sharpens the curve a little beyond the located P.C., but there 
the motion is felt less severely, as the car has already begun to change its direc- 



394 TRACK WORK. 

tion. If this is not done by the section men, the traffic will slightly shift the 
track to the position giving it the easiest path (which is an objectionable means 
of obtaining a desirable end). The use of the transition curvet throws the 
curve out on the tangent, or makes it longer, which is what the trackman 
does by rule of thumb, as above noted. The curve thus altered rides very 
much more easily, and it is probable that there are very few curves which 
are not, intentionally or otherwise, maintained in this condition to some extent. 
The curve should be laid out definitely and permanently, however, and not 
left to the arbitrary action of the section foreman. 

In Wellington's "Economic Theory of Railway Location" the case is con- 
cisely stated as follows: "What is wanted is, (1) to ease off the curve by a 
rapidly changing radius for a short distance at the ends — a transition curve; 
and (2) to leave the great body of the curve of uniform radius." With such 
a curve the work of the trackmen will be considerably reduced, and there 
will be less wear of wheel flanges, rails and rolling stock. The transition 
may be effected in three ways: (1) By a compound curve, having at each 
end a curve of greater radius compounded with the main curve; (2) By com- 
pounding short circular arcs of gradually increasing radius, until the radius 
of the main central arc or curve is reached; or (3) By a spiral curve. The 
third system is in general the best. The Searles so-called spiral (which is 
of the second class, with arcs of equal length) and the Holbrook true spiral 
are both extensively used, and numerous other systems and modifications have 
been introduced by different engineers. A majority of the important railways 
employ transition systems of some kind, and in most cases these are based 
upon spiral curves. The objections that have been made usually against the 
use of transition curves are as follows: (1) The benefits are largely theoret- 
ical; (2) The practical effects are obviated by the variable velocity of the 
traffic; (3) The curves are more difficult to lay out and to maintain in aline- 
ment. The first objection can hardly be sustained in the face of extensive 
experience as to the practical advantages derived, and which are worth much 
more than they cost. As to the second, while it is true that the easement 
cannot be made to fit the variations of train velocity, it can be made to fit 
the prevailing velocity. This same objection would apply to the supereleva- 
tion on curves, but no engineer would propose to dispense with superelevation. 
As to the third objection, the computation and field work of location are but 
little more difficult than for circular curves without easement. The location is 
easily made precise enough for all practical purposes, and the maintenance of 
alinement is no more difficult if the curve is properly and permanently marked. 
The rail wear and the maintenance work for alinement at curves will be much 
reduced on a track thus located, and the trackmen soon come to realize this 
in its relation to their work. 

The use of transition curves has greatly increased within recent years, and 
new methods have been developed which are simple, practical and generally 
applicable. They can be adjusted to existing lines without excessive staking 
out or shifting of track. In most cases the length of transition is twice the 
length of the simple curve which it replaces, while its angle is the same as 
that of the simple curve which it replaces. Owing to the greater length of 
curves thus treated, in relocation, where reverse curves separated by short 
tangents occur, the tangents will be still further shortened. Absolute reverse 
curves cannot be so relocated without increasing the curvatures to get in the 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 395 

necessary length for the transition between them, but such curves so tran- 
sitioned are less objectionable than circular reverse curves of easier curvature 
and with short connecting tangents. As it is desirable to adapt the transition 
to traffic conditions, and as the superelevation of curves varies according to 
local conditions of speed and traffic, a method has been developed by which 
the length of transition is governed by the curve elevation (say 350 times the 
elevation). In relocating a circular curve to apply transition curves at the 
ends, the center line of the main part of the curve will be thrown inside the 
original center line. This would be a serious objection in applying transition 
curves to existing track, as it would necessitate an excessive amount of shifting 
of track and would result in closing up the rail joints. If the main curve is 
left in position, the tangents must be thrown out to meet the transition 
curves. To meet this condition, a method is used on the New York Central 
Ry. and other roads by which the original length of curve is maintained. 
The center portion of the curve is slightly sharpened, and moved a few inches 
outward. The ends are drawn a few inches inward, so that the transitioned 
curve intersects the old simple circular curve near the ends of the latter. 
In this way the improved curve can be placed on an existing roadbed where 
no great change in position is practicable. 

In the location of the Virginian Ry., a transition curve was used which forms 
a spiral approximating to a parabolic arc, but the method of laying it out is 
simpler. It has twice the length of the circular arc which it replaces, though 
the angle subtended remains the same. The spiral curve is divided into as 
many stations as there are degrees in the curve for which it forms the approach, 
and the curvature increases 1° for each of these stations. By varying the 
length of the stations the spiral may be made as sharp or as easy as the tan- 
gent conditions will allow. This method leaves the tangent in its original 
position, while the center of the circular or main curve is drawn into the inter- 
section angle. It is used for all curves of 2° and over on some parts of the 
line, and those of 5° and over on other parts. The St. Louis & San Francisco 
Ry. uses spirals on' all main-line curves over 2^°. Half the spiral is on the 
original curve, and it is marked by a round stake at each end; a square stake 
marks the P.C. or P.T. of the original curve. On the South & Western Ry., 
the Sullivan system ("Engineering News," July 3, 1902) is used at the ends 
of all simple curves of 3° and over, and between the parts of compound curves 
which vary by 3° or more. The length is usually 200 ft. It is a parabola, 
with the same number of sub-chords as there are degrees in the curve to which 
it is applied; the spiral increases 1° for each sub-chord until at the end of 
the last sub-chord its curvature corresponds with that of the main curve. 
Transition curves are used for curves of 1° and over by the Philadelphia & 
Reading Ry. and Louisville & Nashville Ry.; and for curves of 2° and over 
by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. and the Illinois Central Ry. These 
four roads use the Searles spiral. The length is so determined by the first 
three railways that the rate of increase in superelevation will not exceed §-in. 
in 30 ft., 1 in. in 40 ft., and 1 in. in 48 ft. respectively, the superelevation being 
obtained entirely between the P.S. and P.C. On double track, the length of 
the transition at the leaving end of the curve is sometimes reduced about 20^ . 
Transition curves are used on the New York underground railway and the 
Boston elevated railway. 

The best transition curve is that on the principle of the cubic parabola, being 



396 TRACK WORK. 

a short curve of varying radius, which is interpolated between the circular 
curve and its tangent. It must be such that, starting with an infinite radius 
(or D=0) at the P.C., it will have a degree at every point in direct pro- 
portion to the distance from the P.C., until, at the P.C.C., where it connects 
with and becomes tangent to the main curve, it is of the same degree as that 
curve. Such a curve approximates closely to that of the cubic parabola, and 
with it the curvature and superelevation commence at the same point. The. 
curve commences easily, and its degree increases gradually and uniformly, 
and yet quickly, until at some point it attains the degree of the main curve, 
the maximum superelevation being attained at the same point. The main 
circular curve is then continued until, near its end, it is again run out by a 
transition curve of decreasing degree into the tangent. The centrifugal force 
will thus be created gradually, and be balanced at every point by a gradually- 
increasing centripetal force from the superelevation, if the latter is precisely 
adapted to the speed; or, if not, the aggregate will be less and gradually created. 
The center plates of the trucks will move through the necessary angle quickly, 
and then remain unchanged until the curve is passed. The conclusions pre- 
sented by Mr. Wellington in regard to this curve were as follows: 

1. — The transition curve will deflect exteriorly from the given main curve, 
because the rate of curvature becomes continuously less. 

2. — It will terminate in a tangent parallel to the given tangent, because the 
same central angle is consumed. 

3.— The offset DP ( = 0), Fig. 208 (diagram 207), bisects the transition 
curve AC in M. 

4. — The transition curve AC bisects the offset O in M. 

5. — At any intermediate points, 00 l , at equal distances from the correspond- 
ing P.T.C. 's, or from the middle point M, the offsets to the transition curve 
from the tangent, or from the main curve produced, are equal. 

6. — The average degree of curvature between the P.T.C. at A and any two 
intermediate points, O and O 1 , varies directly as the distances to these points 
from the P.T.C. 

7. — The square offsets, O or O 1 , from the tangent or the main curve pro- 
duced, vary as the cube of the distance from the P.T.C. 

8. — Any offset, O, may be used with any curve to connect the main curve 
with the tangent, and the length of the curve only will vary, varying as the 
square root of half the length of the transition curve. 

9. — The half length (n) of the curve (AM or MC) equals the central angle 
I divided by the degree of the main curve. 

The curve may be laid out by deflection angles or by offsets, but as the dif- 
ferences of curvature are in most cases comparatively small, and the transit 
work, if rigorously done, becomes more complex, the offset method is particu- 
larly suitable. In all ordinary cases, for moderate length and offsets, the curve 
is sensibly a parabola, and bisects the total offset. The offsets to the curve 
from the tangent and the circular curve are equal at equal distances from the 
extremity of the curve, and the offsets at the quarter points are always 1/16 
of the total offset, or almost imperceptible, so that for grading purposes the 
curve is rarely more than half as long in fact as it is in theory. The track 
centers as well as grading centers may be laid out by offsets alone in all ordi- 
nary cases, with practically perfect accuracy. The objection is sometimes 
made that the method of laying out the curves by offsets is but a rough approxi- 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 397 

mation to the true curve. Such objections (like those to simple methods of 
laying out turnouts) are apt to be made on theoretical considerations and 
without due allowance for the fact that delicate and minute measurements 
are sometimes out of place and useless in track work. 

Many miles of track centers have been set by this method, and the track 
is practically equal to that on which the centers have been set directly from 
the transit, while the cost is very much less. In general, when circumstances 
permit, the best way for determining a transition curve is to assume a length, 
and let the offset at the P.C. come where it will. In many cases this is impos- 
sible or inexpedient, and the practical case is that the offset F is given a fixed 
length, and a curve must be put in to fit it. The offsets should vary approxi- 
mately as the cube of the degree of curvature of the main curve, and while 
differences in speed may properly be considered in selecting particular transi- 
tion curves, that does not prevent the law from being as stated if it is desired 
to use curves changing in degree by a given quantity in a given distance. The 
minimum length of offset for a 2° curve, or any other transitioned curve, should 
be as large as can be conveniently obtained up to a foot or more, provided 
high speeds are expected. If they are not expected, or if there are many other 
much sharper curves, a 2° curve may, without sensible harm, be left without 
transition curves. In any case it is a waste of time to trouble with offsets 
less than 0.1 in. (or even so small), as within a year after the track is laid 
it will almost certainly, under the trackmen's attention, vary more than that; 
often four or five times as much. In the application to compound curves, 
the transition curve to connect two curves, D° and D 10 , is practically identical 
(as to lengths and offsets) with one connecting a tangent with a curve whose 
degree is equal to the difference between the degrees of the two curves. 

For laying out transition curves on the track to fit existing circular curves, 
the following method has been developed by Mr. F. E. Smith. The arc BA 



"H 1A 2 3 4 5 S 

Fig. 209. — Laying Out Transition Curves. 

in Fig. 209 represents a 5° circular curve with P.C. at A. The transition 
curve is to be 300 ft. long, which gives 12 chords of 25 ft., six being opposite 
the curve and six opposite the tangent. A 6° curve inside the main curve 
is assumed, as shown by the arc BE, the length being 150 ft., and center 
angle 9°, which gives an arc of 180 ft. The point of circular curve, B, is 
found by measuring 180 ft. from A on the 5° curve, and the tangent BT 
staked out. Six 25-ft. chords are then staked out on the 6° curve to the P.C. 
at E, with tangent EF parallel with the track tangent HA. The perpen- 
dicular HE is bisected at M, the point M being the middle of transition curve, 



398 TRACK WORK. 

and HM the offset. The point H is fixed on the tangent of the 5° curve, and 
from it are measured six 25-ft. chords to S, which will be the P.C. of the transi- 
tion curve. Divide the length of offset HM (in inches) by 216 and measure 
off as ordinates; once this amount at 5, 8 times the amount at 4, 27 times 
the amount at 3, 64 times the amount at 2, and 125 times the amount at 1. 
Starting again from E (on the 6° curve) measure off similar ordinates; that 
at 6 equal to that at 1; at 7 the same as 2, and so on to B, the P.C.C., where 
the transition curve merges into the circular curve. Stakes and tacks are 
driven at the ends of these ordinates and mark the line of the transition curve, 
which is shown by the line SMB. No formulas are required for the trackmen. 
Another offset method, and which is specially adapted for application 
to existing track, is given by Mr. David Molitor, and has been used on the 
German government railways and the Illinois Central Ry. The circular curve 
is staked out on the ground in the usual manner, stakes being driven at the 
P.C, and on the tangent at distances L-^4 and L-^2, Fig. 208 (diagram 206), 
and also on the curve at the same distances from the P.C, the distance L being 
the length of transition curve as given in Table No. 32. Having these five 
stakes, offsets are measured towards the center of the curve as given in the 
table, and stakes set at the ends of these offsets are the track centers. The 
position of the circular curve between its two transition curves is given by 
the constant offset M. The figures given in Table No. 29 are sufficient for 
all practical purposes. In the equation for the curve, LR is a constant, 173,800, 
which is found to give good results without excessive values for M. The length 
of transition curve is then as in formula (8). For points between O and the 
P.C, the ordinate U from the tangent is given by formula (9), and for points 
between the P.C. and N, the offset S from the circular curve is given by for- 
mula (10). 

,n t 173 - 800 (Q) tj— ^ X3 no) S=^ (X ~ L)2 

(8) L p— . w u- 6LR lf042f800 . uu; b 6LR 2R . 

TABLE NO. 32.— OFFSETS FOR STAKING OUT TRANSITION CURVES FROM 

CIRCULAR CURVES. 

. Offsets , 

Degrees X=~ X=£- X=~ X= L 

of 4 2 4 

- — curve — . Radius, L, U, T, S, M, 

Degs. Mins. R, ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. 

2 00 2,864.9 60.7 0.003 0.027 0.051 0.054 

2 15 2,546.6 68.3 0.004 0.038 0.071 0.076 

2 30 2,292.0 75.9 0.006 0.052 0.098 0.105 

2 45 2,083.7 83.4 0.008 0.069 0.130 0.139 

3 00 1,910.1 91.0 0.011 0.090 0.176 0.181 

3 15 1,763.2 98.6 0.014 0.115 0.216 0.230 

3 30 1,637.3 106.2 0.018 0.143 0.269 0.287 

3 45 1,528.2 113.7 0.022 0.176 0.330 0.352 

4 00 1,432.7 121.3 0.027 0.214 0.401 0.428 

4 15 1,348.5 128.8 0.032 0.257 0.481 0.513 

4 30 1,273.6 136.4 0.038 0.304 0.570 0.608 

4 45 1,206.6 144.0 0.045 0.358 0.671 0.716 

5 00 1,146.3 151.7 0.052 0.418 0.783 0.836 

5 15 1,091.7 159.3 0.060 0.484 0.907 0.968 

5 30 1,042.1 166.8 0.069 0.556 1.042 1.112 

5 45 996.9 174.4 0.079 0.636 1.191 1.271 

6 00 955.4 181.9 0.090 0.722 1.352 1.443 

Parabolic curves are used instead of circular curves to a limited extent, 
with the idea that they ride more easily. They are, however, of comparatively 
little effect as far as transitioning is concerned, and the same may be said of 
the plan of throwing in the whole of the curve except about 100 ft. at each 
end, connecting with the tangents. Mr. Wellington pointed out in the field 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 399 

book which he left uncompleted at his death, that if we connect the same 
tangents and tangent points by parabolic instead of circular arcs, we shall 
obtain curves which are ordinarily of only slightly longer radius at the P.C. 
and P.T. than the circular arc. Thus the objectionable features of the curve 
connections are only slightly alleviated, and there is the disadvantage that 
the curve is correspondingly sharpened in the center. While the increase 
in radius is inconsiderable, a new and unfavorable effect is created; as the 
degree of a parabolic curve is constantly changing, and the change is very 
slow, the angle of the axis of the trucks to the axis of the car is likewise con- 
stantly changing, but with extreme slowness. Under these conditions the 
coefficient of friction between the center plates becomes a maximum, and the 
flange pressure and danger of the center plates binding and causing derail- 
ment are both materially increased. With the parabola, it is true, unlike the 
circle, it is unnecessary to have the tangents equal. If unequal tangents are 
used, we improve conditions at one end of the curve, but introduce less favor- 
able conditions at the other end. On the whole, the parabola is not a desirable 
railway curve, as compared with the circle, even if it were more easy instead 
of more difficult to lay out. 

Tangents and Ordinary Curves. 

The longest tangent in the world is one of 205 miles on the Buenos Aires 
& Pacific Ry., in South America. The Canadian Pacific Ry. has a 90-mile 
tangent from Regina. Among the easiest curves are two on the Central Ry. 
of Georgia: 150,000 ft. radius (2£ mins.), 26,500 ft. long; and 20,000 ft. radius, 
8,374 ft. long. The Montana Central line of the Great Northern Ry. has a 
30-min. curve about a mile in length. Curves of 6° should as far as possible 
be the maximum for important main lines with high speed; curves of 8° to 
10° are used, mainly on mountain divisions and on branch lines. The Illinois 
Central Ry. has adopted 4° as its maximum. On the South & Western Ry., 
built across mountainous country to carry a heavy freight traffic, the limit 
is 8°. The objections to curves have already been noted. Many railways 
have spent large sums of money in taking out or flattening curves to improve 
the alinement and reduce the total curvature, especially where there is heavy 
and fast traffic. 

Sharp Curves. 

Sharp curves exist on many main lines, being introduced necessarily some- 
times on difficult location in order to keep down the grades, to avoid heavy 
works, or to reduce the cost of construction. The Canadian Pacific Ry. for 
many years had at a point along the Kicking Horse River a curve of 22°, about 
755 ft. long. It was at first laid with a superelevation of 6 or 7 ins., but as 
much grinding took place the rails were placed level and the gage was widened 
to 4 ft. 10 ins. Guard rails were placed at both track rails to guide the wheels 
and carry the blind tires of locomotives. Engines with a rigid wheelbase of 
14J ft. passed this curve, and the maximum speed was 10 to 15 miles per hour. 
This curve has now been abandoned, a cut-off with tunnel and 8° curve hav- 
ing been built. In reducing the grades between Field and Hector, B. C, this 
road has introduced two spiral tunnels, on curves of 10° covering central 
angles of 234° and 232°, one of which ends in a 10° reverse curve. The New 
York Central Ry. and Pennsylvania Ry. own jointly a line in the mountain- 



400 TRACK WORK. 

ous country of western Pennsylvania, and the Fleming summit on this line 
(near Cherry Tree, Pa.) has a loop at the end of practically parallel tracks; 
it is a 10° curve covering 248|° of central angle, connected at one end to 10° 
reverse curves and at the other end to a long 2° curve. The Lake Erie & 
Western Ry. had at the passenger station at Lafayette, Ind., a long compound 
curve with a maximum of 30°, and a total angle of 69J°. The gage was widened 
f-in. and the outer rail elevated 2§ ins. The guard rail space was 4 ins., and 
planks were spiked outside the inner rail to carry blind driving-wheel tires. 
By rearranging the tracks, this has been reduced to a curve of 10|°, with the 
same total angle; the superelevation is 2 ins., and the gage is not widened. 

The Erie Ry. has on its Jessup branch an 18° main-line curve on a grade of 
2.3%. The gage is 4 ft. 9 ins., and the superelevation is 5| ins. The maxi- 
mum main-line curve on the Illinois Central Ry. is 24 1°, but for new work the 
maximum is 4°. The New York Central Ry. and the Pennsylvania Ry. have 
adopted loop curves at the ends of the electrically operated sections at New 
York. The former proposes to use a curve of 140 ft. radius, with slight super- 
elevation as the speeds will be low. This will be only for the suburban trains 
on the multiple-unit system, the cars for which have platforms and draft gear 
specially constructed to permit of their passing a curve of this radius. The 
Pennsylvania Ry. will use a curve of 600 ft. radius, but this will be for the use 
of the electric locomotives. The Boston Elevated Ry. has a maximum curve 
of 82 ft, radius, and others of 100 ft., 200 ft. and 300 ft. 

Very sharp curves are occasionally required in yards, at Y's, and particu- 
larly for spur tracks entering warehouses, grain elevators and industries. 
Curves of ordinary yard tracks may be of 10° to 20°, and 30° for industry spurs. 
A single car can be hauled round a curve of 40 ft. radius, as in entering a ware- 
house, etc., where room is limited and land is valuable. Where two or more 
coupled cars are run, the radius may be 90 or 100 ft., though there may be 
occasional trouble from the corners of the cars striking each other, unless 
long coupling links or bars are used. It is not generally advisable to use four- 
wheel switch engines on curves of less than 75 ft. radius. The outer rails may 
be wide and flat to give a bearing to the wheel flanges of cars. On all such 
specially sharp curves care should be taken to have the curvature uniform 
and regular, the gage properly widened, rails braced, guard rails properly set, 
and the maintenance properly attended to. A curve of 79^ ft. radius at the 
Atlantic Terminal, Brooklyn, has a gage of 4 ft. 9| ins., and a superelevation 
of 4 ins. The quarry line of the Limerock Ry., at Rockland, Me., has a com- 
pound curve of 80, 68 and 75 ft. radii, with a contained angle of 110°; it is 
operated by a six-wheel switching engine. A small yard of the Central Ry. 
of New Jersey on the Harlem River, New York, has tracks of 90 ft. and 104 
ft. radius, surrounding an oval freight house. The gage is widened 1 in., but 
there is no superelevation. Ordinary cars coupled together can be handled 
if the distance between center pins and couplers is about the same in each of 
the cars. Cars having a body length of 40 ft. or more must be handled singly 
and with care, being coupled to the switch engine by a rod. A four-wheel 
side-tank switching engine is used, having 7 ft. wheelbase. The wheels are 4 
ft. 5| ins. back to back, and have tires 6 ins. wide, with l£-in. flanges. Curves 
of the same radii in a similar yard of the Lehigh Valley Ry. had the gage widened 
^-in., and the outer rails elevated 2 ins. The Lake Shore & Michigan South- 
ern Ry. has at the Ashtabula yards a 16° curve used by 50-ton loaded ore 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 401 

cars and 65-ton six-wheel switching engines with 11 ft. 3 ins. wheelbase. As 
the car enters the curve, the body tilts, and the heavy load thus thrown on 
the side bearings prevents the trucks from taking a radial position. The wheel 
flanges are thus held against the outer rail. The engines also wear the rail 
very rapidly, and cut off the inside lip caused by the flow of metal under the 
heavy pressure. The ten-coupled (0-10-0) switch engines of this road trav- 
erse curves of 22° at Ashtabula, and 12° at Elkhart and Collinwood; the 
engines have a wheelbase of 19 ft. The Erie Ry. has at Paterson, N. J., an 
industry track with a curve of 53i°; the gage is widened from J-in. to 1-in., 
and there is a guard rail the full length of the curve. 

The Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. had at the Cincinnati 
terminals two curves of 70 ft. radius, around which freight cars passed easily, 
as well as a switching engine with a wheelbase of 7| ft. The shackle bar 
between the engine and tender was slightly lengthened, and the feed hose 
transferred from the sides to the center line to prevent the corners from jam- 
ming and tearing the hose. Bar links with holes 12 ins. apart were used 
between the cars to keep the corners from striking. Two to four cars were 
usually handled. The gage was spread 1£ ins. At the same city the Penn- 
sylvania Lines had two sidings of 50 ft. radius into a beef storehouse, each 
turning an angle of 90°. A four-wheel engine with 7 ft. wheelbase was used, 
but as the street rails got filled with dirt it was the practice to rope the cars 
in and out. Engines with six driving wheels work regularly over sidetrack 
curves of 80 and 100 ft. radius. In the old arrangement the yard at the 
Grand Central Station, New York, there were spurs of 75 and 80 ft. radius 
to the express warehouse. These were satisfactory for baggage cars, 50 ft. 
long. A four-wheel switch engine, with four-wheel tender, was used, adapted 
to these curves by lengthening the drawbar so as to separate the end frames 
by a distance of 16 ins. The tires were 5J ins. wide, with 4-in. treads and 1-in. 
flanges. The wheel gage was 4 ft. 5£ ins. back to back of tires, and the track 
gage 4 ft. 9 ins. The driving wheelbase was 8 ft. 

Guard Rails on Curves. 

A guard rail or check rail inside the inner rail may be used on sharp curves 
to hold the wheel flanges away from the outer rail. Such rails are sometimes 
used on main track (as on high banks or on mountain divisions), but more 
generally in yards. It is probable that they are particularly needed on the 
main tracks of electric railways operated at high speed, especially when elec- 
tric locomotives are used, having the motors on the driving axles. On very 
sharp curves, a guard rail is sometimes laid on the inside of the outer rail (leav- 
ing 1| ins. flangeway), and another rail (or a heavy plank) outside of the 
inner rail, and as close to it as possible. These are to help support the blind 
or flangeless tires of driving wheels when they have a dangerously narrow 
bearing on the track rails on these curves. The practice in regard to curve 
guard rails is very diverse. They are used on curves sharper than 10° or 12° 
on some roads, and 20° to 25° on others. The width of flangeway ranges from 
If ins. (plus the amount of widening of gage on the curve) to 2\ and 3 ins., 
and even 5 ins. In some cases it is considered that the rails should be used 
on all curves sharper than 12° or 15° to prevent derailment, being so placed 
as to come into action only as the flange begins to tend to mount the outer 
rail This requires a spacing of 3£ ins. to 4 ins. For guard rails at frogs and 



402 TRACK WORK. 

crossings, the flangeway is usually 1| ins., but this would be bad practice on 
ordinary curves, as it would relieve the flange from action and throw all the 
normal guiding upon the guard rail. It is only admissible to throw guard 
i ails into constant action on extremely sharp curves, such as those of elevated 
railways, where the guard rails are kept well lubricated. On the New York 
elevated lines the flangeway for curve guard rails is 2 \ ins., while in the sub- 
way or underground lines it varies from 2 to 2 \ ins. The widths on the Chicago 
South Side Elevated Ry. and the Boston Elevated Ry. are given in Table No. 33. 

TABLE NO. 33.— FLANGEWAY AND GAGE ON SHARP CURVES. 



Flangeway. 


C urve 

Chicago. 


Radi us . 

Boston. 


Gage Widened, 
Boston. 






90 ft. 


%■ 


-in. to %-in. 


^-ins. 


96 to 123 ft. 


90 to 125 ft. 




J^-in. 


24-ins. 


124 to 172 ft. 


125 to 150 ft. 




%-in. 


2 ins. 


173 to 287 ft. 


150 to 230 ft. 




M-in. 


1%-ins. 


288 to 864 ft. 


230 to 500 ft. 




34-in. 


1%-ins. 


865 and over. 


500 to 5,000 ft. 








Widening Gage on Curves. 

It is a general practice to widen the gage on curves in order to allow loco- 
motives to pass without undue friction (and wear) of rails and wheel flanges, 
or a dangerous liability of the wheel flanges to climb the rail. There is great 
diversity in the rules governing this widening. It may be said, however, that 
it should be used as little as possible, that the amount of widening should be 
as small as possible, and that special care should be taken to insure that the section 
foremen do not introduce excessive widening beyond that allowed . One reason for 
the lack of uniformity in practice is in the character of the locomotives employed. 
The principal factors are as follows : (1 ) The length of rigid and flanged wheel- 
base of engines; (2) The clearance between rails and wheel flanges; (3) 
The lateral play of the wheels (usually about i-in.); (4) The distance from 
truck center to front driving axle; (5) The side motion or lateral play of 
the truck. The driving wheelbase of engines with four pairs of driving wheels 
is usually about 16 to 18 ft., and in order to facilitate the passage of curves 
it has been customary to use blind or flangeless tires (of extra width) on one 
or more pairs of wheels. The present tendency, however, is to use flanged 
tires on all the wheels, which may impose severe conditions upon the track 
at sharp curves and thus cause trouble and expense in maintenance-of-way. 

To offset this to some extent, a little extra clearance is often given to the 
front and rear wheels. The standard width back to back of wheels is 53f 
ins. Some eight-coupled (2-8-0) engines, with all wheels flanged and 16 ft. 
wheelbase, have 53£ ins. for the first and fourth pairs, and 53? ins. for the two 
middle pairs; other similar engines have 53 ins. and 53 J ins. respectively. 
Ten-coupled switching engines (0-10-0), with all wheels flanged and 19 ft. 
wheelbase, have 53f ins. for the second and fourth pairs, and 53| ins. for the 
others. The wheel gage ordinarily gives f-in. to |-in. clearance on tangents, 
and there is no necessity for widening the gage of track as long as the clear- 
ance between the wheel flange and rail allows the engine to travel round the 
curve without binding or exerting undue pressure. The following formulas 
of the Roadmasters' Association (1898) are modified from others worked out 
by Mr. W. H. Searles: D = degree of curve beyond which widening will be 
necessary; A=distance from driving axle to truck pin; B=driving wheel- 
base; S = side play of truck; P = play allowed by wheel flanges. 

r>_ 956 f ( p-v)+ ^BSn p _/DAB ^BS n 

D -AXb( (P A)+ A + Bj- P -U56-~A + B-; +M - 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 



403 



On some roads the widening begins with |-in. for 1°, and increases about 
1/16-in. per degree of curve (or |-in. for each 2°). On others it begins with 
l-'m. at 4° to 6°, the minimum on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. being 
6°. In still other cases a uniform widening of £-in. is required for all curves 
over 8° or over 12°. On the New York Central Ry., the widening varies by 
i-in., and is £-m. for curves of 6° to 10°, |-in. for 10° to 14°, f-in. for 14° to 18°, 
and 1 in. for 18° and over. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., it is 
f-in. for curves of 1° to 2° (inclusive), J-in. for 3° to 5°, f-in. for 6° to 8°, and 
J-in. for 9° to 11°. The South & Western Ry. uses |-in. for curves of 9° to 12° 
(inclusive), and J-in. for curves over 12°. The Illinois Central Ry. uses |-in. 
for curves of 3° up to 5°, 3/16-in. for 5° and up to 7°, |-in. for 7° and over. 

The practice on some other roads is shown in Table No. 34. The Southern 
Pacific Ry. allows £-in. excess for rail wear, but the gage must never exceed 
4 ft. 9| ins. The maximum permissible widening is usually 1 in. The widen- 
ing of very sharp curves on elevated railways is given in Table No. 33. The 
gage at frogs and switches should be the same as on the adjoining track, but 
some roads widen the gage on the turnout track in all cases. The Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., for instance, makes the gage 4 ft. 9 ins. at all turn- 
outs, whether on curves or tangents. The widening extends through the 
switch and frog and narrows to 4 ft. 8^ ins. in a distance of 30 ft. beyond the 
frog. The gage of 4 ft. 9 ins. is also used for yard tracks from which many 
leads turn out. The widening should be effected by shifting the inner rail 
outward, keeping the outer rail at a uniform distance from the track centers 
throughout, and using this as the line rail. Great care should be taken to see 
that an excessive gage does not result from widening combined with wear 
and lateral movement of rails. Special track gages may be furnished to fore- 
men having curves of over 5°; that of the Louisville & Nashville Ry. has 
two fillers to set against the lugs and give a widening of ^-in. and J-in. 

TABLE NO. 34.— WIDENING GAGE ON CURVES. 



Curve. 

degs. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



L. & 


Nor. 


c. & 


Ph. & 


Sou. 


Curve. 


L. & 


Nor. 


C. & 


Ph. & 


Sou 


N. 


Pac. 


N. W. 


Read. 


Pac. 


N. 


Pac. 


N. W. 


Read. 


Pac 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


degs. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


*- ■ 


a 








8 


n 


Vs 


5 /ie 


H 


A 




a 








9 


% 


Vs 


%■ 


A 






y% 


a 






10 


a 


A 


7 Ae 


% 




H 


H 


A 






11 


a 


a 


A' 


A 




A 


H 


3 /l6 


A 


A 


12 


Vs 


A 


%6 


A 




H 


H 


3 /ia 


a 


A 


13 


% 


Vs 


5 As 


A. 




■ H 


y% 


A 


A 


A 


Over 13 


% 


% 




5 A 





Superelevation on Curves. 

On tangents, it is important that the heads of both rails should be kept at 
the same level, or in the same horizontal plane, so as to insure easy and steady 
riding of the cars. On a curve, however, the centrifugal force causes the train 
to tend to travel in a straight line, thus throwing a severe and dangerous pres- 
sure of the wheel flanges against the outer rails. To reduce this, the outer 
rail is elevated above the inner one, to such an extent that the rails will be 
in an inclined plane at right angles to the resultant of the gravity force and 
centrifugal force acting upon the train. With a train traveling upon such 
an inclined plane, a centripetal force is developed which tends to cause the 
train to run in a curve instead of in a straight line. Where there is the exact 
relation of the inclination (or superelevation) to the resultant, the centrifugal 



404 TRACK WORK. 

force acting in the plane of the track is eliminated as a factor in the lateral 
pressure against the outside rail, and the factors then to be dealt with are 
the pressures and frictional resistances due to deflecting the wheels from the 
straight line (in which they tend to move) and compelling them to follow the 
curve. The amount of this superelevation depends upon the degree of the curve 
and the speed of the trains, but in practice the important factor of speed 
is a variable in each case. Fast and slow trains travel over the same tracks, 
so that it is impossible to exactly adjust the actual elevation to theoretical 
conditions. Thus a mean, or compromise, elevation must be adopted, taking 
into consideration the proportion of fast and slow trains. The centrifugal 
force of a moving train is calculated by the following formula. The super- 

_ Weight of train (tons) X Square of velocity (feet per second) 
Cent, force- 32~2X~Radius of curve (feet) 

elevation (E) required to counteract this lateral force is sometimes taken as 
1/10 of the square root of the degree of the curve. It is usually calculated, 
however, by any of the formulas given below, the result in each case being 
in decimals of a foot. Where the "gage" is a factor, this should properly 
be taken as the distance c. to c. of rails (4.9 ft.), and not the gage distance 
between rail heads (4.7 ft.). The gage board (see "Tools") being set level 
on the rails, and the rail heads being tilted by lying in an inclined plane, the 
board rests practically on the outer and inner corners of the outer and inner 
rails respectively. Corrections for width of rail head, however, are an undue 
refinement, the actual elevation being a compromise, as noted above. 

Gage, or distance c. to c. of rails (inches) X Sq. of velocity (ft. per second) 
E= 32.2 X Radius of curve (feet) 

Square of velocity (miles per hour) X Distance c. to c. of rails (feet) 
E= ~ 1. 25 X Radius of curve (feet) 

„ Chord 2 -r, n ACCO o Ga g e (° r °- 9 ft -) X Velocity squared (miles per hour) 

E=:- — n . ±L 1 =U.Uoo»o ~— j-- 77 — it — . 

Radius X 8 Radius (feet) 

The conditions in regard to grades, train service, etc., have an important 
relation to the acquired amount of superelevation. Good judgment must be 
exercised in giving the elevation according to the location and degree of the 
curve, the range of speeds, and other local conditions affecting the traffic. 
In fact the proper elevation for each curve must be the subject of investi- 
gation. A 6° curve at the top of a grade should have less elevation than a 
6° curve on level track or at the foot of a grade. On double track, the track 
on which trains ascend should have less elevation than that on which they 
descend, as ordinarily the former trains will have a lower speed. If the rules re- 
quire reduced speed on certain curves, these curves will require a proportionately 
less elevation than curves on which trains are run at normal speed. On sharp 
curves near stations or crossings, etc., where trains always stop, but little 
elevation is required, as the speed is slow. The same applies to similar curves 
near the summit of grades. It is not uncommon, however, to find excessive 
elevation at such locations, calculated for much higher speeds than can be 
obtained in service. On single track, a curve in a sag of grades may have 
the elevation increased to provide for the speed of trains making a run at the 
grade. On double track, a derailment on the inner side of the outer track 
would foul the inner track, and this also must be taken into account. 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 405 

The maximum elevation is usually limited in practice to 6 ins. (or 8 ins. 
at most). Greater amounts may be called for theoretically, but as a rule 
the fastest trains represent a comparatively small proportion of the traffic. 
With modern rolling stock, having heavy wheel loads and a high center of 
gravity for locomotives and cars, an elevation of 8 ins. on a curve throws a 
very heavy load on the lower rail. This may be dangerous, especially as the 
springs yield on the lower side while those on the higher side react, thus tend- 
ing to give the car floor an inclination greater than that of the track. If the 
elevation is too high for slow speeds the weight on the outer rail is reduced, 
which makes it easier for the wheel flange to mount the rail. This also intro- 
duces the liability of getting heavy slow trains stalled on the curve, owing 
to the severe flange pressure and weight on the inner rail, especially if the 
grade is not compensated for curvature. Heavy slow trains on curves ele- 
vated for high speed may cause distortion or flow of metal in the rail head. 

If a railway has many very sharp curves and operates a high-speed traffic, 
it may be desirable to change the alinement for reasons of safety in opera- 
tion as well as economy in maintenance. On most railways, there is a stand- 
ard table of superelevations for different curves and speeds, and such ele- 
vation is used as is required by the special conditions at individual curves. 
The actual elevation for any curve is selected (as already noted) to suit prac- 
tical considerations of traffic and location, maximum safe elevation, and reduc- 
tion of speed due to curve resistance. The tables serve only as guides, and 
must not be followed blindly. The elevation is usually calculated for passen- 
ger-train speeds, so as to insure easy riding, unless that elevation will be such 
as to interfere with slow freight trains. In determining the elevation for a 
mixed traffic with various speeds, it is usually best to give greater considera- 
tion to the fast than to the slow trains, unless the latter are very numerous 
and very heavy. In some cases, varying rates are specified to suit different 
operating conditions. 

It is, of course, useless to carry out the tables to very high figures, because 
(for reasons already given) the elevation cannot be carried beyond certain 
limits; while on very sharp curves fast trains are usually required to reduce 
speed for considerations of safety, so that a less elevation may then be intro- 
duced. The actual elevation is a compromise, and the maximum is usually 
confined to tracks used extensively by passenger trains at high speed, as it 
is too high for heavy freight trains moving at a moderate speed. Whatever 
amount of elevation is decided upon, this amount should be maintained uni- 
formly around the curve, as irregularity in this respect seriously affects the 
riding of the cars, and may introduce an element of danger. For this reason, 
among others, foremen should frequently test the elevations of their curves. 
The degree of curve and the proper elevation may be marked on a stake driven 
at each end of the curve (or at the beginning of the curve on double track). 
Stakes may be set to the required elevation; that is, at the beginning, and 
the maximum elevation at the point where this maximum is reached. 

The practice as to superelevation on different railways varies very consid- 
erably. In some instances it begins with |-in. for 15 miles per hour on a 1° 
curve, and runs to a maximum of 7 ins. on 8° curves. In other cases it begins 
with ^-in. for 15 miles per hour on a 1° curve, and runs to a maximum of 3 
ins. at that speed, for a 20° curve. The Southern Pacific Ry. gives the track- 
men two elevation tables; one of these is for main lines (except mountain 



406 TRACK WORK. 

divisions with grades of over 1.8%), and is calculated for a speed of 36 miles 
per hour; the other is for mountain divisions with grades of over 1.8%, and 
for branch lines, and is calculated for 25 miles per hour. The Baltimore & 
Ohio Ry. gives two rules: one for single track, with trains in both directions; 
the other for double track on descending and light ascending grades. The 
South & Western Ry. uses f-in. per degree, the maximum being 5j ins. for 
a maximum 8° curve. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. elevates the 
curves on its high-speed lines for 60 miles per hour, with a maximum of 6 ins. 
The St. Louis & San Francisco Ry. uses 1-in. per degree for main lines, with 
a maximum of 6 ins. On branch lines, and at the top of long grades where 
speed is actually reduced, it uses f-in. per degree, with a maximum of 5 ins. 
For a curve at the bottom of a grade where trains run at high speed, the ele- 
vation is increased 1-in., with a maximum of 7 ins. The New York Central 
Ry. gives the following elevations, the maximum being 6^ ins.; main passen- 
ger tracks, curves under 2°, twice the middle ordinate of a 62-ft. string; 2° 
and over, middle ordinate + 2 ins.; main freight tracks, | of middle ordinate; 
combination tracks, middle ordinate; sidetracks, such elevation as may be 
deemed necessary by the resident engineer or roadmaster to meet local condi- 
tions and speeds. 

Where the degree of curve is not known, the elevation may be ascertained 
by taking a string of given length, holding the ends to the gage line of the rail, 
and measuring the ordinate from the center knot to the rail, which will be 
the required amount. In using the string, measurements should be taken 
at different points, so that any specially sharp or flat places in the curve (which 
should be corrected when discovered) do not mislead in setting the elevation. 
The length of string may be obtained by multiplying the speed in miles per 
hour by 1.587. The Southern Pacific Ry. specifies the middle ordinate of a 
string 64 ft. long on main track (based on 36 miles per hour), and 44 ft. long 
on branch lines (based on 25 miles per hour). The Philadelphia & Reading 
Ry. requires the elevation to be equal' to the middle ordinate of a chord (or 
string) whose length is that of the number of feet per second traversed by the 
average fast train. The practice on different railways is shown in Table No. 
35. On the Boston Elevated Ry., with curves as sharp as 82 ft. to 200 ft. 
radius, the maximum elevation is 4 ins., which is run out on the transition 
curves. On the South Side Elevated Ry., Chicago, the elevation is 4| ins. 
for curves up to 300 ft. radius, 3 ins. up to 500 ft., If ins. up to 700 ft., and 
f-in. for curves of over 700 ft. radius. 

The superelevation must, of course, be attained gradually. With circular 
curves this run-out is formed usually on the tangent, giving the full elevation 
at the P.C. and around the entire length of the curve. In some cases it is 
distributed over the tangent and the beginning of the curve, and the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. puts only 66% of the run-off on the tangent, and 
only 66% of the elevation at the P.C. The method first described is the best 
and most generally used. By slightly raising the rail on the tangent, the 
wheels tend to run towards the high rail, and are thus put in the best position 
for taking the curve. The rate of the run-out is very generally 30 ft. (or 33 
ft.) for each £-in. of elevation, but this is not enough for high-speed trains, 
in which the rise may sometimes be distinctly felt. The New York Central 
Ry. makes it 30 ft. for each |-in. up to 3 ins. elevation; for greater elevation, 
the length must not exceed 360 ft. The Louisville & Nashville Ry. uses 40 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 407 

ft., and the Illinois Central Ry. 50 ft. per inch of elevation, where no transi- 
tion curves are used. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. uses a uniform 
length of 120 ft., the maximum elevation being b\ ins. On double track, the 
Chicago & Northwestern Ry. makes the run-out at the leaving end about 
twice as long as that at the entering end of the curve. The New York Ele- 
vated Ry. uses a length of 30 ft. for 90-ft. curves, and 50 ft. for 350-ft. curves. 
The South Side Elevated Ry., Chicago, gives a run-off of ^-in. per tie between 
ties spaced 18 ins. c. to c. « - 

TABLE NO. 35.— SUPERELEVATION OF CURVES 

^So. Pac.*-^< 111. Central •» N. Y Central . , Louis & Nash, t . 

Curve.' Speed in miles per hour "3.-£ 

degs. A B 30 40 50 60 20 30 40 50 60 15 30 40 50 oO 8 S 

, Elevation in inches 'a>3 

1... 1 % V* 1 1H 2 X V 2 1 1H 2Y 2 M H IK 1% 2*4 60 

2... 2 1H 1 2 2% 3H H l [ 4 2H 3^ 5 V 2 1V S V/k 3 4% 60 

3... 3 2K 1H 2Vz 4% 5H H 1% 3X 5 l l 4 % 1% 2V* 44 5% 60 
4... 4 3 2 3% 5M 6H 1 2Y 2 4V 2 6H . . % 2\£ 3V 8 64 ^A 60 
5... 5 3% 2V 2 4V 2 6M .. 1 J 4 3 bV 2 ■ . .. H 2V A ^A &H .. 55 
6... 6 4V 2 3 54 .. . . 1% 3% 64 2 .. .. 1H 3K 5H 7 ..50 

7 5 3V 2 6 .. ..2 44 7V 2 .. . . 1H 3V S 6 .. .45 

8 4 2H 5 1% 4M 35 

9 4V 2 2J4 5Vi 

10 5 24 6\i 2 5H 30 

11 5V 2 3 634 

12 6 34 7 l 4 3 25 

13 3V 2 8 

14 3% 3V 2 14 

16 ±Y 2 4 16 

20 5 15 

* Southern Pacific Ry.: (A) For main lines, excepting mountain divisions having grades 
over 1.8%; (B) For mountain divisions having grades over 1.8%, also for branch lines: 
maximum elevation, 6 ins. Elevations are given for curves of half degrees, beginning at 
i-in. for \° curve for speed A, but for speed B the lowest is |-in. for 1° curve. 

t Louisville & Nashville Ry.: This company gives a table for 11 rates of speed. 10 to 60 
miles per hour, with 3| ins. for the lowest speed on a 30° curve. The maximum elevation 
is 7 ins. for curves up to"7°, 6 ins. up to 10°, and 5 ins. beyond 10°. 

Where the curves are transitioned, the run-out usually coincides with the 
transition curve, so that the elevation conforms to the radius at every point. 
While this is theoretically correct, the St. Louis & San Francisco Ry. finds 
that it does not make an easy riding track. The elevation is therefore com- 
menced on the tangent, two rail-lengths in advance of the spiral, and attains 
1 in. at the beginning of this curve; it then increases 1 in. in 30 ft. to the full 
elevation at end of spiral. For such curves, a diagram of the elevation should 
be given to the foreman. On compound curves, the sharper curve should 
have the full elevation on its entire length, running out on the flatter curve 
to the elevation of the latter, which has its run-out on the tangent. On reverse 
curves, or curves with very short tangents between them, the elevation must 
be made gradually on the curves, commencing at the point of reverse or at 
the middle of the short tangent. The high rail should be the line rail, and 
this rail is usually raised to the required elevation, the inner rail being kept 
at the grade level, with the minimum depth of ballast beneath it. On some 
roads the inner and outer rails are respectively lowered and raised by half 
the amount of superelevation, for the purpose of maintaining tne center of 
gravity of the train uniform on curve and tangent. This has little effect in 
practice, and is objectionable in complicating the roadway section. 

, Curves on Bridge and Trestle Floors. 

Where curves occur on bridges and trestles, special methods are required 
for putting in the elevation. For bridges, the most general methods are (1) 



408 



I 
TRACK WORK. 



to use tapered ties, (2) to put shims or blocks under the outer rail, (3) to put 
blocks under the outer ends of the ties. An objection to the second plan is 
that with any considerable elevation the rails get badly worn, as the inner 
rail is vertical (and sometimes both rails) and their heads are not in the same 
plane. Bridges may be inclined by putting the elevation in the rail seats of 
the masonry or in the shoes of the end bearings, but with any considerable 
elevation it is inadvisable to thus incline the girders or trusses. With trains 
at speeds lower than that for which the elevation is calculated, the load would 
not pass through the axis of the bridge and might subject the structure to 
strains not provided for in the design. In rare cases, the outer girder is made 
deeper, but this is not advisable, apart from the extra trouble in the design 
and manufacture of each structure. With through truss and girder bridges, 
however, the outer floor stringer may be raised. With ballasted floors, the 
ties are inclined in the ballast in the usual way. 

The practice of some railways for plate-girder deck structures is noted below. 
Baltimore & Ohio Ry. Tapered ties are used up to a maximum thickness of 
16 ins. at the butt, with the standard thickness under the inner rail. Beyond 
this, a cushion block is put on the outer girder, and the bottom of the tie is 
cut horizontal over the inner girder; the thickness under the inner rail must 
not be less than that of the standard tie. The block is the full width of tie, 
2 ins. thick at the small end and about 4 ft. long; the inner side is spiked to 
the tie, and the outer end has a f-in. bolt through the tie, while the guard-rail 
bolts also pass through the tie and block. — Louisville & Nashville Ry. The 
deck girders have no top cover plates, and the web plate extends f-in. above 



•xlt'Lagscrv*: 



**&. ^*7'w*t: 



■■■■\ tag* 

^screw 




Raising 
Piece 



Bolf K-- - --6'6"C.toC. H 

Fig. 210. — Superelevation of Curves on Bridges; Louisville & Nashville Ry. 

the chord angles. W T ith girders 6^ ft. apart, tapered ties 10 ft. long are used, 

8 ins. thick under the inner rail and with a maximum of 14 ins. at the outer 
rail, beyond which the top is level. Where the elevation exceeds 14 ins., 
a timber of the proper depth and the full width over chord angles is laid on 
the outer girder, and bolted to it at intervals. Every other tie is secured to 
this timber by a lag screw 1X13 ins. at right angles to the face of the tie. Where 
the girders are 9 ft. apart, the tapered ties are 11 ins. thick under the inner 
rail, and not more than 16 ins. under the outer rail. Over the inside girders 
the ties are in all cases boxed to give a level bearing on the chord, as shown in 
Fig. 210. — Pennsylvania Lines. For girders spaced 6| ft. apart, and with ties 

9 ft. long, tapered ties are used for elevations up to 6 ins., the minimum thick- 
ness of the tie being 6| ins. where it is boxed out for the girder. The bolt of the 
outside guard timber passes through the block and tie, and has a clip washer 
fitted to the edge of the chord angle. Where the rails rest on wooden floor 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 409 

beams (as in through plate-girder bridges), elevation blocks are placed between 
the floor beam and the outer rail. — Philadelphia & Reading Ry. Beveled 
blocks are placed on the tie, under the outer rail. 

Elevated Railways. — The South Side Elevated Ry., Chicago, uses tapered 
ties except where conditions require the standard 6-in. ties. In the latter 
case tapered shims are put on the ties, under the outer rail. These shims 
are 44 ins. long, and secured to the tie by 40-penny spikes. (" Engineering 
News," Aug. 18, 1904.) On the Boston Elevated Ry., tapered ties are used, 
with the standard thickness under the inner rail. 

Trestles. — On timber trestles the elevation may be given under or above 
the caps. If corbels are used, those on the outer side may be made of the 
necessary extra thickness. Otherwise, elevating blocks may be placed between 
the caps and the outer stringers, or between the ties and the outer rail. Tapered 
ties are not often used. Cushion ties are thin tapered ties (about 3 ins. thick 
at the inner end), the full width and length of the ordinary ties upon which 
they are placed. Cushioned caps are similarly placed on the caps, and may 
be boxed out for the stringers. The boxing tends to hold water and cause 
decay, and in both cases water may cause decay between the contact surfaces 
of the two pieces. Neither of these methods is used to any extent. Occa- 
sionally the entire trestle is built on an incline to give the proper elevation. 
With a pile trestle the piles may be cut off at heights to give the proper ele- 
vation to the cap. With framed trestles, the mudsills may be inclined, so 
that the framing of the bents will not be affected, or the outer posts may be 
of increased length, keeping the mudsills level. The main objection is that, 
with slow trains, the weight on the inner rail would tend to throw most of 
the weight on the inner posts, so that only the sway bracing would resist the 
racking of the bent; with considerable elevation and a high trestle, this 
would be very great. This might be prevented by increasing the batter of 
the inner posts, but such special construction of bents is undesirable. A solid 
floor without ballast may have the floor system built to give the elevation, 
but if it is ballasted the ties will be inclined in the ballast as on the ordinary 
roadbed. 

Lateral Pressures on Curves. 

While the theoretical pressure of the wheel flange against the rail on a curve 
may be computed, the exact pressure exerted and its effects are practically 
indeterminate, owing to variations in conditions of speed, rolling stock and 
track. The various forces entering into the discussion of curve mechanics 
are not static but are dynamic, and there is a large amount of shock, impact 
and oscillation in the movement of a train around a curve. Then again, the 
parts which receive the stresses are elastic and yielding, and not rigid. Under 
these conditions the determination of force and stress can result only in an 
approximation. In resisting lateral pressure, the rail is held in position mainly 
by the weight of the train, and the coefficient of friction between the rail and 
the tie (or tie-plate) is a most important factor, which again varies indefinitely. 
If the tie-plates have lugs or shoulders to provide a bearing for the outer edge 
of the rail base, and are also mechanically locked to the body of the tie (or 
have bottom lugs to engage with holes in the face of a steel tie), the pressures 
on the rails are better transmitted to the tie and the track structure. The 
pressure is exerted by the wheel flanges at a point some distance above the 



410 TRACK WORK. 

ties, and the resultant of this lateral force and the weight carried by the wheel 
may tend to tilt the rail or slide it outward upon the tie, according to the coef- 
ficient of friction between rail and tie. Any computations as to the pressures 
sustained by the spikes can be only approximate. There is little doubt, how- 
ever, that in very many cases the factor of safety in the spiking is small, even 
when tie-plates are used. The conditions at any point may be aggravated 
materially: (A) By a badly curved rail; (B) By ice, frost or grease under 
the rail; (C) By a few outside spikes out of actual contact with the rail or 
driven in soft wood or old holes; or (D) by inside spikes pulled (by wave 
motion of the rail) so that their heads do not bear upon the rail base. The 
following points are to be borne in mind, and some of these have already been 
noted : 

1. The centrifugal force of a train running around a curve tends to increase 
the weight on the outer rail and to reduce that on the inner rail, and at the 
same time to increase the pressure of the wheel flange against the outer rail. 
This may be counteracted by elevating the outer rail to develop a centripetal 
force. The centrifugal force is about 58 lbs. per ton on a 1° curve for a speed 
of 50 miles per hour, while the centripetal force is about 35 lbs. per ten per 
inch of elevation. (See " Superelevation.") 2. The superelevation is exact 
for only one of the numerous speeds at which trains pass over it. 3. The 
wheels tend to run in a straight line, and as the two wheels on each axle are 
rigidly fixed in their relation to each other, they must be slid laterally on the 
rail in passing the curve, and also moved or swung longitudinally for an amount 
equal to the difference in length of the inner and outer rails; (4) The guiding 
of the wheels of a truck around the curve is effected by the outer rail, against 
which the flange of the leading outer wheel presses, but a variable and impor- 
tant factor is the resistance offered to the movement of the truck by the fric- 
tion on its center bearing, and sometimes also on the side bearings. 

In the derailment of a train drawn by an electric locomotive on the New 
York Central Ry., on Feb. 16, 1907, one rail on a 3° curve was shifted bodily 
outward, sliding on the tie-plates and shearing off the spikes. The 95-ton 
locomotive was of the 2-8-2 class, with a motor on each driving axle, and 
a driving wheelbase of 13 ft. Comparisons were made between this engine 
and a 95-ton steam locomotive of the 4-4-2 class, and it was calculated that 
for the electric locomotive at 60 miles per hour the thrust of the leading truck 
wheel and first driving wheel would be 6,830 lbs., and 10,470 lbs. (with a spike 
shear of 2,780 lbs. and 5,820 lbs.); for the steam locomotive it would be 8,130 
and 11,200 lbs. (4,890 and 3,060 lbs. spike shear). This was discussed in 
"Engineering News" of March 14, 1907. A very similar accident occurred 
Feb. 22, 1907, with a train drawn by a steam locomotive on the Pennsylvania 
Ry.; on the 3° curve the outer rail was slid out on the steel ties, shearing 
off the bolts. With the fastening used the rail clamps did not enter the bolt 
holes so as to assist the bolt, and the pressure was resisted only by the bolt 
bearing against the back of the hole, with, of course, a very limited bearing 
area. Tests as to lateral pressure were made on this road by M. G. L. Fowler, 
using a specially designed apparatus. An 87-ton consolidation engine was 
run at 30 miles per hour on a 4i° curve having a superelevation of 3| ins. for 
a speed of 36J miles per hour. This showed a thrust of 13,430 lbs. for the 
truck wheel, and 11,450 lbs., 13,000 lbs., 12,215 lbs., and 11,170 lbs. for the 
driving wheels. Tests have also been made with cars, from which it appears 



GAGE, GRADES AND CURVES. 411 

that the first wheel exerts the greatest pressure, the others in constantly reduced 
proportion. The front truck exerts about C0% of the pressure. The maxi- 
mum lateral thrust of car wheels in ordinary service is estimated at 35,000 
lbs. at 45 miles per hour, while the average strength of car-wheel flanges is 
about 80,440 lbs. 

Switchbacks. 

Switchbacks, instead of curves, are sometimes used where a railway is devel- 
oped by a "zigzag" on a hillside in order to reach a desired elevation by prac- 
ticable grades, and where there is no room to put in curves to connect the 
inclines. In this case the upper end of one incline and the lower end of the 
next unite in a Y, the stem of which is a stub or tail track. The ascending 
train pulls into this tail track; the switch is then turned, and the train backs 
out up the next incline. The tail track has an ascending grade to assist in 
stopping and starting the trains. On the Crown King extension of the Santa 
F£, Prescott & Phoenix Ry. there is a switchback section 9 miles long, with 
10 switchbacks, the train running backward on alternate inclines. The inclines 
are from 1,500 ft. to 4,000 ft. long, with maximum grades of Sh% (compen- 
sated) and 16° curves (with gage widened f-in.). The grades and curves are 
somewhat easier on the back-up sections. The tail tracks are 300 ft. long, 
with a 2% grade rising from the switchstand. The frogs are No. 6J and No. 9. 
The trains weigh about 230 tons, including the locomotives, which are of the 
2-8-0 class, with 13| ft. wheelbase. The average speed over the switch- 
back section is about 15 miles per hour. Very little time is lost in reversing; 
a brakeman drops off the train and turns the switch as soon as the rear end 
clears it, and the train is reversed at once. The system cannot be used for 
main lines with heavy traffic (see "Permanent Improvements"). The devel- 
opment of the Canadian Pacific Ry. in the Kicking Horse valley (in 1907-08), 
to increase the distance and reduce the grades from 4.5% to 2.2%, involved 
spiral tunnels in the mountains in order to obtain the 10° curves connecting 
the inclines. A similar arrangement at the Fleming Summit, in Pennsylvania 
(already noted), has the two practically parallel lines connected by a 10° curve. 



CHAPTER 23— TRACK INSPECTION AND THE PREMIUM SYSTEM. 

The track is usually inspected daily by the trackwalkers, or by a man sent 
over the section on a velocipede. The section foremen and supervisors have 
also to make frequent examinations, not only in detail, but of the general 
condition of the track and roadway. The roadmasters and engineers should 
also make general inspections of the divisions under their charge. Special 
inspections must be made during or immediately after heavy storms, to insure 
that the railway is safe, and if there is any doubt, trains may be stopped or 
ordered to proceed slowly until the doubtful part has been inspected. 

On many railways, especially where the premium system is in force, a gen- 
eral inspection is made once a year by the superior officers, record being kept 
of the condition of each section, station, etc., year by year. This inspection 
is usually made in the autumn, after the track has been put in condition for 
the winter. The officials mark on cards provided for the purpose, their rating 



412 TRACK WORK. 

of the condition of each section. The markings of the cards are then figured 
up and prizes awarded according to the averages. In some cases the mark- 
ing or judging is done by the roadmasters, engineers, division superintendents, 
etc.; but no man does any judging on his own division. Some roads make 
the foremen on each division the inspectors, each foreman marking on every 
section but his own. The annual inspection is thus made to educate and 
arouse the foremen. Each man becomes more critical of his own division, 
and in passing over the divisions he notes certain good and bad points, so that 
the system tends to make the general practice better and more uniform. It 
pays to take the foremen over the road together once a year, even if no prizes 
are given, as it gives them more interest in and knowledge of their work, while 
an incentive to good work, in the shape of a prize, is a good thing. It is well, 
also, to have a "Premium Section" sign board erected on the section tool house 
or elsewhere on the section, as the laborers feel that they are getting some 
recognition. The results of inspections should be announced by bulletins. 

A private car with large end platform and windows may be used for inspec- 
tions. Or a special car having the floor sloping up from the end and fitted with 
seats, while the end may be open or fitted with glass windows extending to 
the floor. The car is pushed ahead of an engine at the rate of 10 to 15 miles 
per hour. The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry. has put an inspection cab on 
the front end of a locomotive, the floor being close to the ground. This seated 
7 persons, while 5 more could be accommodated in an upper part extending 
back along the smokebox, and level with the running board. The throttle, 
whistle, brakes, etc., were controlled from the inspection cab. Light cars 
with gasoline engines may be used. A four-wheel car seating 8 to 10 persons 
on transverse seats, and having a roof, glass front, and side curtains for bad 
weather, may be equipped with an engine of 12 to 15 HP. and will weigh about 
1,500 lbs. A lighter machine for four persons and with a 5-HP. engine may 
weigh 800 lbs. The fuel consumption for such cars would average 15 to 20 
miles per gallon. 

On the Pennsylvania Ry., the time for the annual inspection of the main 
line is selected by the general manager. It is usually about the middle of 
October, this time being fixed so as not to have the local officers away from 
their divisions at the end of the month. The inspection parties are of two 
classes: (1) The "limited," which comprises officials above the rank of super- 
visor; (2) The "general," in which all officials down to and including assistant 
supervisors participate. The inspection car resembles a large caboose, 36 ft. 
long. The front end is open, and the floor slopes up by steps to about the 
middle of the car, so that all the occupants may have a good view of the track. 
This part of the car is fitted with ordinary car seats, giving accommodations 
for 28 persons. 

It is customary for the party comprising the "limited" inspection to leave 
Philadelphia on Monday morning, its special train arriving at Pittsburg in 
the evening. This party is made up of the general manager, chief engineer 
of maintenance-of-way, general superintendents, superintendents of the divi- 
sions over which the inspection is made, principal assistant engineers and assist- 
ant engineers of the main-line divisions between Jersey City and Pittsburg. 
The "general" inspection party is made up of all the participants in the inspec- 
tion, who meet at Pittsburg prepared to move eastward on Tuesday morning. 
The movement of the inspection train is as follows: Tuesday over the Pitts- 



TRACK INSPECTION AND THE PREMIUM SYSTEM. 413 

burg and Middle divisions, Wednesday over the Philadelphia and New York 
divisions. The inspection party is carried usually in separate trains, the first 
train carrying the general manager and his party; the second train for the 
principal assistant engineer and assistant engineers of all the divisions; the 
third train for the supervisors; the fourth train for the assistant supervisors. 
These are followed by the track-indicator car in charge of the motive-power 
department. The use of this car is not considered as part of the inspection 
of the road, and has no connection with the annual inspection for prizes. The 
various branch-road inspections are arranged by the division superintendents 
and usually follow the main-line inspection. These are not held regularly. 

The inspection is done by four committees: (1) Line and surface; (2) 
Joints and tie spacing; (3) Ballast, switches and sidings; (4) Ditches, road 
crossings, station grounds and policing. The marking is from 1 to 10, and zero 
is used where there are no sidings, road crossings, etc. In awarding prizes, 
a committee is appointed on each main-line division and so arranged that no 
officer of the division that is being inspected is a member of the committee 
on award for that division. The prizes awarded to supervisors after the annual 
main-line track inspection are as follows, all being for the entire line between 
Pittsburg and Jersey City: First prize, $1,200 for main-line supervisor (exclu- 
sive of yard supervisors) having best line and surface. Second prize, $1 ,000 
for the supervisor having made the greatest improvement in his track during 
the year. Third prize, $800 for main-line supervisor having best line and 
surface on each superintendent's division. Fourth prize, $100 for main-line 
•yard supervisor having best line and surface in the yard. The premium section 
is not marked by any sign. 

The Wabash Ry. had a complete system of track inspection, and gave enough 
prizes to make the "men take particular interest in their work. Below are 
given the rules for the annual inspection, which was made in November by 
the general superintendent accompanied by officers of the transportation, 
roadway, and bridge and building departments, and the superintendent. The 
Boston & Albany Ry. gave five prizes for division roadmasters and five (of 
$50 each) for section foremen, awarded on the following points: (1) Aline- 
ment and surface; (2) Joints and spiking; (3) Switches and frogs; (4) 
Ballast and ties; (5) Ditches and general neatness and cleanliness of road- 
way. The highest rating under each head was 10, which would mean per- 
fection, and the inspectors marked according to their opinions. Stations, 
section houses, pump houses, water stations, etc., may be inspected in the same 
way. Sometimes every officer scores or marks for each item. In other cases 
a committee of two or more is appointed for each item. On long runs, there 
may be two committees for each item, working alternately by miles or sections, 
as it is not possible for a man to watch mile after mile of track in various con- 
ditions and form a reliable opinion as to its condition in various respects. It 
must be remembered that the foremen will naturally try to make their sec- 
tions look particularly neat and well kept about the time of the inspection. 
Where the railway company does not offer premiums, this is sometimes done 
by the roadmaster in order to encourage his men to get and maintain good 
track. In one case of this kind a premium of $250 was awarded to the best 
section, of which $150 went to the foreman and the balance was divided among 
the laborers in proportion to the number of days worked by each man. 

It is necessary to take into account the money expended upon each section 



414 TRACK WORK. 

for material, tool equipment, extra gangs, etc. A section which has been im- 
proved at considerable expense may be expected to show a better appearance 
than one on which less extensive work has been done, yet the credit may not be 
due to the foreman. The awards should be so based that the greatest benefits 
go to the men who secure the best results per dollar of expenditure, and not 
merely to those who have the best track, without taking the expense into con- 
sideration. In the system adopted by one railway, five premiums were awarded 
as the results of the annual inspection: $100 to the supervisor of the best 
division; $50 to each of the two next best divisions; and $40 and $20 to the 
best and second best sections on each division. The section foremen were rated 
in three classes, according as the markings for their sections were over 8, over 
6, or under 6. At the quarterly inspection, prizes were awarded on each divi- 
sion; $15 to, the foreman showing the most improvement; $10 to the fore- 
man having the smallest labor account without deterioration in the condi- 
tion of his section (but if the section had previously received a low mark 
some improvement was required to obtain this award); $10 to the foreman 
making the best progress in bringing the roadbed and track up to the standard 
condition, and $10 for the foreman having the least expense for tools per man. 
In the method formerly used by the Wabash Ry., the following rules were 
given, which included provision for expense account: 

(1) Line. — True line means straight line on tangents, and uniform curva- 
ture on curves, as far as the eye can detect. When these requirements are 
fulfilled the condition must be represented by 10. Continuous and very appar- 
ent deviations from the true alinement over the entire length of one mile, which 
would limit the maximum speed for the safe passage of trains to 25 miles per 
hour, must be represented by 5. A condition of alinement which would be 
difficult for a train to pass would be recorded as 0. Intermediate conditions 
must be indicated in the proper ratio. 

(2) Surface. — True surface means a uniform grade line between changes 
of grade, and the conditions must be noted as in regard to "Line." 

(3) Level. — The inspector must watch the level index, and must note un- 
usual oscillations of the car due to unlevel track on tangents, want of uniformity 
of elevation on curves, or unequal gage. If he can detect no vibration or 
oscillation he will record the condition as 10, and intermediate conditions must 
be recorded as already noted. 

(4) Joints, Ties and Switches. — A perfect joint is one that is fully bolted 
and tight. Ties must be properly spaced, as per standard plan, and fully 
spiked with four spikes in each tie. Ends of ties on one side must be parallel 
with rail. Switches must be placed exactly as shown in standard specifica- 
tions. When these are fulfilled the condition must be represented by 10. 

(5) Drainage. — The ditches shall be uniform, free from obstruction, and 
with sufficient incline to afford proper drainage. Ballast shall be uniform 
and equally distributed. For perfect condition the marking is 10. 

(6) Policing. — A perfect condition in all the following respects shall be 
represented by a marking of 10: Ties and rails must be piled according to 
the general rules. Grass, bushes and weeds should be kept cut close to the 
ground within limits of right-of-way, and not allowed to grow closer than 
within 6 ft. of the rails. Stumps and logs should be cleared from within limits 
of right-of-way. Road crossings must be in accordance with standard plans, 
and must be clear and safe for the passage of animals and vehicles. Signs 
must be placed in position as required in standard clearance diagram. Cross, 
and line fences shall be kept in repair after being constructed by fence gang. 
They shall be of standard plans. Cross fences and cattleguards shall be clear 
of all grass and weeds, and shall be whitewashed. 

Expense. — The section which is maintained at the least expense shall receive 
10 points. The amount of expense on each section to be determined as fol- 
lows: From the aggregate expense of the year shall be deducted the cost of 



TRACK INSPECTION AND THE PREMIUM SYSTEM. 



41 



extra work, such as placing ties, rails, ballast, and ditching, for which credit 
will be made as follows: Ties in rock ballast credited at 20 cts. per tie; ties 
in gravel, cinder or earth ballast, 8 cts. per tie; rock ballast credited at $2.50 
per car, other ballast at $1 per car; rail laid credited at $1.50 per 100 ft.; 
ditching, at $1 per 100 ft. After this deduction is made the section showing 
the least expense will be marked 100, which, divided by 10, will give the rating 
of that section. For each additional $10 of expense over the lowest section 
for all other sections, deduct one point from 100 points; the remainder, after 
being divided by 10, shall be the rating of that section regarding expenses on 
the general report, and shall be recorded as the average expense of all miles 
on that section. 



Miles. 



Committee No. 1, 
2 Persons. 



Line. 



Sur- 
face. 



Sid- 
ings. 



Commit- 
tee No. 2, 
2 Persons. 



Joints 
and Ties. 
Switches 
in Main 

Track. 



Committee No. 3, 
2 Persons. 



Drain- 
age. 



Policing. 



Gen- 
eral. 



Fences. 



Ex- 
pense. 



Remarks. 



(Wabash Ry.) 



Maxir 
Ratin 


lum 

g 


25 


25 


20 


10 


10 


5 


5 


100 


100 






Divi- 
sion. 


Sec- 
tion. 


Miles. 


Line^ 
and 
Sur- 
face. 


Rail 
Joints, 
Spik- 
ing, 
Lining 

and 
Spacing 

Ties. 
Switc'es 

and 
Frogs. 


Drain- 
age 
and 
Bal- 
last. 


Old 
Mate- 
rial, 
Grass, 
Weeds, 
Right- 
of-way. 


Houses 

and 
Gr'unds 


Sid- 
ings. 


Road 
Cross- 
ings 
and 
Fenc- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age for 
Sec- 
tion. 


Aver- 
age for 
Divi- 
sion. 











































































(Southern Pacific Ry.) 
Fig. 211. — Scoring Cards for Track Inspection. 



Special devices have been used to a very limited extent to give a visible 
indication of the condition of the track, such devices being intended for use 
on an inspection car or officer's car. Mr. D. J. Whittemore, Chief Engineer 
of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry., devised an instrument termed 
the equilibristat, which can be mounted in this way, and will show the differ- 
ence in elevation of the rails by the difference in height of the liquid in the 
legs of a U-shaped tube set transversely to the track. The Chicago Great 
Western Ry. has a track indicator mounted in a car and used for indicating 
rough spots in the track. There are three long spring plates having one end 
fixed and the other end free; the latter carries a weight resting against a stop. 
Two of the plates are set on edge to record side swings, in opposite directions. 
The other is flat, to record vertical swings. A swing of the car causes the 
plate to move away from its stop and come in contact with another stop by 
which it closes an electric circuit. The circuit operates a magnet and needle 
which pricks a traveling roll of paper. The results are good when the car is 



416 TRACK WORK. 

handled at a uniform speed, but are not reliable with fast running or slow run- 
ning on curves. The dynagraph car, or recording car, for "mechanical inspec- 
tion" has track connections which follow the irregularities in line, surface and 
gage. These, with low joints, superelevation of curves, deflection of rails, etc., 
are recorded in diagrams on rolls of paper. In some cases the low spots and 
the variations from true line are marked by jets of paint on the rail. This sys- 
tem has been applied to street-railway service by the Chicago City Ry. In 
most cases the mechanism is very complicated and costly, and is mounted in 
a large car. 

The Ellis inspection machine, which has been tried on the Northern Pacific 
Ry., is small and simple, and is mounted on a three-wheel car weighing about 
200 lbs. This can be attached to a hand car or inspection car, and can be 
operated at speeds up to 12 miles per hour. Each division may have its 
machine. The machine records on a continuous roll of paper a diagram showing 
the condition of the track as to line, and if the rails are level on tangents and 
have the proper superelevation on curves. It also records low joints (show- 
ing the amount of the depression) and all variations from the proper gage. 
On the machine is a wheel exactly 3 ft. in circumference, which is connected 
to a cyclometer and is used in making measurements. The lineal scale of 
the diagram is 200 ft. to the inch, or 26.41 ft. to the mile, with natural scale 
for the gage and half the natural scale for the elevation. The driving gear 
moves the paper over the roll at the rate of 26.41 ins. per mile of track. A 
pendulum moves to right or left as the wheel on either side goes higher than 
the other, thus moving the stylus to right or left. The paper has a heavy 
ruled line upon which the stylus follows when the track is perfectly level, and 
marks to the right or left of this line show how much it is out of level or what 
is the amount of elevation on curves. The paper is ruled with lines |-in. apart. 
A record of the gage is obtained by using an axle made of two pieces of tubing 
one being large enough to admit the other. Inside the larger tube is placed 
a graduated spring which keeps the wheel flanges tight against the rails. The 
rod attached to the loose end of the axle carries the stylus which comes in 
contact with the paper and marks every change. A heavy line ruled on the 
paper shows where the stylus should be at standard gage, and the distance 
that the diagram drawn by the stylus varies from this line shows how much 
too wide or narrow the gage is at any point. 

The Baltimore & Ohio Ry. has a track-inspection car or dynagraph car 
of the larger type. It is mounted on six-wheel trucks, and is attached to a 
locomotive, being run at a speed of 25 to 30 miles per hour. The speed is 
maintained as nearly uniform as possible. The diagram shows the condition 
in surface of the rails, the variation from gage, the transverse condition as 
to level or superelevation, and points where the car makes sudden side swings 
due to bad line. On the base line the position of mile posts, stations, etc., 
may be recorded. This is done by an observer by means of a push button. 
Another observer, at the recording table, makes the necessary notes on the 
paper. The rear truck has wheels with flat or cylindrical treads, and is not 
fitted with brakes. For measuring the surface condition, there is a 5-in. 
I-beam over each side sill of the truck, supported by columns 10J ft. apart 
which rest on the journal boxes of the first and third axles. On the middle 
axle box are plates sliding vertically in yokes attached to the I-beam. Two 
electrical contacts record variations of f-in. and over, and f-in. and over. The 



TRACK INSPECTION AND THE PREMIUM SYSTEM. 417 

gage condition is measured by means of a pair of 18-in. wheels with flat treads 
and sharp flanges; these are attached to shafts in a yoke behind the rear truck, 
and the yoke can be raised clear of the track by a pneumatic cylinder. Springs 
force the wheel flanges against the rails, and wire connections transmit the 
relative movements of the two wheels to the levers which operate the record- 
ing pencil. The transverse relation of the rails is indicated by means of a 
heavy pendulum suspended under the recording table and moving in a tank 
of thick oil; a system of levers connects the pendulum with the pencil. For 
recording sudden swings, there is another pendulum, having its upper end above 
the table, and connected to copper balls which normally lie against it. A 
sudden swing causes these to fly out and strike a fine copper wire, making an 
electrical contact which actuates the electromagnet of the pencil, causing it 
to make a mark on the line. Connected to the apparatus are three valves 
and nozzles; from two of these a 6-in. to 12-in. streak of whitewash is marked 
on the rails to indicate low spots, while a jet of yellow paint from the third 
indicates a bad swing in line. The car is used for the annual inspection, the 
record being used as a basis for the tabulation of conditions on each division, 
while a carbon copy of the record is sent to the division engineer. Before 
being used, the apparatus is calibrated and adjusted by running it on a level 
piece of track having exact gage. In a car used at one time by the University 
of Illinois and operated on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis 
Ry., the motions were transmitted by oil under pressure in pipes connecting 
the receiving and recording cylinders. The piston rods of the latter carried 
the recording pencils. 

The most completely equipped track-inspection dynagraph car, and the 
most comprehensive system of records, are those designed by Mr. P. H. Dud- 
ley. He operates Tiis car, and makes occasional or periodical inspections 
for railways, submitting reports based upon the autographic records. The 
advantages of such inspection for ascertaining the general condition of track 
and its comparative condition (by comparing diagrams taken at different 
times) can hardly be overestimated, and his work aided very materially in 
bringing the tracks of the New York Central Ry. and Boston & Albany Ry. 
to the high degree of perfection for which they are noted. The diagrams 
show the results obtained by new rails and other improvements, the relative 
economy of which can be thus determined. The work required on the several 
sections can be seen at once, while the section foremen have their attention 
called to low joints, low spots, etc., the machine marking deflections |-in. or 
£-in. below the normal surface. The foremen are not governed entirely by this 
in surfacing, but know that every paint mark means a weak spot, and that 
even if the rail appears to be in surface, the ties may be loose and working 
up and down in the ballast, or the spikes may be loose, and allow the rail to 
stand free from the tie. These defects they could not detect by sighting for 
surface. The car has wheel loads of 6,500 lbs. and a special six-wheel truck 
of 11-ft. wheelbase. It is run at a speed of about 30 miles per hour, and each 
rail records autographically (as a continuous diagram) its condition as to sur- 
face, due to the steel, ties, ballast, roadbed and labor. The various undula- 
tions are mechanically summed up by the apparatus. Three examples of 
the Dudley dynagraph diagrams (to a reduced scale) are shown herewith. 
Fig. 212 is from track laid with 80-lb. rails, 5£ ins. high, having three-tie joints; 
this track is in excellent condition. Fig. 213 is from track laid with older 80-lb. 



418 



TRACK WORK. 



tails, 5 ins. high, also with three-tie joints; these rails were not straightened 
properly at the mill and had a wavy surface. Fig. 214 is a portion of the com- 



Surface af Rails and Joints . 



500 




Fig. 212. — Track Diagram of Dynagraph Car; Good 80-lb. Rails. 



Surface cf Rails and Joints, 







Fig. 213. — Track Diagram of Dynagraph Car; Old 80-lb. Rails. 
Condition of Track.- Plain line, lfc95. -Broken Line , IS94-. 




Fig. 214. — Diagram of Comparative Condition of Track of Boston & Albany Ry.; 1894-95. 

plete maintenance-of-way diagram plotted from the autographic records. 
This diagram is for a portion of the Boston & Albany Ry., and compares the 



TRACK INSPECTION AND THE PREMIUM SYSTEM. 419 

condition of the track as shown by the dynagraph-car inspections in 1894 and 
1895. The following explanation accompanies the diagram. 

The spaces between the vertical lines represent miles of road. The line 
marked " Condition of Track" for each inspection represents the average 
sum of all the various undulations of the rails per mile, as mechanically summed 
up by the inspection apparatus. To plot the sum of the undulations on the 
diagrams, the number of inches per mile is divided by 176 (the number of 
30-ft. rails per mile), which gives the average undulations per rail per mile 
to 0.01-in. Each horizontal line on the diagrams represents 0.01 -in. The 
results for each track are relative to the base line, yet are comparative one 
mile with another. The average condition of each mile is indicated from the 
horizontal line crossed or touched by the " Condition-of-Track " line in the 
center of the space for the mile. 

The line marked "Age of Steel" for each mile gives the length of service, 
each horizontal line representing one year. The line marked "Percentage 
of Tangent and Curve" shows the approximate alinement of both tracks per 
mile. The percentage of tangent is marked on the left side of the space for 
the mile, and that of the curvature on the right side. Each horizontal line 
represents 10% for the mile. The line marked "Profile" shows the grades 
of the road, and is common to both tracks, though ascending grades on one 
track are descending upon the other, and vice versa. Each horizontal line 
represents 10 ft. of elevation. 

The line marked "Gage of Track" reads downward from the Base, or 70th 
line, and shows the amount the track is wide gage, each horizontal line repre- 
senting 1/10-in. Nearly every mile now shows a perfect gage. For the line 
marked "Side Irregularities of Rails," above the 70th line, each horizontal 
line represents 1/10-in. This line reads from the highest point in the center 
of the space for the mile. These lines show about the best results which can 
be obtained. 



CHAPTER 24.— SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 

To divert a train from one track to another a turnout is used, which is essen- 
tially a curve connecting the diverging tracks. This curve, however, is built 
up of (1) a switch to direct the train onto one or other of the tracks as desired, 
(2) a frog to allow wheel flanges to pass the intersection of the rails, and (3) 
lead rails connecting the frog and switch. A crossover consists of two turn- 
outs, and a short piece of diagonal track, forming a connection between two 
parallel tracks. A ladder track is diagonal to a series of parallel tracks which 
are connected with it by turnouts. In all these arrangements, the turnout 
is the important feature. The lead is that part of the main-track rail from the 
point of switch to the point of frog. The turnout curve (or lead curve) is that 
of the turnout rail between the same points. For calculating the length of 
lead, the turnout curve may be assumed to extend from point of switch to point 
of frog, giving what is termed the "theoretical" lead. This is too long for 
ordinary main-track frogs (over No. 7) and flattens the curve at the switch. 
The reason for this is that the switch rail, being of considerable width, and 
being necessarily set to allow sufficient flangeway space at the heel, cannot 
be placed in the theoretical line of the curve, but lies several inches within it 
at the heel. The more general practice, therefore, is to assume that the turn- 
out curve extends from the heel of the switch to the point of frog. This gives 
what is termed the "short lead." Below are given simple formulas for cal- 



420 TRACK WORK. 

culating the lead: G=gage of track; N=number of frog; T = throw of 
switch; L=length of switch rail; F=length of frog from point to toe. 

(1) Theoretical lead =- G X 2 X N. 

(2) Short lead = 2N(G - VGT)+L. 

(3) Short lead = 6N + (L + F). 

Frogs of the same number but of different lengths will have slightly different 
curves; as will also split and stub switches with the same frogs. The length 
of lead is practically the same for turnouts from curved track as for those 
from tangents, and it is of no effect to increase the lead, with the idea of reduc- 
ing the curvature of the turnout, unless a higher frog number corresponding 
to the longer lead is used. The curvature of the turnout curve varies on curves: 

(1) When the turnout is from the inside of a curve, its degree of curvature 
will be the sum of the degrees of the turnout curve and the main- track curve; 

(2) When the turnout is from the outside of a curve, its degree of curvature 
will be the difference between the degrees of the two curves. Thus with a 
No. 10 frog, the curvature of a turnout curve from a tangent will be 6°; from 
the inside of a 3° curve, it will be 6°+ 3° = 9°; from the outside of a 3° curve, it 
will be 6° — 3° =3°. Where the turnout is on the inside of a main- track curve, 
the frog number should be as high as possible, to keep the degree of curve 
as small as possible. The curves of main-track turnouts are usually 8° to 6°, 
with frogs of Nos. 9 and 10. The maximum is about 20° with No. 6, but such 
frogs should not be allowed in ordinary main tracks. With locomotives hav- 
ing six or eight driving wheels, all flanged, there is likely to be trouble on curves 
of less than 6°, the lead curve being distorted, and the lead beyond the frog 
spread so as to cause derailment of cars. With No. 12 and No. 20 frogs at 
the ends of double track, where trains run at high speed, the curve will be 
about 4|° to 1|°. If the length of the switch rail is divided by the difference 
between the width of its point and the distance between gage lines at the heel, 
the result will be the "switch number," a function which Mr. W. B. Lee has 
used in the formulas for short leads given below. The distance between the 
actual and theoretical points is equal to the width of the former multiplied 
by the switch number. For any given switch and frog there is only one radius 
for the arc of a circle which will connect the heel of switch and toe of frog and 
be tangent at those points, and it is also the maximum. This will be seen 
from Fig. 215; for if the switch is moved toward the frog, it shortens the 



Fig. 215. — Diagram of Turnout. 

tangent distance (T) next the switch, and if it is moved away from the frog, 
it shortens the tangent distance (U) next the frog. To compute the curved 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 421 

and straight leads (A) and (B) and the radius (R) by exact methods requires 
the use of trigonometrical functions and preferably a table of logarithms, and 
these methods are generally used for very exact work. Mr. Lee, however, 
has developed the following arithmetical formulas, which give closely accurate 
results. With a No. 14 frog, the error is 1-in. in lead and 6 ins. in radius. The 
error decreases until for a No. 10 frog it is only 1/16-in. and lf-ins. respectively. 

(4) X - O + S. (7) N = F -h M. 

(5) D = G - (S + M). (8) B = ^ A 2 _ D2. 

(6) A =20^. (9) K=A^. 

The nomenclature for these formulas, and indicated on the diagram, is as 
follows: A = Length of turnout curve; B= Length of straight rail; C 
= Frog angle; D = Perpendicular distance from heel of switch to toe of 
frog; E = Angle of chord A with B; F = Length of turnout side of frog 
from theoretical point to toe; G = Gage of track; H = Closure of arc; 
J = Switch angle; K = Intersection angle; L = Length of switch rail; M = 
Spread of frog at toe (between gage lines); N = Frog number; = Dis- 
tance from heel of switch to theoretical point; P = Length of straight 
wing of frog; R = Radius of turnout curve; (S) = Spread of switch; T = 
Tangent from switch; U = Tangent from frog; X = Switch number. The 
diagram, Fig. 215, shows a switch with a 15-ft. rail, a spread of 5^ ins. at the 
heel, and a switch angle of 1° 40'. Some other formulas relating to this dia- 
gram are given below: 

(10) Angle K = C - J. (14) Distance M = F X sine C. 

(11) Angle E = C - £K. (15) Distance A = D -^ sine E. 

(12) Lead = L + B + P. (16) Distance B = D -r tan E. 

(13) Closure = Arc H. (17) Radius = JA -*- sine %K. 

The divergence of the turnout is given by formula No. 7 under "Curves." 
The Hocking Valley Ry. gives the following rules: 

(1) To find the distance K from origin of curve to point of frog. — Multiply 
twice the gage by the frog number. 

(2) To find the radius of turnout curve. — Square the distance K and divide 
it by twice the gage. 

(3) To find length of switch rail. — Square the radius; then square the radius 
minus the throw of switch; subtract the latter from the former and extract 
the square root. 

(4) To find the distance between the frog points of a crossover (measured 
parallel to the tracks) when the tracks are straight and parallel. — Subtract 
twice the gage from the distance c. to c. of tracks, and multiply the remainder 
by the frog number. Thus for No. 8 frogs and tracks 13 ft. c. to c. it will be: 
(13 ft. -9 ft. 5 ins.) X 8 =28 ft. 8 ins. 

In Fig. 216, the three lower diagrams (213, 214 and 215) represent the ele- 
ments of turnouts: KC is the lead, or tangent distance from headblock to 
frog point; DCE is the frog angle; and O is the crotch frog (for a three- 
throw switch), which is 7/10 of the frog angle DCE. It will be seen that the 
turnout rails should conform to a curve tangent to the main and turnout tracks. 
If the turnout leaves a straight main track, the frog angle DCE will equal 
the intersection angle CPM, and the central angle BAC. The turnout curve 
must be one fitting the tangents QP and PC. When the main track is curved, 
and the turnout curves in the opposite direction, the frog angle DCE will be 
equal to the sum of the central angles ABC and BAC (= FCB). When 



422 



TRACK WORK. 



the main and turnout curves are in the same direction, the frog angle DCE 
will be equal to the difference between the central angles CHG and CAG 
( = ACH). The latter arrangement should be avoided wherever practicable, 
as it sharpens the frog angle, which is always undesirable. With a split switch, 
the lead KC is from the point of the turnout. With a stub switch, the lead 
(called also stub lead) is from the headblock, differing from the point lead by 
the length of the moving rail. As a matter of fact, however, the split switch 
rail cannot be so thrown as to conform to the theoretical curve if made 15 ft. 
long, with the splice joint as the hinge. The switch rail is usually taken as 
a straight line, so that as in Fig. 216 (diagram 216) the intersection angle, 
RSP, will not be the same as the frog angle, but will be the frog angle minus 
the switch angle. In other words, the curve must fit the tangents RS and 
SC, instead of the tangents QP and PC. 

The switch rail, as already noted, cannot be placed in the theoretical line. 
Neither can it be planed to a knife edge, but is usually about f-in. thick at 



XA>, 




Sj'intf J» 



r3p R"~^^!/c 



216. 



c w 



- £14-. 



Fig 216. — Diagrams of Switch Work. 




the end. The actual point is 12 to 18 ins. from the theoretical point, but track- 
men are apt to set it too close to the latter. At the theoretical point, the 
stock rail should be bent to conform as nearly as possible to the switch angle. 
The Southern Pacific Ry. requires that a distinct bend be made with a rail 
bender (care being taken not to simply spring the rail to a curve), so that 
when the switch rail is laid close against the stock rail and with its point 16 
ins. from the bend, the gage side of switch rail and stock rail will be in aline- 
ment. A turnout has a theoretical curve tangent to the frog point and the 
opposite rail. In practice, the curve is from the toe of the frog to the heel 
of the switch, and is of somewhat shorter radius than the theoretical curve. 
Where the curve extends beyond the frog (as for a Y track), it will generally 
be sharper than the turnout curve, in order to save room. Thus with a No. 
10 frog, the turnout curve would be 5° 3', while the curve beyond might be 
10° to 12°. 

As the frog is straight, it forms a kink or short tangent in the turnout curve. 
In early practice, trackmen would sometimes spring the wing rail to conform 
approximately to the curve, but with modern heavy frogs this is practically 
impossible, and it is forbidden by some roads. It was done by setting the 
main wing in line with the straight main rail, and bending the end of the other 
Wing by spiking so as to fit the turnout curve. Most men, however, wculd 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 423 

naturally put in a frog without alteration and fit the curve to it. The kink 
is of little importance at low speeds, but it has been suggested that it might 
be well to curve the frogs for crossovers of four-track roads through which 
trains run at high speeds. The frog being a tangent, this tangent should 
be continued beyond the heel of frog for about 12 ft. for a No. 6 frog to 30 ft. 
for a No. 15 frog, in order to make an easy riding turnout. This length is the 
same as the length of tangent in a crossover. In locating sidings, the point 
of curve back of the frog is assumed at the frog point, and the line is 
started from the frog and not from the point of switch. If the main line 
should be a curve in the same direction as the turnout, the frog is then a short 
tangent between two curves, on one of which it is impracticable to give ele- 
vation for curvature, and therefore slow speed is necessary. If the location 
of the frog point is fixed first, and the frog angle is turned from the main line 
or from a tangent to the main line at that point, the turnout can be run as 
easily as any other curve. A table of leads and turnout curves for straight track 
can be constructed, considering the frog (from heel to toe) as one tangent, 
and the switch rail as another, and calculating the circular curve required to 
connect them. Then calculate the offset between the main line and the turn- 
out curve at a point half way between the frog point and heel of switch rail 
(or headblock for stub switches). This offset will be the same for the same 
frog, whether the turnout be on either side of the tangent, spiral, or simple 
or compound circular curve. It should be used in staking out the lead, as it 
saves the trouble of determining the degree of the turnout curve in the last 
three cases. In three-throw switches, the distance from the crotch frog to 
the main frog is 0.3 y* theoretical lead; or approximately 3 X frog number. 
In putting in the crotcn frog of a three-throw switch, when both of the side 
frogs are of the same number, put in one lead first and line it up properly. 
Then take the track gage and move it along the track until the center point 
is over the center of the lead rail, which will be the place for the point of the 
crotch frog. 

The method of putting in turnouts by offsets from the main rail is shown 
by Table No. 36 and Fig. 217. The distances given are measured from the 



k t ->k-d -x 

Fig. 217. — Diagram for Turnout Measurements. 

gage side of the rail head. They may be used on curved as well as straight 
track, provided the curve is regular. The main track should be set to true 
line before the frog is put in. The measurements are calculated from the 
theoretical point of frog, but are changed to give the correct distances from 
the actual point. On the standard plans of the New York Central Ry., the 
distance on straight rail between heel of switch and theoretical point of frog 
is divided into four parts and the offsets (between gage sides of rails) are given 
on the convex side of the turnout. The spread at the heel is 6 ins. (7 ins. in 
a No. 20 frog), and the fourth ordinate (at the frog point) is 4 ft. 9 ins. The 
intermediates range from 12f ins., 23 ins., and 37£ ins. for a turnout with No. 



424 



TRACK WORK. 



7 frog; to 13J ins., 24| ins., and 39 ins. for one with a No. 14 frog. The lead 
is 61 ft. 8 ins. for the former and 107 ft. 11 § ins. for the latter, exclusive 
of the switch rails. These are 15 ft. long up to No. 13, 20 ft. for No. 14, and 
30 ft. for No. 20. 

To set out the turnout curve, stretch a cord from the theoretical point of 
frog (as measured from K, Fig. 216, diagram 215, and marked on rail), to the 
point of curve QC or RC, allowing for proper spread of switch-rail heel. Divide 
this distance into four parts, and (for standard gage) set off a middle ordinate 
of 1.177 ft. and two side ordinates of 0.883 ft. These are on the concave side 
of the turnout. From each of these points, and from the frog point and point 
of turnout, measure half the gage, which will give five points on the center 
line of the turnout curve. Each side ordinate is 3/4 of the middle ordinate. 
At the middle point of the lead the offset from main rail to turnout rail (gage 
to gage) is always 1/4 the gage, and at the quarter points it is 1/16 and 9/16 the 
gage, whatever may be the frog number, length or lead, or whether the turn- 
out is from a tangent or curve. The degree of the turnout curve is 600 divided 
by the square of the frog number (approximately) when the turnout is from 
a tangent, and this, plus or minus the degree of main curve, gives the degree 
when the turnout is from the inside or outside of a main-line curve. The 
middle ordinate for bending 30-ft. rails is 12 -f- square of frog number more 
(or less) than the main-curve ordinate, and for other rail lengths, it is in pro- 
portion to the square of the respective lengths. If the degree (D) of turnout 
curve is known, the middle ordinate of a 30-ft. rail is 0.02D. 

TABLE NO. 36.— LAYING OUT TURNOUTS BY OFFSETS. 

Frog 

Frog number 

Frog angle A 

Clearance of heel of switch F 

Length of switch rail D 

Point of switch to point of frog. . . .B 

Heel of switch to frog point* T 

Lead curve 

Offset from main rail to lead J 



L 
,N 
.P 
.R 

Distance, frog point to offset K 

KM 

. . .KMO 
. .KMOQ 
.KMOQS 



Rigid. 


Spring. 


Spring. 


Spring. 


6 


8 


10 


12 


9° 32' 


7° 10' 


5° 44' 


4° 47' 


5£ ins. 


5^ ins. 


5J ins. 


5i ins. 


15 ft. 


15 ft. 


15 ft. 


15 ft. 


56 ft. 4| ins. 


65 ft. 6f ins. 


76 ft. 8i ins. 86 ft, 9 ins 


41 " 4| " 


50 " 6f " 


61 " 8i ' 


' 71 " 9 " 


20° 26' 


12° 38' 


7° 20' 


4° 43' 


5£ ins. 


10f ins. 


8£ ins. 


7 ins. 


1 ft. 7| ins. 


2 ft. 4§ ins. 


1 ft. 7 ins. 1 ft. 10 ins 


3 " 4| " 


3 " 6i " 


2 " 9i ' 


' 2 " 10i" 






3 " 11 ' 


' 3 " 8 " 


4 ft. 3 ins. 


4 ft. 3 ins. 


4 " 3 ' 


* 4 " 3 " 


3 " " 


7 " 6 " 


7 " 6 ' 


' 7 " 6 " 


11 " 4f " 


20 " 6 " 


16 " 8| ' 


' 23 " 9 " 


26 " 4| " 


35 " 6 " 


31 " 8| ' 


' 39 " 9 " 






46 " 8| ' 
61 " 8£ ' 


' 55 " 9 " 


41 ft. 4f ins. 


50 ft. 6 ins. 


• 71 " 9 " 



* Measured along the rail. 



Single switches or turnouts may be put in by measurements only, but for 
anything more than this, the transit should be used, setting stakes for points 
of switches and frogs, and for the reverse and tangent points. Where a num- 
ber of parallel tracks are to be put in, it is customary to stake out the first 
one, and put in the others by measurement from this. It is always best, how- 
ever, to set out main-line turnouts and turnouts from curves with the transit. 
The Dunn indicator is a device for showing the angle, lead, frog number, lead 
radius, etc., for turnouts with ordinary and slip switches or special frogs. It 
is on the principle of the sextant, and consists of two graduated sector plates 
pivoted at one end and sliding over each other, the figures on the lower plate 
being seen through the apertures in the upper plate. This is used for conve- 
nience in obtaining the necessary detailed information as to any given turnout. 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 



425 



When putting in an ordinary turnout, the exact point of commencement 
is rarely fixed arbitrarily, but may be so located that the heel or toe of the 
frog can be attached at a rail joint, thus preventing one cutting of the rail. 
Fig. 218 shows the arrangement adopted by the Southern Pacific Ry. to pre- 
vent cutting the rail. Main-line rails should never be cut for temporary sidings. 
From the point selected, measure along the main or straight rail the distance 
from heel of switch to the theoretical frog point, and mark the rail with chalk. 
Then from this mark measure the distance to the heel of switch as given by 
the table. From the heel the distance c. to c. of ties is marked on the rail 
flange to facilitate laying. The fact that close accuracy or fine work is not 
necessary in practical work is recognized on many roads, and the switch dia- 




Fig. 218. — Method of Putting in a Split Switch without Cutting Rails; Southern Pacific Ry. 

grams of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. bear the note that the location 
of any frog may be varied a foot or two when such change will avoid the cutting 
of a rail. The practice of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. in laying turnouts is 
described at the end of this chapter. 

The actual length of lead is a matter of minor importance for ordinary work 
and simple turnouts, and may be varied several inches (or even feet) to avoid 
cutting rails or for other reasons of practical convenience. The reason is that 
the rails, being of measurable width, cannot be laid exactly to follow the theo- 
retical lines or center lines, so that a little variation more or less in either direc- 
tion makes practically no difference in the turnout. When putting in turnouts 
with short leads, it is only necessary to be careful to place the frog point opposite 
the stake, letting the switch point come where it may. This in no way dis- 
turbs the alinement behind the frog. The short leads may be shortened to 
economize in cutting the rails to fill in between the switch and frog. For 
instance, a turnout with a No. 8 frog may be laid with a 15-ft. switch rail, a 
30-ft. rail, and 15-ft. piece, which with a 15-ft. frog gives a lead of 67 ft. Two 
pieces 15 ft. 1 in. and 14 ft. 11 ins. long can be made from a 30-ft. rail, and 
by putting the shorter piece on the straight lead and the longer piece on the 
curve, the switch points are kept square across the track. Many roads specify 
that with spring-rail frogs the turnout wing rail must be 2 ins. longer than 
the main-line rail (measured from the point), in order to bring the switch points 
square to the track with the same length of closure rails on both straight and 
curved leads. In a No. 9 spring-rail frog 15 ft. long, the closures will be 50 
ft. and 49 ft. 9|- ins. By making the turnout wing 2\ ins. longer than the main- 
line wing, the closure rails can be made the same length. This may be impor- 
tant, as for a No. 10 frog, where two 30-ft. rails sometimes form each closure. 

In building turnouts it is very desirable to utilize rails of such lengths as 
are generally available, and to avoid the cutting of special lengths which 
will cause waste. In the design of the standard turnouts for the Chicago, 
Rock Island & Pacific Ry., this has been kept in mind, and lengths of lead 
have been adopted which will permit of the maximum length of curve between 



426 



TRACK WORK. 



toe of frog and heel of switch, and which at the same time will permit the 
use of ordinary lengths of rail. This is shown in Table No. 37. With the No. 
15 frog at the end of a double-track section, with tracks 13 ft. c. to c, the 
straight line of turnout extends 60 ft. 4| ins. beyond point of frog (75 ft. 5J 
ins. for tracks 14 ft. c. to c); this is followed by a 3° curve 127.23 ft. long, 
turning an angle of 3° 49' and running into the second track. 

TABLE NO. 37.— TURNOUTS AND LEAD RAILS; CHICAGO, ROCK ISLAND & 

PACIFIC RY. 



Frog 
No. 


Switch 
rail. 


Sw. pt. 

to bend 

in stock 

rail. 




ft. 


ins. 


6 


15 


11 


7 


15 


11 


8 


15 


11 


10 1 
>p.r. f 


15 


11 


15 


24 


17i 



Angle bet. 
c. lines of 

tracks. 



deg. min. 
9 32 



10 

9 

44 

49 



Pt. of 

switch to 
intersec. 
of c. lines. 



ft. ins. 
28 103* 
(28.89) 
28 7%* 
(28.61) 

30 

(30 2V S 
I (30.24) 

50 0V 8 



Pt. of 
switch to 
pt. of frog. 



ft. ins. 
57 4% 6 
(57.37) 
61 10% 6 
(61.88) 

68 

77 8 
(77.67) 
121 4>4 
(121.35) 



Heel of switch to toe of frog. 



Straight. 



ft. ins. 
38 lOVie 
(38.87) 
41 10% 6 
(41.88) 

48 

56 

89 10M 

(89.85) 



Curved. 



ft. ins. 
39 1% 6 
(39.13) 
42 nie 
(42.12) 
i 48 2% 
1(48.23) 
Sp. 56 
Rig. 56 2 

1 90 



Radius. 



deg. min. 
} 21 14 

S 15 47 

j 11 45 

( 7 18 

3 7 



Lead Rails.— No. 6: (A) 2-26 ft. and 1-26 ft. cut to 13 ft. 19/ ]fl ins. and 12 ft. 10Vi 6 ins. 
(B) 2-28 ft., 1-22 ft. (11 ft. l%6ins.and 10 ft. 10% 6 ins.). (C) 2-24 ft., 1-30 ft. (15 ft. 1% 6 
ins. and 14 ft. lO^ie ins.). 

No. 7: (A) 2-28 ft., 1-28 ft. (14 ft. 1% 8 ins. and 13 ft. 10% 6 ins.). (B) 2-30 ft., 1-24 ft. 
(12 ft. VA 6 ins. and 11 ft. 10% 6 ins.). 

No. 8: 3-24 ft. and 1-26 ft. cut to 24 ft. 2M ins. 

No. 10: (A) 2-30 ft. and 2-26 ft. (B) 4-28 ft. 

For complicated yard work, junctions, etc., close calculation and measure- 
ment are required, as any variation in one part will affect the entire layout. 
The same is true of street-railway work, much of which is built up at the shops 
and sent out so that it can be assembled and riveted or bolted up in the field 
with the same accuracy as that required for steel bridge work. In laying out 
yards, shop tracks, terminal connections and complicated work, it is best to 
plot the plan on a large scale, and then take off the leads, etc., from the draw- 
ing. The following method was adopted in planning and ordering the material 
for ties, frogs, switches, etc., and in setting out the work for the trackmen, 
at the Southern terminal station in Boston, where the tracks are unusually 
complex, as described in Chapter 13. A plan was drawn to a scale of f-in. 
to 1 ft., upon which was a center base line, with 100-ft. stations. Points at 
right angles to this base line were designated as so much east or west of certain 
base-line stations. This plan was developed to show each tie (and its length), 
each special timber support for any part of the interlocking apparatus, each 
switch, frog, guard rail, etc., the station and distance east or west for each 
switch point and frog point, the point of curve and radius for each piece of 
curved track, also all signal posts and signal bridge supports, as well as all 
grades. From this plan all ties and special timbers were ordered, it having 
been carefully examined for the latter purpose by the signal company. The 
entire plan was about 24X7 ft., divided into several sheets, and was upon 
tracing cloth for purpose of blue-printing. All of the calculations for this work 
were made and checked in the office so that the setting out was a careful repro- 
duction with the transit and tape of just what was on the plan, using ordinary 
stakes for line. Later on, when the tracks were raised to grade upon the bal- 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 427 

last, grade stakes were set. Methods of laying out yard tracks were described 
in "Engineering News," March 28, 1901. 

The details of turnouts and switch work will be found in many field books, 
and in Lovell's "Practical Switch Work" and Torrey's "Switch Layouts, " 
and are not intended to be dealt with in this book (see also "Engineering News," 
March 28, 1901; April 3, 1902; and Sept. 8, 1904). The work is often 
regarded as a very complicated and difficult operation, due largely to the 
number of formulas and calculations which have been devised. In practical 
work, however, there is little to choose between these, and a good turnout 
may be laid out by almost any of the innumerable formulas and tables, for 
the reason that (within quite wide limits) it makes no particular difference 
what is the actual length of the turnout lead. In this connection is quoted 
the following simple and concise statement on "The Art and Mystery of Lay- 
ing Out Turnout Curves," written by the late Mr. Wellington some years ago: 

The theoretical bad for standard gage = No. of frog X twice gage, = 9.42 
X No. of frog. This assumes the curve to be a simple circular arc, which is 
not essential for a good curve, nor does it give the best, and considers the curve 
to extend back to the heel of the switch rail of a stub switch. The lead is 
always the same, whether the turnout be from a tangent or a curve. A dif- 
ference of not exceeding 10% in length of lead, especially if the lead be made 
longer than above, has no appreciable injurious effect on the character of the 
turnout curve or on its radius. This is best seen by calling the turnout curve 
a parabola, and remembering that whether the tangents of a parabola be equal, 
or one 20% longer than the other, will not affect the excellence of the curve, 
nor, materially, the sharpest radius. Whether the curve be called a circle or a 
parabola will not alter its position on the ground by more than a hair's-breadth. 

To lay out the turnout curve, the frog being in place, and length of lead 
given, not differing more than 10% from the theoretical lead. Practically, 
the best transit for running in the curve, and the only one much used for fixing 
points on it, is an experienced eye. On all kinds of turnout curves, whether 
from straight or curved main track: Offset from gage side of main rail to 
gage side of lead rail at middle point of lead = | gage, or 14 ins.; offset at 
I point of lead = 1/16 gage, or 3 \ ins.; offset at f point of lead =9/16 gage, or 
31 1 ins. 

Split Switches. — The gage side of the split rail is straight; therefore it can 
only be considered, when in place, as a tangent to the true turnout curve. 
The point at which the theoretical turnout curve attains an offset of the width 
of a rail head (say 2\ ins.) from the main line is 0.8 of the theoretical lead from 
the frog. Hence to obtain the same turnout curve with a split switch as with 
a stub switch, the lead should be (0.8 X 9.42 X N) or 7.54 X N + the length 
of the plain portion of the head of the point rail. Split-switch leads, in other 
words, other things being equal, should be a little shorter than stub-switch 
leads. But as all turnout curves are improved by being a little longer than 
a simple circular arc requires, a lead fixed by the rule of 9.4 X N is good prac- 
tice for split switches. 

Radius. — By the principle of proportional triangles, the radius =lead X No. 
of frog = (No. of frog) 2 X gage. This holds only on turnouts from tangents. 

Degree of Turnout Curve. — The frog angle = 57° (or 3420 mins.) -J- Frog num- 
ber. The degree of turnout curve = 

Frog angle 57^ ^ 2Xg 606 

Lead in stations of 100 ft. ' N : 100 ^ N2' 

or, in round numbers, 600 -5- square of the number of the frog. If the turn- 
out be from a curved main track, add to the degree thus obtained the degree 
of the main curve, if the turnout is to the inside of the curve; and subtract 
it, if to the outside. 

Most railways have standard plans and tables of turnouts, and Table No. 
38 has been compiled from the diagrams of the New York, New Haven & 



428 



TRACK WORK. 



Hartford Ry. The reference letters are given on Fig. 217. The switch rails 
are all 15 ft. long, except for turnouts with No. 15 frogs; these are 24 ft. long, 
14 ft. being straight and 10 ft. on the turnout curve. All the switches have 
a throw of 3| ins. The rigid frogs have a spread of 5 ins. at the toe (G), and 
10 ins. at the heel (H), while the spring-rail frogs have a spread (G) of 9f ins. 
All ties are 7X9 ins. The guard rails are 15 ft. long, being straight for 9 ft., 



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with a flangeway of If ins.; each end is flared to give a flangeway of 2\ ins. 
at 18 ins. from the straight portion. In turnouts of the Lehigh Valley Ry., 
the spread of the switch at the heel is uniformly 6 ins. The standard table 
and diagram of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. are given in Fig. 219, and some 
notes accompanying this table are given below: 

Spring-rail frogs are to be used in main tracks at high-speed points when 
the turnout is used at comparatively low speeds; also on turnouts for busi- 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 429 

ness tracks, etc., from passing sidings, and in general where the traffic on one 
track is much greater than on the other. Hard-faced rigid frogs are to be used 
at end of double track and similar places when both tracks are subjected to 
heavy traffic at high speeds. All No. 16 to No. 20 frogs inclusive shall be of 
hard-faced construction. Sliding-wing frogs are to be used where the traffic 
is slow and heavy on both tracks, as on yard ladders and other such places 
not in main tracks. Rigid Bessemer frogs are to be used for tracks of light 
traffic, such as storage tracks, industrial tracks connecting with other sidings, 
etc. Other frogs and frogs of the kinds noted above to take care of special 
and extraordinary conditions of alinement and traffic may be used on authority 
of the Engineer of Maintenance-of-Way. 

For end of double tracks and crossovers used at high speed, use No. 20 
frogs. For passing sidings, use No. 10 frogs, when turnout is not controlled 
by interlocking, and No. 16 frogs when turnout is controlled by interlock- 
ing. For other sidings in main tracks and for general yard work, use No. 
8 frogs. 

Wharton switches shall be used in the main tracks at high-speed points at 
facing-point turnouts leading from the outside of a curve connecting to indus- 
trial sidings or other sidings not frequently used. They shall never be used 
at turnouts leading from the low side of a curve. They shall not be used at 
the ends of passing sidings except where special conditions make it advisable 
to use them. 

Split switches shall be used at all other points. With No. 20 frogs, use 
30-ft. switches. With No. 12 to No. 16 frogs, use 24-ft. switches. With No. 7 
to No. 12 frogs in main track, and with No. 10 frogs in sidetracks, use 16^-ft. 
switches. With sidetrack frogs No. 6 to No. 10 and No. 6 main-track frogs, 
use 13-ft. switches. When possible use 13-ft. repaired switches for sidetrack frogs 
No. 6 to No. 10. With frogs below No. 6, use 11-ft. switches; when possible 
use 11-ft. repaired switches for sidetrack frogs under No. 6. 

TABLE NO. 38.— TURNOUTS (100-LB. RAILS); NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN & 

HARTFORD RY. 

Frog number 8 10 10 15 

Style of frog Rigid. Rigid. Spring. Rigid. 

Angle of frog (A) 7° 10' 5° 43' 54" 5° 43' 54" 3° 49' 12" 

Lead (B) (calculated) 66 ft. 3 ins. 76 ft. 1 in. 74 ft. 1* ins. Ill ft. 7f ins. 

" (C) (calculated) 47 " 11 " 56 " 11 ins. 51 " H " 81 " 4f " 

" (B) (actual) 66 " 8 " 75 " 7 " 75 " 7± " 112 " lOfr" 

" (C) (actual) 48" 0" 56" " 52" " 82" " 

I (2) 28 (2) 26 (1) 30, 

Rails for lead (C); (No. and length). (2) 24 -J or (1) 30, or (1) 28, (1) 28 and 

( (1)26 (1)24 (1)24 

Radius of lead (C), ft 517.98 843.36 757.26 1,973.93 

Length of switch rail (D), ft 15 15 15 24 

Throw of switch rail, ins 31 3| 31 31 

Switch angle (E) 1° 52' 1° 52' 1° 52' 1° 10' 

Spread of switch (F), ins 6i 6i 6* j IS at 24 ft! 

Crossovers. — A crossover is a diagonal track connecting two parallel tracks, 
and consists of two turnouts connected by a short tangent, although where 
space is limited and the crossover is to be used only at slow speeds it may have 
the turnout curves united as reversed curves. On double track the crossover 
should be laid out with trailing switches, being used only by backward move- 
ments. The length of the crossover will depend upon the frog number and 
the distance between tracks. In Fig. 216 (diagram 212): A = distance 
between frog points (measured along the main track), B = distance between 
gage sides of inner rails of the two tracks, C — gage of track, D = frog num- 
ber. Then: A = (B - C) X D. The rule of the Hocking Valley Ry. has 
been given above. For a turnout with frogs of different numbers, D and D'; 
first find the distance A for both D and D' by the above formula. Then half 
the sum of these two distances will give the distance A for the required com- 
bination. For the diagonal distance DD between frog points, add the squares 



430 TRACK WORK. 

of A and B, and take the square root. The table in Fig. 219 gives the distances 
between frog points and switch points. 

Ladder Tracks. — These are diagonal tracks from which a series of parallel 
body tracks diverge. The angle between the ladder and body tracks conforms 
to that of the first frog, and all the frogs should be of the same number. Put- 
ting in a ladder track at an angle with the body tracks greater than that of 
the frog angle will necessitate varying the distance c. to c. of tracks, and requires 
special formulas for calculating this distance. For ordinary work, the same 
frogs should be used throughout and the body tracks should be lined in with 
a transit. Another method is to obtain from a table the perpendicular dis- 
tance from the gage side of the main-track rail to the ladder rail at certain 
distances along the former. This of course will vary with the frog number, 
and will give points in the ladder rail. The distance between the frog points 
is calculated by dividing the distance c. to c. of tracks by the sine of the frog 
angle. This distance should be measured along the ladder rail, making allow- 
ance for the actual or blunt point in the first frog, and then measuring the dis- 
tances, which will give the positions of the actual points. Stakes may then 
be set for the points of frogs and switches, using the theoretical leads. The 
frog point is placed opposite its stake and the point of switch allowed to fall 
where the shortened lead brings it. A string stretched across the ladder rail, 
parallel with the main rail at a distance equal to the specified distance c. to c. 
of tracks, will also mark the position of the frog. Stakes should be set to give 
the line of one of the body tracks, the others being put in by measurements 
made by the foreman. (" Engineering News," March 28, 1901.) 

Ladder tracks should be laid out to the greatest possible angle for the frog 
used, and the following method was used by Mr. C. S. Sims on the Pennsylvania 
Lines: Take the minimum length of lead for the frog to be used for the yard, 
which is the distance from the point of frog to the point of switch. Add to 
this the amount of clearance from the point of frog back to the point of the 
next switch. With a No. 7 frog the lead is 60 ft.; the clearance distance will 
be 10 ft., making 70 ft. in all from switch to switch. If the body tracks in 
the yard are to be laid out 12 ft. c. to c, dividing 12 by 70 will give the natural 
sine of the ladder angle, A, as shown in Fig. 220. If the body tracks are 13 ft. 
apart, substitute 13 for 12. One of the advantages of this method is that it 
puts a little curve behind the frog. This corrects all inaccuracies in laying 
out the track and makes the ladder look straight and perfect, and all the body 
tracks swing off from it similarly, while if the exact frog angle is used for the 
ladder the slightest error in location is evident. Care should be taken in stak- 
ing out ladder tracks to first determine the ladder angle, and then to turn it 
carefully with the transit from the track from which the ladder opens, and 
put in a line of stakes. On this line the switches should then be located the 
exact distance apart as called for by the original assumption. The switches 
will then be the least possible distance apart, which is an advantage. The 
angle of the ladder will be the greatest possible, which gives the maximum car 
capacity of the yard for the amount of space occupied. Fig. 220 shows also the 
arrangement of the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. for a ladder track with 
No. 10 frog in main track and No. 8 frogs for the body tracks. The ladder 
track should not open from a main running track (especially where interlock- 
ing plants are used), but preferably from a siding or lead track whose main- 
track connection is at least 500 ft. in advance of the ladder-track connection. 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 



431 



While No. 9 frogs are recommended for yard ladders, many railways use 
No. 8 or even No. 7. These latter put the switches closer together and thus 
give a shorter distance for the cars to travel in switching. This is of import- 
ance in utilizing the space and in operating the yard. However, No. 7 should 
be the minimum for yards of modern design. 

On the Michigan Central Ry., the practice is to use a No. 11 frog in the main 
track for all yard leads whenever practicable. The angle of ladder track is 
9° 1'; the frogs are No. 9, and the tracks 13 ft. c. to c. The distance between 
switches is 83 ft., as follows: Lead, 72.43 ft.; frog length beyond point, 8 ft.; 
straight track to bend in stock rail, 1.95 ft.; bend to switch point, 0.68 ft. 
In staking out the work, the point of intersection of the center lines of main 
and ladder tracks is first decided upon; the No. 11 frog is then located, and 

7'30'C I 

■T46', 

■6'56 



12+70 = 
Nat. Sine of 
Artqte A . 




i^ 7'30'C n'zo'C 7"30'C 




'\I5 OO'C\ 



g,5'ootl5°oeC 15'qoC ifoot 

Diagram of Yard Entrances; Atchison, 
Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. 




Ladder-Track Connections; Pennsylvania 
Lines. 



5 rfl§V*W*" 






_ -y\ 



5^365?. 




H-302f- 



■77 '8 " -H No - l0 Fro 9 



Main Track 



Ladder Track; Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. 

(No. 10 frog in main track; No. 8 frogs in ladder track.) 

Fig. 220. — Plans of Ladder Tracks. 

the P.C. and P.T. of the turnout curve. The transit is set over the point 
of intersection, the angle of the ladder track turned off, and stakes set along 
the center line for the headblock, point of frog and point of curve, according 
to the standard plan. The transit is then placed on the center line of the first 
body track, opposite the frog point, the angle of ladder is turned, and stakes 
are set for the frog points of the other tracks (83 ft. apart). It is then set 
on the center line of the track at the point of curve, the angle again turned, 
and stakes set for P.C. of each track. Finally it is set on the center line of 
the point of tangent, the angle again turned, and stakes set (83 ft. apart) for 
P.T. of each track. The foreman then lays out the switches according to 
standard offset measurements. 

Crossings. — The calculations for crossing frogs at track intersections are 
apt to be somewhat complicated. The crossings should always be put in under 
the direction of an engineer, stakes being set to mark the center lines of the 
two tracks. Any lining at crossings should always be done with reference 
to the engineer's stakes. In the renewal of crossings, the angles should first 



432 



TRACK WORK. 



be carefully measured, and the lines set out by instruments. It will very 
generally be found that the alinement has been affected by creeping of the 
rails, unless these have been anchored or secured by check plates. The gage 
of tracks should also be measured. If the alinement is bad, the proper loca- 
tion should be made before the frogs are ordered. If the two tracks belong 
to different roads, this matter should be arranged before any work is done. 
If the two tracks have rails of different weights, the crossing should be built 
of the heavier rails, and a length or two of this rail laid beyond the frogs on 
the lighter track, so as to avoid excessive shock at the crossing. Particulars 
in regard to crossings will be found in Chapters 7 and 9. 

Crossings of curved tracks involve special difficulties. The degree of curve 
should be verified by measuring the tangent offset, and by taking supplemen- 
tary angles checked by measurements with a chain or steel tape. It is impos- 
sible to make a satisfactory plan of a curved crossing by taking measurements 
of the diagonal and of ordinates to the curve. The proper way is to run out 
the curve and get the angle of intersection, calculate the angles and distances 
and check these from a large scale drawing. The angle of crossing will be equal 
to the angle between the radii to the common point. The practice on the 





\ fa \ f 



\j'/ 



Case 2. 



& 




Case 



Fig. 221. — Track Crossings at Grade on Curves. 



Michigan Central Ry. is to take the angle of a crossing frog in the track with 
a transit, and then confirm the observed angle by tape measurements. The 
point is found at which the gage lines of the frog meet, and then a mark is 
made on the gage side of each rail forming the frog at a distance of 3 ft. from 
the intersection of the gage lines, measured toward the heel of the frog. The 
distance between these marks is measured and divided by 6, which gives the 
sine of half the angle of the frog. This angle is of course the angle of the cross- 
ing if both tracks are straight lines. If the crossing is formed by one straight 
and one curved track, or by two curved tracks, the intersection of gage lines 
at each of the four corners of the diamond is found, also the angle of each frog 
in the manner stated above. All the connecting distances between the inter- 
sections of gage lines are measured, to confirm the calculations, which are 
anything but simple. As this is a detail of track work not generally explained 
outside of railway offices, some particulars are given below, and further dis- 
cussion will be found in "Engineering News," April 21, June 16, July 23, 
and Sept. 29, 1898. The diagrams in Fig. 221 and the following calculations 
represent the practice on the Michigan Central Ry. 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 433 

Case 1. — Crossing of Curved Track and Straight Track. — Calculation of 
the Frog Angles and Chord Lengths: 

Observe the central angle NHT. 

D, R= radius central curve. 

R' = R + £gage. 

R" =R-Vgage. 

Let F, F', F", F'"= frog angles at S, B, C, and E. 

NHT = KDG. DH = HI = -i-§g T . AD = R + DH. AI = R-HI. 

cos KDG 



CDA = 90°-KDG. EIA = 180° -CD A. 



sin KCA : AD = sin CDA : R' ,\ sin KCA = 



ADXsin CDA 
R' 



sin KBA : AD = sin CDA : R" .-. sin KB A = 
sin IEA : AI = sin EIA = R' .'. sin IEA = 
sin ISA: AI = sin EIA = R" ..sin ISA = 



= ADXs in CDA 
R" 

AlXsin EIA 

R' 
AlXsin EIA 



R" 
90°-ISA = F. 90°-iEA = F ,// . KBA-90°=F'. KCA - 90° = F". 



To find chord lengths: WBS = F' + i(F-F'). OEC = F'"-J(F" / -F"). 
CBP = F' + J(F // -F'). BPC = 90° + ifF"-F'). 



ESR = F + i(F"'-F). SRE = 90° + i(F" / -F). 

_ gage rF _ gage 

130 sin WBS* sin OEC" _ 

sin CBP : gage = sin BPC : BC /. BC= Sm . B ?Sp g . 

sin CBP 



sin ESR : gage = sin SRE : SE ,\ SE= 



sin SREXg 



sin ESR •' 

To check, compute side BE from the triangle BSE and CBE. 

Case 2. — Crossing of Two Curved Tracks. — Calculation for the Frog Angles 
and Chord Lengths: 

Observe the central angle NOP, or any frog angle, as HCK. 

AB= Distance between the centers of the two curves 
R= Longer radius of center line. 
r= Shorter radius of center line. 
R'=R + *g, R"=R-ig, r'=r + ig, r"=r-£g. 



1. If central angle is known, AOB=NOP. In triangle AOB 



sin AOB . . , . „ r . sin AOB 



tan ABO= — ■■ , and side AB= 



R-r cos AOB sin ABO 



2. If a frog angle is observed, as HCK, find AB in like manner from triangle ABC. 

3. All the sides of the triangles ACB, AEB, AFB, and ADB, being known, compute all 
the angles of each triangle. The angles at C, E, D, and F, thus found, will be the frog 
angles required. 

4. To find the chord length CD, produce BD to G; KCD= *CAD= £(CAB - DAB), 



HCG=iCBG=i(ABD-ABC); GCD=HCK±KCD±HCG, CGD=90°±HGC, GD=gage. 

.-. From triangle CGD, CD= S ' n ' ~~-. In the same way find chords CE, EF and FD. 

sin GCD 

5. Compute value of CF from triangles ECF and DCF to check the work. 
Case 3. — Crossing of Two Curved Tracks. — Calculation for the Chord Lengths 
when the Frog Angles are all known: 



KCD=i(CAB-DAB), SFD= J(ABF- ABD), 



HCG= i(ABD - ABC), LFM= £(DAB - FAB), 

G^D-HCK±KCD±HCG, MFD =LFS ± LFM ±~SFD, 



CGD=90°±HGC, FMD=90°±LFM, 

-itx ^r. g . sin CGD -.., g . sin FMO 

GD=gage; CD=^ ■■ DM=gage; DF=^ ■ 

sin GCD sin MFD 



434 



TRACK WORK. 



LFE=i(EAB-FAB), 
SFT= KFBA -EBA), 



EFT=LFT±LFE±SFT, 



ETF=90°±SFT, 
ET=gage; EF= 



g . sinETF 
sin EFT 



HCE=i(ABE-ABC), 

KCJ= J(CAB - EAB), 

JCE = HCK ± KCJ ± HCE, 

CJE=90°±KCJ, 

Try m? S • sin CJE 
EJ=gage; CE=- . 

sin JCE 



Moving Switches by Locomotives. — It is sometimes necessary to move a 
system of switches, or a ladder in a yard, to accommodate improvements. 
If the distance is not too long, an engine with a wrecking rope can pull one 
turnout at a time readily. Remove the track intervening between the old 
and new locations, excavate the ballast to the bottom of the ties, cut the track 
between the turnouts, and put 1-in. boards under the ends of the switch tim- 
bers, lapping them in the direction the switch is to be pulled. Fasten each 
end of a chain around the rails and sill on each side of the switch, preferably 
behind a joint, and hook the engine rope to the middle of this chain, so as to 
prevent the strain from being greater on one side, and thus twisting the switch 
timbers. When the turnout is in its required position, put in the connecting 
rails and splice up the track. The engine pulls the turnouts consecutively. 
A ladder has been changed in this manner in one day, which could not have 
been done by hand with the same force of men in ten days. 

Switch Repair Work. — A considerable amount of switch and frog repair 
work is done at the blacksmith shops of many railways. The maintenance- 
of-way department of the Missouri Pacific Ry. has a traveling blacksmith out- 
fit, which is found very economical in frog repairs. There are two cars: one 
is for stores and has accommodation for the blacksmith and his helper; the 
other is a flat car with forge, rail bender, and other tools. The cars are moved 
in local trains. When a frog is removed, a piece of rail is spiked in place tem- 
porarily for the main track. This outfit avoids the delay and expense of ship- 
ping heavy frogs to and from the division shops. The blacksmith also sharpens 
track tools, repairs hand cars and does other necessary work. 

Instructions for Switch Work. — The following are the instructions issued 
by the maintenance-of-way department of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. for put- 
ting in turnouts, and for the maintenance of switches, frogs and turnouts: 

Putting in Turnouts. — (1) Locate the frog and switch points, and put in 
the ties, care being taken to have them square with the main track. (2) Put 
slide plates and braces under the unbroken side of main track, placing shims 
of the proper thickness on the opposite side of ties. (3) Line and full spike 
the unbroken side on new ties and spike the guard rail to proper position. 
(4) Couple up frog and main- track lead rails, and main- track switch points 
on the new ties on the turnout side, doing such cutting and drilling as may 
be required to complete the main-track lead to the proper length from the point 
of the switch to the heel of the frog. (5) Break the main track at the posi- 
tion of the heel of the frog and throw the main-track rails for the siding, bend- 
ing the stock rail at the same time. This can be done without taking the stock 
rail out of the track. Throw in the main-track lead, which has already been 
coupled, bolt the main-track end of the frog, and then spike the new section 
to the proper gage from the frog to the switch, putting on the proper slides 
and braces. (6) Couple up the switch point for the siding by rods, making 
such adjustments in the rods as are necessary. Cut the rails to complete the 
siding turnout from the heel of the switch to the point of the frog, and spike 
the siding lead to the proper line for the turnout curves. (7) Complete the 
work of laying the turnout by the necessary spiking, gaging and adjustment 
of switchstand, and see that the angle bars in the main track each way from 



SWITCH WORK AND TURNOUTS. 435 

the turnout are fully spiked in the slot holes to prevent creeping of the main- 
track rails. The two switch points must be exactly opposite each other, and 
to aid in obtaining that result, the following excess length of sidetrack lead 
rail over main-track lead rail is given for straight main track: For No. 4 frog, 
4 \ ins.; No. 5, 3^ ins.; No. 6, 3 ins.; No. 7, 2\ ins.; No. 8, 2 ins.; No. 10, 
If ins.; No. 20, If ins. 

In setting semaphore switchstands, the blade shall, in all cases, point towards 
the engineman's right as he approaches a facing-switch point, even though 
the stand is (for some reason) on the fireman's side of the track. High sema- 
phore stands shall be placed 7 ft. from the near rail when on the engineman's 
side of the track, and 8 ft. when on the fireman's side of track. Where the 
white banner of switch targets is inclined, it shall always slope downward 
towards the engineman's right when approaching a facing-point switch. 

Care of Frogs and Switches. — Spring-rail frogs, sliding frogs, movable-point 
frogs and split switches shall be kept well cleaned and oiled at all times. 
Bolts shall be kept tight in. frogs, switches, crossing frogs and slip switches; 
and cotters shall be kept in place where provided for. Bolts fastening switch 
rods to lugs shall be placed with heads up and provided with cotters. Particu- 
lar attention is called to the need of maintaining good line and surface at all 
times through turnouts, etc. If the ties at or near the joint fastening become 
lower than those adjoining them, the bent portion of the sprmg rail of spring- 
rail frogs, or the points of movable-point frogs and split switches, will rise as 
the wheels pass over the joint, causing great danger to traffic. 

Care should be exercised to see that the gage is maintained true at split 
switches and at movable-point frogs, and that all frogs, switches, etc., are 
kept free from snow, ice and other obstructions. The points shall fit snugly 
in either position at all times. The standard guard rail shall he used to protect 
all frog points, and all guard rails shall be frequently inspected to see that they 
are secure and set to proper gage. Their proper position opposite the point 
of frog is not less than 4 ft. 6f ins. from the gage line of frog point, nor more 
than 4 ft. 5 ins. from gage line of frog wing rail. The connections between 
main rails and frogs and switches shall be made with standard angle bars, 
wherever practicable. Switchstands must be kept firmly spiked to the head 
ties, standing plumb, with the targets square with the track. Switch signals 
must be kept bright and in good order; they shall be painted as often as is 
necessary to preserve proper appearance. 

The bend in the stock rail shall be at such distance ahead of the switch point 
as will make the gage line continuous, and the stock rail shall be bent the proper 
amount. When the turnout is used for main traffic, a guard rail shall be placed 
ahead of the switch point on the turnout side to decrease the wear of the opposite 
point. Any unusual wear of switch points should be carefully investigated 
to learn the cause and apply the remedy. The use of new material in sidings 
should be avoided as far as possible. Supervisors must regularly inspect all 
frogs and switches to see that they are properly maintained. 



CHAPTER 25.— BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 

Bridge Work. 

The maintenance, repair and renewal of bridges and trestles on large rail- 
ways is usually in charge of a separate department, as noted in Chapter 17, 
but it is a matter with which the maintenance-of-way department is intimately 
connected. The general system of organization is to have working gangs 
under master carpenters or bridge foremen who report to a general foreman 
or supervisor. This last officer may report to the division engineer, the engi- 
neer of maintenance-of-way, or the superintendent (or engineer) of bridges and 
buildings.' Many railways consider it best and most economical to do bridge 



436 TRACK WORK. 

renewal work by company forces rather than by contract. In some cases 
all foundation work, masonry substructure and superstructure work, and the 
erection of steel superstructures, is also done by company forces. This is 
the practice on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. The Atchison, Topeka 
& Santa Fe Ry. also does steel erection by its own permanent bridge erecting 
gangs. This arrangement calls for careful organization and complete equip- 
ment. The bridge gangs should have permanent work trains, including board- 
ing and sleeping accommodation, so that the men can live comfortably. With 
such an arrangement, the bridge department can secure and keep better men 
than would otherwise be the case. The renewal or reconstruction of old 
bridges is usually a difficult matter, on account of the necessity of avoiding 
interference with traffic, and of keeping the structure in safe condition at all 
times. In the construction of a double-track viaduct to take the place of a 
single-track viaduct on the Cincinnati Southern Ry., the working time was 
only 3 to 6 hours of each 8-hour day. Traffic was operated by the train-staff 
system, a temporary signal tower being erected and the work train holding 
one staff when at work. The telegraph operator at the tower notified this 
train when to clear the track. The switch to the sidetrack could not be closed 
and locked without the staff, and the signal could not be lowered until this 
had been done and the staff inserted in the machine at the tower. This work 
was done by contract, and was described in "Engineering News," June 8, 1905. 
In bridge repair or renewals on double track the tracks may be gantletted 
along the middle of the structure, thus giving more room for work. To pre- 
vent accidents, fixed danger signals may be placed at each end of the gantlet, 
and no train allowed to pass unless the pilotman assigned to that duty is on 
the engine. 

Derrick cars are of great importance for handling material in bridge work, 
and various designs were described in the Proceedings of the Association of 
Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings in 1902. Wrecking cranes (described 
elsewhere) are employed in work of this kind (see also Figs. 226 and 230). A 
machine of this kind can unload material and place it in position in advance, 
so that for short spans and for viaduct work no falsework may be necessary. 
Where falsework is used, two cars (or two wrecking cranes) can handle the 
girders, one at each end. On the Cincinnati Southern Ry. viaduct, noted 
above, two steam derricks were used, with 40-ft. booms and 20 tons hoisting 
capacity. These unloaded the girders, columns, etc., from the cars and set 
them in position; the columns were set by lowering the foot from one derrick 
while the upper end was suspended from the other. The heaviest pieces were 
17-ton columns, and 20-ton 75-ft. girders. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul Ry. has a steel derrick car with a box-lattice boom made in two sections, 
put together at the splice with turned bolts. The sections are 15 and 21 ft. 
long, and the length of the boom can be made 42 to 80 ft., with a hoisting capac- 
ity of 50 and 10 tons respectively. This machine can place the parts of viaducts 
75 ft. in advance, and can set a 95-ft. girder without the use of falsework. The 
car has a plate-girder frame 50 ft. long, on trucks 40 ft. apart. At the front 
end is a 20-ft. A-frame, with eyebars in the backstay; by removing one pin, 
the eyebars can be lowered, and the A-frame swung back to lie on the floor for 
transportation. At the rear end are the boiler, 50-HP. engine, and air pump 
supplying compressed air for the riveting hammers. The machine is self-pro- 
pelling. Lighter cars on the same road can handle 30 and 20 tons at the ends 



BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 437 

of 30-ft. and 50-ft. booms. They can set a 70-ft. girder in place without false- 
work, or an 80-ft. girder when working from falsework. An air-compressor 
outfit may be placed in the derrick car or in the tool car, to operate pneumatic 
riveters, drills, sand-blast jets, etc. A bridge-gang tool car on the Lehigh 
Valley Ry. has a 25-HP. gasoline engine, lOXlO-in. air compressor, 12-KW. 
dynamo (225-volt current), air receiver, cooling tanks, pneumatic tools, two 
forges, a cold saw, and 100 portable lamps of 16 c.p., with wires. 

In renewing an old plate-girder bridge, falsework is sometimes built under it 
and extending on both sides. The new span is erected on this, beside the old 
one. The latter is then pulled sideways till clear of the masonry, and the new 
one pulled into its position. The pulling is done by tackle led to locomotives. 
The bridges usually slide on rails laid upon the falsework. In using this method 
for a number of 80-ft. bridges in the double-tracking of the Union Pacific Ry., 
each corner of the new bridge had a 7^-in. grooved steel wheel or roller rest- 
ing on a rail on the falsework. This facilitated the movement. A bridge 
could be renewed in about an hour, from the time of cutting the track to 
reconnecting it ready for traffic. 

For timber repair, work, it is usually best to have one main yard for timber 
and piles, and to keep only an emergency stock on each division. Timber 
that is removed is not necessarily useless, but may be made available in other 
repair work, and should be piled for examination as to its availability and 
value. In making renewals with creosoted timber, all parts cut for framing, 
etc., must be saturated with creosote oil by repeated applications, and then 
well daubed with hot pitch, this being done as soon as the stick is cut. Every 
gang using such timber should have a supply of oil and pitch and a 10-gallon 
pot for heating it. „ A useful tool for a bridge gang in handling timber is a 
truck, or " dolly, " having a grooved wheel 6 ins. diameter and 3|-ins. wide (7J- 
ins. and 4|-ins. over the flanges) journaled in bearings attached to two side 
timbers 2^X6 ins., 18 ins. long. A curved handle is fitted on one side. A 
larger dolly may have two wheels (placed tandem) with side timbers 3 ft. long. 

Rules for painting steel bridges were given by Mr. W. G. Berg in " Engineer- 
ing News," June 6, 1895. Railways should, as far as possible, undertake the 
purchase of the raw supplies and the mixing of the paint (by hand or machine), 
thus being able to insure that the best pigments and oil are used. Painting 
in the field should be done by the railway, and not by contract. For new 
work, the priming coat may be of pure, finely ground, dry red lead, toned down 
with lampblack, and mixed with pure, raw linseed oil, adding as little drier 
as possible. The finishing coats may be of any suitable paint, preferably dark- 
colored, providing the quality of the pigment is not injurious and the linseed 
oil is pure. If a cheap paint is required, use oxide-of-iron paint, bought in 
powder form and toned down with lampblack, in preference to cheap ready- 
mixed paints. Paint should not be applied when the metal is wet or the 
weather cold. The Northern Pacific Ry. uses the following: 1st coat, 30 lbs. 
pure lead to 1 gallon pure boiled linseed oil and ^-pint pure turpentine; 2d 
coat, 25 lbs. lead, 1 gallon oil, £-pint turpentine and not over 12 ounces of 
lampblack; 3d coat, 15 lbs. dry pigment to 1 gallon of oil. The quantity 
has been estimated at f-gallon of paint per ton for the first coat, and f-gallon 
for the second coat. For repainting old work, first remove all dirt, grease, 
rust, scale and soft paint. If the work is in bad condition, use a red-lead 
primer coat, followed by finishing coats as above. If it is in fair condition, 



438 TRACK WORK. 

touch up the bare spots with a preliminary extra coat, and then apply the 
finishing coat. Where bridge contracts include erection they frequently 
call for one coat of paint after erection, but the work is frequently unsat- 
isfactory to the railway paint department, both as to material and workman- 
ship. An accumulation of damp cinders and dirt at rail seats, etc., will cause 
disintegration of paint and corrosion of the metal. 

Detailed descriptions of all bridges are usually kept at headquarters. These 
show for each individual structure the type, dimensions, waterway, substruc- 
ture and superstructure, date of construction and renewal, and the dates of 
inspections (with references to the books in which the inspections are recorded). 
Similar records are kept at the division offices, and (condensed) in pocket- 
book form by the engineers or inspectors. (American Railway Engineering 
Association, 1904.) These records are discussed later under "Records." 

The classification of bridges as to their strength or carrying capacity is a 
very important matter on many railways, where heavy train loads and axle 
loads are imposed upon structures of varying age and quality. This is impor- 
tant not only in regard to railway bridges, but also in regard to existing high- 
way bridges which are to be utilized by new electric railways or where heavy 
interurban cars are supplementing lighter cars. This matter is treated in a 
paper in the Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers for Decem- 
ber, 1906, and in the 1908 Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering 
Association. In a system used by Mr. C. D Purdon on the St. Louis & San 
Francisco Ry., each bridge is calculated for a certain loading, and its weakest 
part is determined. The loading for which it is safe is then ascertained, and 
the bridge classified according to this latter. 

Bridge Inspection. 

All bridges, viaducts and trestles of steel and timber must be inspected 
periodically for two different purposes: (1) For general maintenance; to see 
that they are in proper condition as to painting, end bearings, expansion 
joints, floor system, and general condition. (2) For renewal; to ascertain 
the condition as to safety and durability, and to determine the amount of 
renewal work or the necessity for replacement. Annual inspections may 
suffice where the bridges are modern and of ample capacity for the loads. Old 
structures must be watched and inspected frequently by the section foremen 
or men in direct charge, who are not relieved of any responsibility by the offi- 
cial inspections. Special inspections and reports must also be made upon 
every piece of renewal or reconstruction as soon as it is completed. An annual 
inspection is usually made by the higher officials to check the reports of division 
officers, and to determine upon the renewal work for the next year. 

The system of inspection recommended by the American Railway Engineer- 
ing Association in 1908 is as follows, and the practice of several railways was 
reviewed in its Proceedings for 1907: (1) Daily by trackmen, who look 
out for damage by drift or high water, broken or damaged ties and other evi- 
dent defects. They only report in case something wrong is discovered. (2) 
Monthly by bridge men, who examine every member and part of both super- 
structure and substructure. They look out for cracks, wear, loose members, 
loose rivets, deterioration of the masonry, scouring or undermining of founda- 
tion. They also observe the action of the structure under traffic, with the 
object of detecting any new, unusual or excessive motion. (3) Quarterly 



BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 439 

by bridge men, who inspect in detail certain specified structures. The bridge 
men make reports of both monthly %nd quarterly inspections. (4) Annually 
by a bridge inspector, to check the monthly and quarterly inspections; he 
reports on the extent of defects, deterioration, motion, etc. From this may 
be determined the degree of safety, the necessity for repairs and the extent 
of strengthening and renewals required. (5) Annually, by the authorities 
in charge of bridges, for the purpose of officially deciding the extent of rein- 
forcing, renewals or traffic restrictions which must be made during the fol- 
lowing year. (6) Special inspections: A, Structures which are severely 
strained or show signs of distress under traffic; B, Substructures which show 
signs of movement, until the movement ceases, or the conditions causing it 
have been remedied; C, After heavy freshets for evidence of damage to super- 
structures by drift and to substructures by scour; D, By the engineering 
department when a structure is reported as requiring extensive repairs or 
renewal. 

The inspector should be familiar with bridge design and stresses, and also 
have practical experience in shop work, field work, timber framing, etc. He 
should be furnished with a list of the bridges to be inspected, the list indicat- 
ing which require special watching and which may be inspected quarterly. 
The reports are usually made on printed forms bound in a book of pocket size. 
Sometimes the record is made in duplicate, the inspector keeping one copy. 
Instructions governing the inspector's duties should be printed in each book. 
The inspector's record should be so clear and complete that the bridge fore- 
man has full details and can arrange to finish up all work at one place at a time. 
This avoids waste of time in traveling, but, of course, any emergency work 
must be attended to first. Most roads issue special instructions as to bridge 
inspection, and have" blank forms for reports and records. Every opening, 
however small, should be given a number for ease of reference and location. 

The inspection report may be on a card 5X8 ins., ruled to include trestles 
and girder and truss bridges; also the condition of piers and paint, and the con- 
dition of individual parts of wooden structures. It may include a bill of 
material and itemized estimate of cost for repairs, and a column for the actual 
cost. Symbols may show whether the bridge has been repaired or renewed 
since the last report; and whether it is good for another year, or should be 
renewed at once or in 6 months. The Illinois Central Ry. uses a sheet 8JX14 
ins. for the monthly and quarterly reports of the supervisor of bridges and build- 
ings, a copy being sent quarterly to the roadmaster. The 8^-in. width is 
divided into 10 columns, and a line is given to each structure; these show date 
of inspection, bridge number, length, kind of structure, number of bents, num- 
ber of piles per bent, when built (year and month), condition, work needed 
in next 3 months. In some cases the reports are made in a book of blank forms 
of pocket size, a page being taken for each structure. At the top are lines 
for the bridge number, division, inspector, and date. At the left is a list of 
parts, with one or more lines to each, and several lines for remarks. They are 
sometimes in tabular form, with two pages 5|X8 ins. The left-hand page has 
vertical columns for bridge number (or structure), location, kind of structure, 
description, date of inspection. The right-hand page is for notes as to general 
condition, work required, and recommendations. A similar report, but with 
the pages combined on a sheet 11X8 ins., is used for the office (American Rail- 
way Engineering Association, 1904, 1907). 



440 TRACK WORK. 

On the Erie Ry., the division engineers report quarterly to the superintend- 
ents. The report is on a sheet 28X30 ins., with columns for remarks by the 
division engineer, division superintendent and engineer of maintenance-of-way, 
and a column for "action under train." There are also 12 columns for general 
conditions: 1, masonry; 2, bed plates; 3, rollers and frames; 4, pedestals; 
5, main trusses or girders; 6, lateral system; 7, metal floor system; 8, wooden 
floor system; 9, rivets; 10, hangers; 11, castings; 12, paint. A smaller form 
is used by the bridge inspector in making his monthly report to his roadmaster 
or division engineer. The quarterly reports go from the division officers to the 
engineer of maintenance-of-way, thence to the general superintendent and the 
chief engineer, who refers them to the bridge engineer. On the larger divi- 
sions, there are bridge inspectors constantly on the line, and they make special 
reports when necessary. On the divisions where the traffic is lighter, the 
master carpenters make these reports. If a defect develops which the division 
employees are not well prepared to deal with, they call upon the bridge depart- 
ment for help. This it is well prepared to give, as the Erie Ry. erects all its 
own bridges, and has several gangs of competent bridge men constantly at work 
This possible use to which a well-equipped bridge gang can be put is one of 
the reasons why it is desirable for a railway company to handle its own metal 
work. Besides the division inspectors, there are two traveling inspectors con- 
stantly going over the line, inspecting bridges. They send in their reports 
weekly, in letter form, to the engineer of bridges and buildings. 

All new bridge work is drawn up by the bridge department, general layout 
plans and stress sheets being made on standard sheets, 8X13 ins. In special 
cases further details are furnished. The bridge company then draws the shop 
details. Every drawing of the company is approved by the bridge department 
in its pencil form. The mill order is made from it by the bridge company, which 
then makes tracings at its leisure. The mill inspection is let to an inspecting 
firm, which receives from the bridge company (direct) copies of all mill orders. 
The railway company handles its own shop inspection. When the metal com- 
mences to arrive at the shops, the tracings have been made and approved, and 
prints are then placed in the hands of the railway's shop inspectors. Prints 
are sent to the bridge engineer, and copies furnished the erector. All test 
reports are checked and filed carefully in the bridge department against their 
respective bridges. Shipping invoices are filed at once in the department, 
copies being sent to the field for check and return. All plans relating to the 
structure (masonry, metal, profiles, etc.) are filed under one cover, which is 
of tough brown paper and the size of the sliding-shelf drawers. Thus they 
cannot slip about in the drawers, in which they are laid flat. 

On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., a bridge inspector is appointed 
by and reports to the general foreman of bridges and buildings on each oper- 
ating division. He is an experienced bridge carpenter, selected with regard 
to his fitness for the work. It is his duty to examine all bridges, trestles, 
culverts, cattleguards, stock yards and buildings, taking the main line first 
and the branches in the order of their importance. He is supposed to exam- 
ine all wooden bridges once a month, and metal bridges once in two months. 
He makes a daily report by mail, and sends in his notebook every week; the 
general foreman examines and signs it, and passes it to the division engineer 
to be examined and filed. Besides this, an inspection is made in April by the 
general foreman, roadmaster, division engineer and bridge inspector; and 



BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 441 

another in October by the same officers accompanied by the superintendent. 
At this time all important repairs and renewals for the coming year are deter- 
mined upon, and a complete report on this work is made to the general super- 
intendent. The bridge engineer receives reports of any defects in bridges. 
He makes an examination, followed by recommendations as to modifications 
in the design of wooden structures. For metal bridges, he makes a personal 
examination, and arranges for proper repairs, reinforcing or replacing. He 
goes over as large a portion of the system as possible each year, making special 
trips with the general foreman. He also goes with the superintendents on 
their inspections as much as possible. Any weak bridges are always given 
frequent examinations by him or under his direction. 

On the Southern Pacific Ry., the bridge superintendents inspect all truss 
bridges at least twice a year, reporting in April and October, and specifying 
all structures of every kind that require renewal within the next six months. 
Every opening must be inspected quarterly by a foreman, who reports to the 
bridge superintendent. On the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Ry., the bridge 
engineer makes semi-annual inspections of all truss and girder bridges over 
22 ft. span. He is accompanied by the division master carpenter and gen- 
erally by the division superintendent, division engineer and engineer of main- 
tenance-of-way and the engineer of district. He also makes special examina- 
tions of bridges reported as requiring renewal which seem to call for a heavy 
expenditure. 

The inspector usually travels on a hand car, and is accompanied by the 
bridge foreman of the division and four bridge men. The men run the car, 
assist the inspector, and make any minor repairs or those which require prompt 
attention. The tools include a brace and bits; two or three ^-in. or ^-in. 
crank augers, 4^ ft. long, for boring timbers; and two f-in. octagon steel bars 
4 to 5 ft. long, for sounding timbers. One bar has a ball head 3^-ins. diameter 
for sounding timbers and piles, and the other end is diamond-pointed. The 
other bar has one end like a pinch bar and the other either diamond-pointed 
or flattened to make a scraper for removing sap rot, etc. (See "Tools," Fig. 
158.) The diamond point is used for sounding rotten portions. In sounding 
with the ball head, solid timber will give a firm ring, while rotten wood will 
give a muffled sound. In boring timber to ascertain its condition, the holes 
should always be bored from the bottom of the timber, or in an upward inclined 
direction, so that water will not lodge in them. For iron work, there are 
required light hammers for testing rivets and light cold chisels for removing 
rust scale. In testing rivets, the rivet head should be struck a smart light 
blow sideways, the inspector holding his fingers on the same head and plate 
at the opposite side from which the blow is struck. Loose rivets should be 
marked with paint at once. The bridge inspector's hammer used on the New 
York Central Ry. has a head 4f-ins. long; one end is flat, f-in. diameter, and 
the other ends in a sharp point 5/16-in. long, tapering from J-in. There should 
be a 50-ft. tape, 2-ft. rule, plumb-bob and line, monkey wrench, small broom 
for cleaning dirt from corners, etc. Also paint pots, brushes and stencils for 
renewing bridge numbers, unless this work is done at other times by the bridge 
gangs. The inspector should watch every large structure during the passage 
of a fast train, noting any undue deflection, swaying or vibration, or any sig- 
nificant movement or sound. It may be necessary at times to test the deflec- 
tion under load. The track should be in good line and surface on the bridge 



442 TRACK WORK. 

and approaches, and well bedded on the latter, so as to avoid heavy shocks 
from trains running onto the bridge at high speed. 

Trestles have an average life of 7 to 10 years, the piles being the first part 
to decay in pile trestles. Where there are many trestles, and especially in 
damp and marshy country, constant inspection and frequent repair must be 
made to keep the road in safe condition. There should be also annual or 
semi-annual inspections in which are noted the alinement and level (or settle- 
ment), the vertical positions of bents, conditions of all piles (especially at 
the water line), timbers, foundations, joints, tenons, braces, corbels, etc., 
especially where they cross or are framed. The timbers may be bored when 
necessary to ascertain their condition. A written report may then be made 
as to each bridge, accompanied by a record of the principal members, special 
marks indicating whether they will require renewal in 3, 6, 9 or 12 months, 
or are safe for more than a year. On large trestles the bents may be num- 
bered. Mudsills are sometimes laid in open trenches, sheathed with plank- 
ing. If buried, the mudsills and feet of posts should have the earth cleared 
away for a depth of 18 to 20 ins., so that they may be inspected for dry rot. 
Sap rot should be scraped away to see how much good timber is left. The 
sway bracing should be well bolted or spiked. The floor system should be 
examined as to its condition and to see if the stringers have full bearing on 
the caps and the caps on the piles. The ends must be well supported on the 
banks. 

In inspecting wooden bridges, it should be seen that the trusses have the 
proper camber, and are vertical, that the chord bolts are snug, and the lateral 
rods properly adjusted. Then the truss rods should be adjusted until the 
counterbraces have a firm bearing on the angle blocks, and all the rods have 
the same tension. The timbers, seats, and joints should be carefully exam- 
ined for cracks, splits or rot. Splices in bottom chords (principally in long 
spans, where they generally occur in every panel) must be examined to note 
if they are pulling apart, which would indicate a weakness or a defective clamp. 
The braces and counterbraces should have a square and even bearing upon 
the angle blocks, and any sliding from their position is evidence that the bridge 
needs adjustment. Such adjustment should be done only under the super- 
vision of the bridge inspector. The truss rods, etc., should not be left loose, 
and should not be tightened while a load is on the bridge. Wooden bridges 
may be whitewashed inside and outside twice a year. The Southern Pacific 
Ry. requires two inspections a year for all wooden bridges and trestles over 
three years old. 

On steel bridges, the bed plates should be level and clean; the rollers clean 
and free to move, and their axes at right angles to the line of the bridge. The 
pedestals should be free from cracks and flaws, and have a uniform bearing 
upon all the rollers or upon the bed plate at the fixed end. Tension mem- 
bers must be closely examined, also the rods and bottom chords, especially 
where they are composed of more than one member. All the members in 
any one panel should have an equal strain, and when one member is slack 
and the other tight, the case should be reported. The compression mem- 
bers, such as posts and top chords, should be straight, without a bend or bulge, 
and all the joints should bear closely against each other. The laterals and 
counter rods should be tested by shaking them, and ought never to be allowed 
to hang loose. They must not be adjusted with a load upon the bridge, and 



BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 443 

must be tightened only enough to get a good bearing. All pins and nuts must 
be examined for signs of wear or movement. Riveted work should be sounded 
with a hammer to detect loose rivets; and if they cannot be replaced at once 
they must be marked, and their number and location reported. Bridges in 
cities, near salt water, or over railway tracks, should be very carefully inspected 
for signs of corrosion. Painted work must be examined for indications of 
rust underneath. No water must be allowed to collect in the interior of any 
parts; drain holes must be provided and kept open, or the places filled. Places 
where stringers are riveted or fastened to the floor beams, and which are gen- 
erally not easy of access for inspection on account of the floor, must be exam- 
ined. Here the rivets are most likely to get loose, and the webs and flanges 
of the beams and stringers to fail from shearing or crushing. The lateral 
systems and sway bracing must also be inspected. All the rods should be 
tight but not overstrained, as the struts are liable to be crippled if too much 
power is used in adjusting the tension members. 

In all structures, the floor system and its supports must be examined, espe- 
cially the condition of ties or timbers resting on beams or shelf angles. In 
addition to the inspection of the superstructures, the masonry of abutments 
and piers should be examined for signs of settlement or displacement; foun- 
dations looked to, and soundings taken to ascertain if there are signs of scour. 
Pedestal stones should be examined for signs of cracking or crushing, and it 
should be noted if the masonry requires pointing. It should also be observed 
if the bridge watchmen and section men keep the bridge seats clean, keep the 
ballast back from the abutments, keep grass and rubbish cleared away from 
wooden structures, and keep the approaches firmly bedded.- 

Telegraph Work. 

The telegraph line along a railway is usually built by the telegraph com- 
pany which operates in that territory.* The maintenance is done by the rail- 
way as a rule, but sometimes under the direction of a foreman or lineman 
of the telegraph company. Such work as rebuilding a pole line or renewing 
wires is done by a gang of men under the direction of a foreman. Ordinary 
repairs, such as moving or resetting a few poles for track changes, renewing 
cross-arms and insulators, or repairing breaks in the wires, may be done by 
the telegraph lineman, having a certain section of line. He gets assistance 
from the section men when necessary. The gangs and linemen are paid some- 
times by the railway and sometimes by the telegraph company, according 
to contracts. As a rule the railway furnishes labor, but all work is done in 
accordance with the telegraph company's rules, and this company furnishes 
the material. On the Illinois Central Ry. each lineman has a division of about 
125 miles of railway, depending upon the number of wires and the facilities 
for getting over the division. If the line is old, however, this length is too 
much for one man. In such a case, a gang of 15 to 20 experienced men is sent 
over the division to put the line in good condition. The railway company 
does all ordinary repair work, and the telegraph company does the recon- 
struction when that becomes necessary. The poles are 100 to 176 ft. apart 
(averaging 132 ft.), and carry both telephone and telegraph wires. They are 
of white cedar in the north and chestnut in the south, with a diameter of about 

* See "Tracklaying"; M., St. P. & S. S. M. Ry.; Chapter 18. 



444 TRACK WORK. 

11 ins. at the ground line. The lowest cross-arm is 15 ft. above the ground, 
or 20 ft. at road crossings. A lightning conductor is placed on every seventh 
pole. The wires are of No. 6 and No. 8 iron, weighing 573 and 378 lbs. per 
mile; and No. 9 copper, weighing 210 lbs. per mile. The repair work is done 
throughout the year. 

For extensive reconstruction it is generally best to have a general foreman 
with a well-organized crew, which can work all through the season. If a small 
force is organized on each division, the work will be nearly done by the time 
the men have become experienced. The gang should be sent out early in the 
spring, when plenty of good men can be obtained. They may be carried in 
a special work train, with boarding and tool cars. In locating the line, care 
should be taken to avoid sharp curves and sharp changes of grade where pos- 
sible, and also to locate it so that snowslides, falls of rock, etc., will not be 
likely to cause damage. If poles have to be set in frozen ground, an iron 
jet pipe connected with the engine by hose may be used. Where heavy storms 
prevail from one direction the line should be built on the leeward or "opposite" 
side of the track, so that if the poles are blown down they will fall away from 
instead of upon the track. The danger to trains from telegraph poles falling 
or being blown down upon the track is especially great with tall poles carrying 
many wires. The poles should be inspected periodically and tested by boring 
(and the condition noted in each case, every pole being numbered). They 
should also be well braced and guyed when showing signs of weakness; they 
should be reset when loose, or renewed when decayed. The section fore- 
men should know which is the division wire, and repair that first when the 
wires are down. Wires that are down should be strung on the fence or got 
out of the way of the track, and prompt report made to the superintendent, 
so that the linemen or repair gang may be notified at once. The section 
foremen should understand the imperative necessity of keeping communi- 
cation open over the wires, and attending promptly to any defect or break- 
age. When the wire is broken, it should be released from one or two poles 
on each side of the break by removing the tie wires on the insulators, the broken 
ends being then united by a screw clamp. A proper joint is made by holding 
the wires lapping each other in the pliers and taking 5 or 6 short turns of each 
end round the other wire. 

The poles are usually spaced 176 ft. apart, or 30 poles to the mile; some- 
times 150 ft. apart, or about 35 to the mile (or 40 on curves). They are mainly 
of chestnut, red or white cedar. Cypress, redwood, spruce, Oregon pine or 
Norway pine are also used, the latter being usually for very high poles. They 
should be of sound wood, with the butt cut above the ground line of the tree; 
reasonably straight, thoroughly seasoned, peeled, and with the knots trimmed 
close. If painted or set in the ground when green, dry rot is sure to set in. 
For single poles, the diameter should be not less than 7 ins., and 20-ft. poles 
should be about 10 ins. diameter at 6 ft. from the butt. The butt is some- 
times charred, or coated with tar to a point above the ground line, or a belt 
of tar is applied at the ground line. Experiments promise good results from 
treating the butts with preservatives in open tanks (see "Ties: Timber Pre- 
servation"). The earth should be well tamped around the poles, but not 
heaped up into a mound at the base, although a small pile of clean gravel or 
broken stone will keep weeds away and protect the pole from fire. Some- 
times the poles are whitewashed. In Europe, the poles are very generally 



BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 445 

treated with creosote, chloride of zinc and other preservatives. Such poles 
last from 25 to 35 years. Creosoted poles are commonly used in English tele- 
graph work, and have been tried in this country, where they have been found 
in perfect condition, even at the butts, after 12 or 15 years' service. They 
are said to be good conductors, and are inflammable; for these reasons as well 
as the expense they are not used extensively for railway telegraph lines in 
this country. Iron poles are sometimes used, but are dangerous, as they are 
grounded conductors and likely to cause accidents to the lines and linemen. 
Concrete poles have been tried to a small extent. 

The poles should be as low as possible, the minimum headway under the 
lowest wire being 12 ft., or 20 to 24 ft. at road crossings. Where sleet storms 
are frequent, double-pole lines may be built, the poles being 6 ft. apart at the 
bottom, meeting at the top, where they are fastened by a J-in. bolt. Two 
5§-in. poles may be used instead of one 7-in. pole. They may be braced at 
intervals, and on curves the outer pole should be anchored. In some cases 
the two poles are vertical, and connected by the cross-arms. Poles on curves 
should be inclined to resist the pull of the wire; and on curves and in exposed 
places where high winds prevail they should be supported by braces or by 
wire guys secured to anchors buried in the ground. The guys are likely to 
cause a leakage of current. Usually, every fifth pole has a wire lightning 
conductor, but on account of leakage of current, experiments were made in 
the way of abandoning these. The results were so unsatisfactory that the 
use of the conductors is still almost universal. 

The cross-arms are usually of pine or spruce, 3X4 ins., painted. Those 
for four wires or less should be secured by two lag screws, JX6 ins., with wash- 
ers. Longer arms have a |-in. bolt and two galvanized iron braces. The 
arms are set in notches or gains in the poles. Wooden insulator pins are 
usually of locust, boiled in paraffin oil, driven into holes in the cross-arms and 
secured by sixpenny galvanized-wire nails. The iron pins are about J-in. 
diameter, with a collar resting on the top of the cross-arm. The lower part 
of the pin is secured by a nut under the arm, and the upper part has a wooden 
sleeve fitting the insulator. The insulators are usually of glass, although 
in Europe porcelain is generally used. The middle pins are usually 22 ins. 
apart, c. to c; the outer ones, 4 ins. from the end of the arm, and intermediate 
pins, 16 ins. c. to c. The wire is usually of No. 9 copper or No. 6 or No. 8 gal- 
vanized iron. The joints should be soldered. The sag for spans of 100 ft. 
and 150 ft. should be about 2 ins. and 4 ins. at zero, increasing 2 ins. for each 
20° of temperature. 

Where electric-light and power-transmission wires cross the railway, pro- 
tection must be provided against broken wires. On the New York Central 
Ry., for voltages under 11,000 the electric wires must be carried underground 
by lead-covered cables in a vitrified-tile conduit 5 ft. below the ties. The 
conduit is embedded in concrete, and has a manhole at each end for the pole 
connection. For voltages over 11,000 the wires may be carried above the 
right-of-way, a cradle of copper wire being hung beneath them. Outside the 
fence on each side is a pole set 6 ft. in the ground, and having a cross-arm not 
less than 4 ft. above the top arm of the telegraph poles. The cross-arm is about 
7 ft. long, parallel with the tracks, and is composed of two sticks, one on each 
side of the pole. At each end is an eyebolt, passing through a spacing sleeve 
between the sticks. Attached to the eyebolts are two No 4 hard-drawn copper 



446 TRACK WORK. 

wires extending across the track, and giving a clearance of at least 24 ft. at, 
the middle. These are connected by No. 8 copper wires, 6 ft. apart, parallel, 
with the rails, and having a sag of not over 6 ins. At the back of each pole, 
behind the cross-arm of the cradle, is a horizontal strut, with wire braces to> 
the ends of the arm, and top and bottom braces to the pole. The cross-arm 
for the electric wires is 18 ins. above that of the cradle. In special cases, a 
steel bridge may be required to carry the transmission wires. 

The following is an abstract of the official instructions issued by the Western 
Union Telegraph Co. in reference to the construction, reconstruction and repair 
of its lines: 

The minimum depth that poles shall be set is 4| ft. for 25-ft. poles, 5J ft. for 
35-ft.; 6 ft. for 40- and 45-ft., 7 ft. for 50- and 55-ft., and 8 ft. for 60-ft. poles. 
Where rock is encountered at 2\ ft. or less, the depth may be 1 ft. less than 
the above for poles 25 to 35 ft. long. In wet or marshy locations, or where 
the ground is likely to be softened by heavy rains, or where the poles are placed 
on slopes, they will be set at such greater depth that there will be no possi- 
bility of their being blown over or lifted by frost. In marshes, the butt of the 
pole may be set between two horizontal timbers (having crosspieces under 
their ends), with diagonal braces to the pole just below the ground line. In 
wet or marshy ground, every sixth pole should have a weather-brace or side- 
guy when there are not more than six wires; up to 16 wires, every third pole; 
over 17 wires, every other pole. 

The tops of the poles must be wedge-shaped, the wedge being parallel 
with the wires. The slant of poles on curves must be gradual, so that the 
strain on the poles will be evenly distributed. All sharp curves and angles 
must be well anchored. Braces may be used for lines with not over 7 wires, 
where there is room and suitable timber is available. Braces must be set a 
uniform distance from the butt of the pole, at least 6 ft. when possible, with 
the top of the brace just below the bottom gain. In marshy ground, the 
brace must be framed with a foot of such area as to prevent its being forced into 
the ground. Anchors in solid ground must be set 4 ft. deep, and 1 ft. to 3 ft. 
in rock. The top of the anchor must project sufficiently for attaching the 
guy wire. The wire should never be fastened to the anchor beneath the ground. 
Office poles should be guyed in such a manner as to keep the strain of the wires 
off the office fixtures and front of building. Anchor wires must have three 
turns around the pole. One standard size guy wire is used for lines with 8 to 
16 wires, one and two extra-heavy guy wires for lines up to 24 wires and 70 
wires respectively. Two-bolt clamps are used for the first, and three-bolt 
clamps for the other two styles of guys. 

Poles at corners and crossings (and the adjacent poles if there are more 
than six wires) must have double arms; and if spaced 30 to 50 per mile an 
intermediate pole must be set in the panels adjacent to the corner or crossing. 
Poles or anchor stubs must not be set less than 7 ft. from the nearest rail. 
When poles are fastened to stump poles, these must be from 8 ft. to 10 ft. 
long for 25-ft. to 35-ft. poles. The stump must be secured to the pole by lag 
bolts in the sloping top, and by wire wrapping at the top and below the ground 
line. To determine the necessity of resetting poles, attach a 1-in. rope to 
the pole at 5 ft. from the top and fasten the other end to the track rail, or some 
other stable object some distance away. If the weight of one or two men 
is then thrown on the rope (steadily to prevent shaking the wires), it will be 
demonstrated whether or not the pole is weak at the ground line. Long poles 
carrying a heavy load of wires will require the weight of two or three men to 
give a sufficient test, but it can be done in this way safely and without dis- 
turbing or crossing the wires. 

Poles must be distributed from cars by using a f-in. rope on the front end 
oi the pole. One end is fastened to the second stake on the rear side of the 
car. The rope will be passed under and over the pole at about one-third from 
the front end, and then around the stake. This end is held by a man who 
lets out the slack while other men roll the pole off by cant hooks. The head 
of the pole will be placed at least 4 ft back, and the other end close to the side 



BRIDGE WORK AND TELEGRAPH WORK. 447 

of the car. Then with the rope on the pole there is no chance for it to get 
away as it is rolled off. Poles 25 to 40 ft. long can be handled safely in this 
manner. Longer poles will be handled with two ropes, and the train stopped 
until the back end of the pole rests on the ground. Three to four stakes must 
be used on the distributing side of the car, and in no case will the middle ones 
be removed, as that puts too much strain on the front stakes, and is dangerous. 
The speed of the train must not exceed six miles per hour. The openings 
between the cars must be covered to prevent men from slipping through to 
the track. Linemen must not distribute poles with less than two men to 
assist, and with only two men the car will be placed behind the caboose. 

Gains for cross-arms must not exceed f-in. in depth in sawed redwood poles, 
nor l|-ins. in round cedar poles 6 ins. or less in diameter at the top. Where 
cross-arm braces are used, the gains should not exceed 1-in. The distance 
from the upper side of the top gain to the extreme top of the pole will be 
8 ins., and the gains must be 2 ft. c. to c. When arms are added to a pole, 
they must be spaced the same as the old arms. Double arms should be used 
on office poles, at corners, at railway or river crossings, and on unusually long 
sections. Cross-arms will be fitted only with sufficient steel pins to accom- 
modate the wires already on the line, or additional wires that are to be placed 
immediately. Two bolts will be used in all arms which are not braced. Braces 
will be used on arms 8 ft. long (or more) and carrying 6 or more wires. In 
new work the arms must be faced alternately in opposite directions, except 
when it is necessary to face them in a certain direction in order to have the 
arms pull against the pole, as where bridle or line guys are used. Cross-arm 
fixtures should be attached to office buildings with bolts passing through the 
wall, or with expansion bolts, instead of being attached to door or window 
casings. Screws must not be used, as they are liable to pull out under a heavy 
strain. When double arms are used, they are secured by bolts through each 
side of the post and a bolt at each end (with wooden blocks between the ends). 

The wire must be tied on the side of the insulator nearest to the pole; on 
curves or corners it may be necessary to place the wire on the opposite side 
so that it will draw against the insulator. The full-sized line wires should be 
carried to the inside of the building from a fixture attached to the wall, equipped 
with standard glass-and-pin insulators. The wires will have an upward direc- 
tion from the insulators, to prevent rain and moisture from following them to 
the wall. Where exposed wires run into the building, they will be covered 
with a sloping roof board of sufficient width to protect them from rain and 
snow, and where they pass through walls and partitions, they must be insulated 
with tubing of sufficient length to go entirely through the wall. At telegraph 
offices located in railway stations, or similar long buildings, the wires must 
enter at the window or other opening nearest the switchboard, and must be 
so strung that they can be plainly seen and easily inspected. All splices must 
be soldered, except on copper wires, for which Mclntyre sleeves will be used. 
All connections between copper and iron wires must be soldered. Wires 
inside buildings must be insulated on porcelain knobs or cleats, and kept as 
far apart and as far from the "ground" as possible. The use of staples for 
attaching office wires is forbidden. Porcelain insulators and knobs must not 
be used outside of buildings, except where covered wire is used. All con- 
nections in main battery wires must be soldered, and the wires insulated. Per- 
manent terminal ground wires must be composed of No. 8 copper wire, soldered 
to the main gas or water pipes. 

Lightning conductors of ordinary line wire will be placed upon poles adjoin- 
ing office poles. Also on every fifth or sixth pole where there are from 1 to 
12 wires and the poles are spaced 30 or 35 per mile respectively; on every 
tenth pole for over 12 wires and 35 to 70 poles per mile. About 10 ft. of this 
wire will be formed into a flat coil and placed under the butt of the pole. 
The other end must be stretched up the pole and fastened by 12 or more wire 
staples. It will be- extended about 7 ins. above the top of the pole and the 
end then turned back and fastened to the pole, making a projection of 3 ins., 
with three turns or twists. On bracket lines, the ground wire must be attached 
to the pole one-quarter of the way around from the bracket, so that if a second 
wire is put on the opposite side, neither of the line wires can touch the ground 
wire if detached from the brackets. On cross-arm lines, the ground wire will 
be attached to the pole on the side opposite to the cross-arm. 



448 TRACK WORK. 

Wires must be kept at a height of not less 'than 25 ft. at railway crossings, 
and 18 ft. at public or private highway crossings. State or railway regula- 
tions must be followed when they conflict with this rule. Where the tele- 
graph wires are crossed by other wires, the poles of the span thus crossed have 
additional cross-arms near the top, carrying two No. 8 guard wires, which are 
attached to strain insulators at the tops of the next adjacent poles. Aerial 
cables must be supported by carrier wires, from which they are suspended 
by a spiral cord or by clips. They must be 30 ft. above railway crossings. 

All poles and anchors will be set before transferring wires. Use a measuring 
wire of the required length to locate the poles the proper distance apart. This 
wire will have a handle on one end, and a foot of chain on the other end to 
keep the wire straight as it is dragged over the ground. It must be examined 
carefully every morning, to see that it has not been lengthened or shortened from 
any cause. When, owing to the nature of the ground or other reason, it 
becomes necessary to vary the distance between poles, the distance will be care- 
fully measured and adjacent sections will be varied sufficiently to compen- 
sate for the change, in order to insure the proper number of poles per mile. 
All holes must be dug to the full regulation depth, and large enough to permit 
the full use of tampers. Poles must be well tamped, with not less than three 
tampers and not more than one shovel in the setting of any pole. After the 
hole is tamped even full, the remaining dirt will be banked up around the pole 
at least 12 ins. high, with a proper slant. If there is not enough loose dirt, 
it will be taken from not more than two places, at least 6 ft. from the pole 
and directly in line with the wires. It must not be taken from either side 
of the pole, as reelmen or climbers might fall into the depressions. 

Hand cars must be used as much as possible in moving hole diggers. One 
man in each digging gang will follow the work to take out the last few inches 
of dirt in each hole and see that it is of a proper depth. When the ground 
will permit, post augers will be used. They are quicker than shovels or spoons, 
and can be used when the hole has reached a depth of 2h ft. The opening 
can be enlarged when necessary by the use of slicks, and the dirt thus removed 
from the sides of the hole can be lifted out quickly by the use of the auger. 

The line will (unless otherwise directed) be located within 4 ft. or 5 ft. of the 
right-of-way fence, thus leaving room for the passage of reel-carriers between 
the fence and the poles. When a pole-pulling machine is used, the machine 
must be placed on a board to give it a bearing, and then set straight up beside 
the pole or stump which is to be pulled. The pole or machine will be held 
straight by a line or temporary brace to prevent binding the pole against the 
side of the hole. The gear of the pole-puller must be well oiled and kept free 
from sand or dirt. The brace will not be removed from a braced pole which 
is reset, but sawed off the required length from the ground so that it will come 
properly into position when the pole is cut off and lowered into the hole. Side 
lines must be employed when poles are to be set in difficult places or on side 
hills or banks. When poles are to be lowered or taken down, two side lines 
will be used, on,e on each side, to prevent the pole from swinging. 



CHAPTER 26.— PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 

The improvement and reconstruction of existing railways has been a con- 
spicuous feature of engineering work for the past few years, and its impor- 
tance is steadily increasing. It represents a distinct class of work, and the 
engineering work of existing railways may be classed as follows: 1, Construc- 
tion of extensions and branches; 2, Maintenance-of-way and structures; 
3, Construction of improvements or betterments. The reconstruction or 
improvement is generally undertaken owing to changed conditions resulting 
from developments in traffic and competition; it is rarely due to defective 
original location or construction. Many lines were originally built in thinly 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 449 

populated districts and with special regard to low cost, rapid construction, 
and light traffic. As these lines become more important, the heavy traffic is 
operated at a disadvantage. Even on lines of heavier construction, the growth 
of traffic and increase in train loads often necessitate the strengthening of 
structures, the provision of additional tracks, or the modification of grades, 
in order to give greater facility and economy of operation. In other cases, 
where a line encounters competition, an improvement in line and grade may 
be desirable for the increased safety and comfort of fast passenger trains, even 
though little may be gained in facility or economy of handling traffic. 

The improvements may include general reconstruction, and also the intro- 
duction of heavier bridges and track to carry heavier engines and train loads. 
They are of varied character, the principal being as follows: 1, Reduction of 
grades and curves; 2, Double tracking, and the provision of additional tracks, 
sidetracks and passing sidings; 3, Shortening distance or avoiding congested 
terminal points (at cities) by direct lines and cut-offs; 4, Increasing yard 
and terminal facilities, for both passenger and freight service; 5, Bridge 
renewals; 6, Widening embankments and cuts; 7, Replacing timber and old 
structures with solid embankments or with new structures of steel or masonry; 
8, Track elevation or depression to eliminate grade crossings; 9, Building 
new stations, shops, water and coaling plants; 10, Installing signals and inter- 
locking plants. Space does not permit of any extended treatment of the sub- 
ject, but bridge work, signaling, drainage, and yards and terminals have been 
discussed in previous chapters. It is easy to estimate the cost of ah improve- 
ment; it is usually difficult to estimate or to determine definitely the reduc- 
tion in operation which it may effect. This matter is dealt with in " Engi- 
neering News," Aug.^31 and Sept. 14, 1905, and April 4, 1907. Its economic 
side is discussed very comprehensively by Mr. J. B. Berry in a paper on the 
improvement work on the Union Pacific Ry., in the Proceedings of the Ameri- 
can Railway Engineering Association, 1904. 

The execution of work of this kind calls for careful and systematic organi- 
zation, and considerable ingenuity in devising methods of working under diffi- 
culties, in order to facilitate the progress of the work, to keep the cost within 
limits, and to avoid interference with traffic. An example of this is afforded 
by a section of track elevation work in Chicago. This consisted simply in 
building retaining walls, putting plate-girder bridges over the streets, and 
filling in with sand or earth. But the piece of line included two double-track 
main lines approaching city terminals, and constantly in use for regular and 
light trains, engines and switching movements. A passenger-car yard, a small 
local freight yard, and spurs to industrial works were involved, while the work 
was complicated by the switch and signal equipment, interlocking plants, 
grade crossings, etc. Accommodation for the passenger and freight cars had 
to be provided farther out, which in turn increased the traffic, as all light or 
empty passenger trains had to be run over the track elevation work. Then 
the main tracks had to be shifted from time to time to allow of building the 
s ide retaining walls and the bridge abutment walls at street crossings. Piles 
also had to be driven in and between the tracks, and temporary trestles erected 
across the streets. Every change of track necessitated changes in frog and 
switch work, in signals, and in all the mechanical and electrical connections. 
In addition to this, plans had to be studied out for delivering and handling 
the construction materials, mixing and depositing concrete, handling and 



450 TRACK WORK. 

placing stone blocks and bridge girders, hauling away the earth excavated 
from foundations, and later on bringing in the rilling. Changes in water and 
gas mains and sewers were also involved. All this must be done so as to give 
the greatest economy, facility and safety for carrying on the work without 
interfering with or endangering the safety of the regular traffic. Practically 
the same conditions obtain in grade reduction, double tracking, etc. Engi- 
neers in charge of work of this kind must possess not only professional skill, 
but also executive ability, readiness to meet emergencies, and familiarity with 
operating conditions. It is generally recognized that the railway should have 
one man in responsible control of both construction and traffic for the entire 
work, whether it is done entirely or in part by railway or contract forces. 

In reconstruction work on the open line, such as double- tracking or realine- 
ment, which will interfere with existing tracks, it is a difficult problem to avoid 
either hampering the contractor or interfering with the traffic. In some con- 
tracts a penalty is provided for delaying trains, but this is rarely satisfactory. 
In some work on the Lehigh Valley Ry., the penalty was for delays exceeding 
5 or 10 minutes (for different classes of trains), thus allowing the contractor 
sufficient time to get clear of the tracks. In double-tracking the busy line 
of the Union Pacific Ry. between Kansas City and Topeka, the work was so 
complicated that it was found impossible to apply a satisfactory penalty provi- 
sion, as the contractors would have raised their prices considerably to meet 
the conditions. The plan adopted, after conference between the engineers 
and contractors, was to put a flagman at the steam shovel and one at each 
end of the section of work. These men governed train movements by hand 
signals and the plan proved entirely satisfactory to the engineers, the trans- 
portation department and the contractors. The men worked under the rail- 
way company's orders, and their wages were paid by the contractor. A 
similar plan was employed in realinement and grade reduction where the 
new and old lines crossed six times in 11 miles, at the same or different 
grades. 

In many cases of this kind, the handling of both regular trains and work 
trains may be greatly facilitated by establishing a telegraph office or block- 
signal tower at the work, the operator having telephone or other communica- 
tion with the men at the switches at each end of the section. According to 
the extent of the work and the traffic, the operation may be under the con- 
trol of the transportation department of the division, or the section on which 
work is being done may be operated as an independent division having its 
own dispatcher and trainmaster. In some work on the Grand Trunk Ry., in 
Michigan, there were three telegraph offices in about 2\ miles. At each of 
these was a semaphore, and all work trains were under the protection of the 
semaphores, regardless of orders. These trains were in no way handled by 
dispatchers. The operator at the center tower instructed the office east and 
west of him when to block trains. For example, when a train of material 
left the steam shovel to go west, the operator at the center tower notified the 
one at the west tower, and the work train moved in this block section 
regardless of all trains. With three crews, 300 cars could be taken from 
the shovel and unloaded on main line without interfering with the traffic, 
which averaged in working hours about 8 to 12 trains each way per day. 

In planning the improvement, the aim should be to secure the easiest grades 
and curves economically adapted to the physical conditions and the prospective 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 451 

traffic conditions. The location should be finally determined before com- 
mencing construction work. In arranging for the execution of the work, it 
is important for the man in responsible charge of the entire work to plan a 
general system of procedure. The relative position and order of the steam- 
shovel cuts, the position of loading tracks, the methods of controlling trains, 
and all features of the work should be determined in advance, and the plan 
followed out. In the constant shifting of tracks at least one running track 
should be kept open, and not disconnected until some other track is connected 
up. The arrangement and connections of tracks must be carefully planned, 
and it may require a large gang of men to shift the tracks and make or cut 
connections as required. . Ballasting and track work are best done by the rail- 
way, the contractor completing the line to subgrade. It is desirable to have 
an entire separation of tracks for regular trains and work trains, but this is 
not generally practicable. In a report of the American Railway Engineering 
Association (1908), it is stated that when the excavation and embankment 
are w T ithin moderate reach of each other, it is best to provide separate tracks 
for the work trains. If they are so far apart that miles of track must be used 
jointly, then separate tracks should be laid for the terminals of the work. In 
some cases an entirely new line may be located along the old one, or a tem- 
porary roadway may be built to carry the traffic clear of interference with the 
work. This is specially the case for work on single-track roads. The impor- 
tance of the traffic will determine the expense which will be justified in pro- 
viding a temporary running track, and in some cases it is practicable to shift 
the alinement and put the temporary line far enough away to permit of the 
reconstruction on the original line without interfering with the regular traffic. 

Some notes on the principal classes of improvement works are given below. 
Minor improvements of the same character, but on a smaller scale, may be 
carried out by the maintenance-of-way department. Such work may include 
the following: (1) Filling sags and flattening summits (due to settlement of 
earthwork or bad arrangement of grades); (2) Slight but general changes of 
curvature throughout the length of a railway or a division; (3) Widening banks; 
(4) Extending passing sidings. Such improvements may be undertaken on 
general principles (if the result will warrant the outlay), or to put the road 
in better condition to meet competition. 

Improvements in 'Alinement and Grades. — Many railways have undertaken 
extensive realinement to effect a saving in distance and curvature, the latter 
being particularly important on high-speed passenger lines. The work is prac- 
tically similar to new construction, but care must be taken to properly con- 
nect the old and new work where the two locations cross or meet, and to effect 
the changes in track without interfering with the traffic. Grade reduction has 
also been carried out very extensively, in order to enable heavier trains to be 
hauled, or to enable trains of maximum load to run through without being 
divided or assisted by pusher engines. In most cases the alinement has been 
improved at the same time. The work usually combines the cutting down of 
summits and the raising of sags, and involves considerable difficulties in carry- 
ing on the work rapidly and economically without undue interference with 
traffic. The Wabash Ry. a few years ago completed improvements on its 
line between Chicago and St. Louis by which the ruling grade was reduced 
from 1% or 1.15% to 0.4%, and 390° of curvature (2£ miles of curved line) 
were eliminated. In another case the reduction of grades from 1% to 0.6%, 



452 TRACK WORK. 

and the reduction of all curves over 3°, enabled engines to haul 1,500 tons 
instead of 1,000 tons, and with practically the same fuel consumption. 

The Columbia River line of the Oregon Ry. & Navigation Co. was built 
to follow closely a supported grade along the river, involving numerous 
curves, but resulting in rapid and comparatively cheap construction. Traffic 
development has led to the improvement of this line, and the work consists 
largely of straightening. This is done mainly by building straight across 
between the projecting points, avoiding the numerous inward curves to follow 
the foot of the hill and also avoiding the curves around the extremities of the 
points. Between Troutdale and Bonneville, 18 miles, a saving of 950 ft. in 
distance was effected, the summit was lowered 25^ ft., the maximum grade 
was reduced from 1% to 0.35%, and the sharpest curves are 3° instead of 10°. 
The striking feature is that 1,455° of curvature are eliminated, and in one 
place a tangent eliminates eight curves. The work on this line and on the 
Chicago Division of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Ry. is 
described in " Engineering News," May 16, 1907. The Norfolk & Western Ry. 
in improving its line, to facilitate freight traffic and to allow of safely increas- 
ing the speed of passenger trains, reduced its 8° and 12° curves to 6°. 

Double-Tracking and Additional Tracks. — The double-tracking of main 
lines is a most important improvement, increasing the traffic capacity and 
relieving congestion which causes continual trouble and delay ("Engineering 
News," Sept. 14, 1905; April 4 and Aug. 29, 1907). A double- track line has 
a much greater capacity than two independent single-track lines, and has a 
higher degree of safety, as there are no opposing trains to be considered, and 
the number of facing switches can be reduced to a minimum. On single-track 
lines of heavy traffic, the trains may spend a considerable proportion of their 
time on sidetracks, waiting for opposing trains, which latter may often be late 
and so increase the delay. With a double-track line, the only road delays 
would be those due to taking the sidetrack in order to allow superior trains to 
pass in the same direction. Thus a smaller number of engines might be able 
to handle a much greater amount of traffic, and with greater promptness and 
economy. Not 10% of the total mileage of the railway system is yet double- 
tracked. While only the lines carrying heavy traffic require double-tracking, 
it may be reasonably estimated that the proportion should be 20 to 25%, so that 
there is a decided deficiency even on lines of this class. This means that in 
many cases a "double-track traffic" is handled on a single-track line. As a rule 
the work consists in widening banks and cuts for a parallel track, but in many 
cases the opportunity is taken to improve the alinement and profile at the same 
time. A new double-track cut-off may replace an old piece of less favorable 
single-track line, or the second track may be built in part (for topographic or 
operating conditions) on a different location (" Engineering News," Nov. 21, 
1907). On some busy lines, especially near large cities and where suburban 
traffic is heavy, four or six main tracks may be necessary. Somewhat similar 
work is the construction of long passing sidings or relief tracks to facilitate 
movements on single-track or double-track railways. Near large terminals, 
separate tracks may be built to the yards, thus relieving the main tracks. For 
three miles out of Omaha the Union Pacific Ry. has two tracks for through 
passenger and freight trains, and two for trains going to and from the yards. 

Enlarging Cuts and Banks. — This work will be included in most of the 
improvements noted. In widening shallow cuts, scrapers may be employed. 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 453 

AVhere cuts must be widened and deepened, the main track is very generally- 
used for the work trains, if the traffic is not heavy. The steam shovel widens 
one side and cuts to the new grade. A running track may then be laid in the 
new cut, while the shovel makes a second cut on the other side, the old track 
still serving for work trains. A third cut takes out the old roadbed and fin- 
ishes the work to the new grade. With deep cuts, the upper part must be 
widened before the lowering to the new grade is done. In widening and deep- 
ening cuts, special attention should be given to the drainage, and tile drains 
are generally laid. Such drains may also be laid at the toe of new embank- 
ments to drain the ground. In building banks with wet or soft material and 
in wet weather, careful watch should be kept for slips and settlement, and 
trains should not be allowed to run at high speed over such banks. 

New banks, or the widening of old banks, may be built by dumping from 
cars on a temporary track, and jacking up the track by successive lifts. This 
is mainly for banks of not over 5 ft., and is rarely done in widening except 
where the traffic is so heavy that main tracks cannot be occupied. For higher 
banks, temporary trestles are generally built. In double-tracking, the new 
part of the bank may be built to the new grade, and a running track built upon 
it, the old track being then abandoned and the bank raised. For high banks 
it is a good plan to put aprons on the sides of the cars and of the trestle so 
as to throw the material to a distance. In this way the material will fall 
towards the sides of the bank and roll back to the center, making it much 
more solid than if the material is dumped in a single center ridge. The Chicago 
& Northwestern Ry. has built some very large and high banks from two par- 
allel trestles 80 ft. apart, with traveling aprons on tracks below the top. Half 
of each apron was twice as long as the other, so that the bank was built up 
in the form of eight ridges, making the completed bank very solid. In some 
cases scrapers are used to spread and level the material as it is deposited (see 
"Filling Trestles"). In widening old banks, the ground should be cleared, as 
in new work, and a trench cut to give a footing to the new slope. The face of 
the old bank should be stripped of grass and weeds, and stepped or benched 
so that the finished bank will be homogeneous. If the material is simply 
dumped over an old and compacted slope, it will be liable to continual sliding, 
owing to lack of bond with the old material. After heavy rains, long cracks 
will appear at the top and large masses of the new material will break away 
from the shoulder. The material can be distributed by dumping or plowing 
from cars, and leveled by a spreader car. Methods and equipment to be used 
in work of this kind are discussed in "Engineering News," Aug. 9, 1906; Jan. 
17, April 11, and Aug. 29, 1907; and the Proceedings of the American Railway 
Engineering Association, 1907. Methods and examples may be studied with 
profit, but each piece of work presents its own problems and features, and 
the best solution must be arrived at by the co-operation and consultation of 
the engineer and the contractor. 

Filling Trestles. — A class of work which is in constant progress on many rail- 
ways is the replacing of timber trestles with solid banks, providing pipe or 
masonry culverts for the necessary waterway. The great extent to which 
timber trestling has been adopted in this country is one of the principal fac- 
tors in the economy and rapidity of construction which have been character- 
istic of American railway work. The use of such temporary structures has 
been justified by the necessity of keeping the first cost of the railway as low 



454 TRACK WORK. 

as possible, and by the importance of enabling the line to carry traffic as soon 
as possible. While well-built trestles are safe and substantial structures, their 
life is limited, the cost of suitable timber is increasing, and the cost of main- 
tenance and repair is considerable. They are also liable to damage or destruc- 
tion by fire and flood, and are an element of danger in case of derailment 
(except where a ballasted floor is used). In case of flood, it is very dangerous 
to run trains over a trestle, and it is very difficult to determine its condition. 
Trestles over waterways liable to floods should therefore be replaced with 
permanent structures. In almost every case it will be wise economy to pro- 
vide for gradually replacing all trestles with solid embankments, which will 
ordinarily require no inspection or maintenance. Material excavated in mak- 
ing other improvements may be utilized for this purpose. The cost of such 
work is described in the Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering 
Association for 1907. 

Earth, gravel and clay are generally used for filling. Soft or wet clay is 
to be avoided, as it will slip and settle for many years, and the maintenance of 
the bank may be more expensive than that of the trestle. Furnace slag and 
the refuse from coal mines are sometimes available. The material is some- 
times put in by scrapers; but generally it is shoveled, dumped or plowed 
from cars. 'Aprons may be used to throw the material to each side (as noted 
in regard to widening banks). In this way as the bank becomes higher and 
the pressure greater, the earth rolling back towards the center will cause less 
damage to the structure than when dumped close to it. Care must be taken 
that the posts do not spread under the lateral pressure. If there are boulders 
in the material, an open plank screen (like a picket fence), inclined downwards 
from the edge of the trestle, will cause all such large material to fall clear of 
the trestle bents and form the toe of the bank. In a few cases, a temporary 
track for the gravel trains has been built on each side of the trestle. In filling 
some high trestles on the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., the material plowed 
from trains was leveled and spread over the entire width by drag scrapers 
and teams, slope stakes being set as the work was carried up. In this way 
the bank was built in horizontal layers. The cost was little more than that 
of letting the material form ridges in the usual way, and there was no expense 
for subsequent maintenance work. Other banks built in the ordinary way, 
and with the same material, slipped and settled considerably; these required 
additional material to bring them to grade. 

A long trestle deficient in longitudinal bracing should not be filled from 
the ends or from one end, as the pressure may result in the injury or collapse 
of the trestle. Temporary sash braces may be put on, and removed as the 
filling rises. The filling must be carried on uniformly along the entire length, 
thus maintaining a practically horizontal surface for the bank and preventing 
the straining of the structure. On such a trestle, care must be taken not to 
impose severe longitudinal strains by too free a use of the air brakes on the 
gravel trains. If the earth or gravel is to be plowed off the cars in the usual 
way, the strength of the trestle is an important consideration in regard to the 
resistance to the racking strains, and to the lateral strains if a side plow is 
used, especially if the material is stiff and the cars are chained to the track. 
A plow being hauled over a car and suddenly striking a boulder or other 
obstruction may throw very severe strains upon a trestle. This is more particu- 
larly the case where the trestle is on a curve. The strains may be consider- 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 455 

ably reduced by using a plow operated by a winding engine on the front car. 
(See "Ballasting.") To facilitate the work and to avoid the difficulties (and 
the dangers to the men) of operating ordinary dump cars on trestles, dump 
cars operated by compressed air are extensively used. The operating cylin- 
ders are connected to a train pipe and are controlled from the cab of the loco- 
motive. 

The trestle bents must, of course, remain in place, but while the work is 
in progress, the bracing and horizontal timbers should be removed as far as 
possible, so that the filling may be homogeneous and any settlement or shift- 
ing of the structure will not affect the embankment as a whole. If the work 
is done in the autumn, the ties, stringers and floor system may be left in during 
the winter, and removed in the following spring, the bank being then filled to 
grade. On some roads the caps are removed also. 

On soft ground and steep slopes, the work of filling calls for careful investi- 
gation, and in marshy ground an enormous amount of material and work may 
be required to obtain a permanent bank. In extensive work of this kind on 
the Canadian Pacific Ry., the soft ground was practically unfathomable, and 
swallowed up all of the filling. The successful expedient was adopted of using 
light sawdust instead of heavy gravel. In other cases the soft material rested 
upon a sloping rock bed, down which the bank would slide. The alinement 
was sometimes changed to avoid the most troublesome and dangerous places, 
and it was sometimes possible to get a better location on firm ground than the 
original location on treacherous ground. But as a rule the difficulties were 
steadily fought until overcome. Another expedient is to cover the ground 
with a floor or mattress of logs. Such worl£ should not be commenced until 
careful soundings and investigation have been made as to the character of 
ground, depth and slope of hard bottom, etc., and a proper plan then devised 
in accordance with the conditions to be met. Otherwise the result may be the 
loss of money, time and material, or perhaps the distortion (or even wrecking) 
of a structure and a costly interruption to traffic. The dumping of material 
in a swampy bottom or a sinkhole may develop unexpected upheavals in a 
more or less distant part, which may lead to damage suits or involve the com- 
pulsory purchase of land. 

Hydraulic filling may be employed where water is obtainable under con- 
siderable head, usually about 200 ft. The water in 3-in. or 4-in. jets breaks 
away the material, the water and earth being then carried to the trestle by 
a flume. The flow is directed to any desired point by troughs, and stop planks 
may be used to hold the material while the water drains and flows away. To 
check the flow and increase the deposit, a line of old ties or a 6-in. to 12-in. 
dam of marsh grass (faced on the inside with earth) is placed along the edge 
of the bank. This forms a pool, the material settling, and the water flowing 
quietly over the bank. This is renewed on the slope as the pool fills. The 
ties and grass protect the slope, while the latter grows and eventually forms 
a sod. The progress is usually slow, but the bank thus made is very solid and 
stable The filling is carried up to within 4 ft. of subgrade, the bank being 
then finished by work trains. This method has been used for filling trestles 
on the Canadian Pacific Ry. and the Northern Pacific Ry., and for building 
banks on the Pacific extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Ry. 

Low-Grade Tunnel Lines Replacing High-Grade Summits. — In several 
cases railways have been carried over mountain ranges by summit lines, for 



456 TRACK WORK. 

economy in first cost and for promptness in completing the road. Increase 
in train loads and traffic, high cost of operating steep grades, and sometimes 
difficulties from snow, have in some of these cases led to the construction of 
a cut-off and tunnel, at a lower elevation. The Northern Pacific Ry. crossed 
the Cascade Range in 1887 by a switchback line 7 miles long with grades of 
5.6%, compensated 0.04% per degree, and having tail tracks of 0.2%, 400 
to 500 ft. long. The summit elevation was 3,675 ft. The Stampede tunnel 
line reduced the distance to 3 miles, the grade to 2.2% and the elevation to 
2,827 ft. The Great Northern Ry. crossed the same range by a switchback 
line 12 miles long, with grades of 3| and 4% (compensated 0.04%), and 12° 
curves. The summit elevation was 4,055 ft. The Cascade tunnel reduced 
the distance to 3h miles, the grade to 1.74 and 2.2%, and the elevation to 
3,350 ft. On the Colorado Midland Ry., the Busk tunnel saves 7 miles in 
distance, 530 ft. of elevation and 2,000° of curvature, as compared with the 
summit line (which has no switchbacks). The Zigzag tunnel line on the New 
York, Ontario & Western Ry., about 1 mile long, replaced a switchback line 
with four inclines, about 3 miles long, and saved about $30,000 per annum 
(formerly expended in helping trains over the summit), or more than thrice 
the interest on the cost of the tunnel. The incline grades were 1.98% for 
scuthbound trains, and 1.8% for northbound trains, while on the tunnel line 
they are 1.25 and 0.75% respectively. (See "Switchbacks.") 

In this connection reference may be made to the two lines between Salt 
Lake and San Francisco: (1) The Central Pacific Ry., built as a link in the 
first transcontinental railway and with the one main object of effecting the 
communication at a minimum expenditure of time and money, at a time when 
the traffic prospects were very limited; (2) The Western Pacific Ry. (1906- 
08), built with a view to economical operation of important traffic. The first 
is 780 miles long from Ogden (820 from Salt Lake), and has a long stretch 
above the snow line, with some 40 miles of snowsheds; its maximum grades 
are 2% and 2.2% at the summit and 1.35% to 1.5% elsewhere. The latter is 
930 miles long, with no snowsheds, maximum grades of 1%, and a summit 
elevation (5,000 ft.) nearly 2,000 ft. lower than that of the older line. On the 
other hand, it has numerous tunnels and other heavy works, the cost of which 
is considered to be well warranted by the improved operating conditions. A 
suggestion has been made for the Central Pacific Ry. to meet the competi- 
tion by building a tunnel of great length and cost to obtain a summit eleva- 
tion even lower than that of the new line. As an alternative, electric traction 
on the heavy-grade sections has been suggested. Submarine tunnels to eliminate 
ferry transfers for trains have been built at New York, Port Huron and Detroit. 

Track Elevation. — In many cases railways were originally built through 
cities and towns on the street level, but with the growth of railway and street 
traffic the dangers and inconveniences due to the numerous grade crossings 
have led to the elevation (or sometimes the depression) of the tracks. This 
work is very expensive, but it gives the railway an uninterrupted right-of-way, 
and avoids the expenses incident to crossing gates, watchmen, liability for 
damages, etc. In many cases the streets are lowered so as to reduce the 
height of elevation, and the work involves the renewal or removal of water 
and gas mains, sewers, street railways, etc., and the repaving of streets. The 
work is of a special character, and calls for careful planning and organization 
in order to avoid excessive cost and time in execution, to avoid accidents 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 457 

and to prevent interference with either railway or street traffic. In the exten- 
sive work at Chicago different methods have been employed. On the Chi- 
cago & Northwestern Ry., derrick cars drove piles for longitudinal retaining 
walls and transverse abutment walls; the trenches for the foundations of 
the latter were sometimes spanned temporarily by longitudinal timbers under 
the rails. On the concrete foundation of the former a track was laid for a 
derrick car handling the stone blocks. The track next to the wall (No. 1) was 
given up to work trains. Where the wall was of concrete, work trains with 
supply cars and concrete mixers were stationed on this track. The concrete 
w r as deposited by a drop-bottom bucket handled by a derrick car in front of 
the concrete-mixer car. The streets were crossed by pile trestles, built for 
one or two tracks at a time. As each street was bridged, the approaches for 
track No. 1 were raised by sand from work trains; these then ran upon the 
track to continue the filling. The grades were as steep as 5% for the work 
trains, and 2% for the passenger trains. When track No. 1 was completed, 
the piles for track No. 3 were driven; track No. 2 was abandoned (the ties 
and rails tilted upon end), and the bank of track No. 1 widened by dumping 
sand from trains on this track. Tne old No. 2 track (with joints cut) was then 
pulled up by derrick cars and laifl as elevated track No. 2. This then became 
the work track, and track No. 1 was turned over to the transportation depart- 
ment. The other tracks were raised in succession in the same way. The abut- 
ment walls were then built between the rows of piles, and the girders and floors 
of bridges were set in place on one track at a time, this track being used for 
traffic as soon as the work was completed. The sand was brought in by trains 
of 30 to 40 cars of 40 tons capacity (average load 33 cu. yds.); these were 
broken up into sections of 6 to 12 cars, which were backed onto the work track 
and unloaded by shoveling. 

The work of the Pennsylvania Lines in Chicago was done in a generally simi- 
lar way. The trestles for track No. 1 (against the wall) were built to half 
height, temporarily blocking one or two streets at a time. Sand was then 
filled in as high as possible from trains on No. 2 (on the old level), and No. 1 
was relaid on the bank (at half height). The trestles for No. 2 and No. 3 were 
built to full height. Sand was unloaded from No. 1 and this track jacked up 
and raised gradually, extra caps being put on the trestles as the work pro- 
gressed. The bank was then widened from the side by trains on No. 1, but 
to avoid covering the low-level running tracks on narrow right-of-way, crib- 
bing of old ties was built parallel with these tracks to act as temporary retain- 
ing walls for the filling. ("Engineering News," January 11 and February 
22, 1900; March 9 and September 7, 1905; July 5, 1906.) Some railways 
do nearly all the work by their own forces. Others have more or less of the 
work done by contract. The American Railway Engineering Association 
recommends that the railway should do all work which may interfere with 
operation. It also recommends that there should be a superintendent of 
construction in complete charge. To him should report the engineers hav- 
ing charge of the contract work, lines and grades, masonry and bridges, the 
roadmaster in charge of earthwork and track work, the yardmaster in charge 
of engines and switching, and the trainmaster (with a dispatcher) in charge 
of the operation of traffic over the territory covered by the work. 

Resurveys. — A different class of work is the entire resurvey of a railway 
line to check its maps, profiles, monuments, land boundaries, etc. This is 



458 TRACK WORK. 

often an economic necessity for the purposes of the engineering, right-of-way 
and legal departments. In many cases, maps and records are incomplete, 
especially as to changes in location made during construction (which may 
affect the property lines, and the position of mile posts), and as to subsequent 
additions and changes in yards and sidetracks, right-of-way, etc. This work, 
as carried out on 600 miles of railway, has been fully described by Mr. Hosea 
Paul in a pamphlet on "Railway Surveys and Resurveys." In 1896 Mr. George 
D. Snyder presented to the American Society of Civil Engineers a paper on 
"The Resurvey of the Williamsport Division of the Philadelphia & Reading 
Ry."; and the subject was discussed in "Engineering News,'' April 14, 1904. 

Construction and Work Trains. 

The permanent improvements noted above, and the general improvements 
which are continually being carried out by the main tenance-of- way department 
involve the extensive use of construction or work trains. These must be 
handled promptly and efficiently in order to combine proper service and a 
minimum interference with regular traffic. Some particulars of their work 
have been given above and in Chapter 18. The operation of these trains has 
been a very weak point in railway service, and in spite of rules and regula- 
tions they are not unfrequently an expensive feature (owing to the small 
amount of work accomplished in a day), and a menace to the safety of traffic 
and the working gangs. The work train is often regarded by dispatchers and 
train crews as a sort of necessary nuisance, to be kept out of the way as much 
as possible. Even superintendents have this idea sometimes, but under the 
division system the superintendent (being in charge of both the roadway and 
the transportation departments) will better realize the importance of the train 
and provide for its efficient operation. When the work train is sidetracked to 
wait for belated trains; the pay of the gang of perhaps 25 to 50 men goes on, 
but without any return; and perhaps a steam shovel will be held up for lack 
of cars. On large pieces of reconstruction work, these conditions are not 
likely to exist, due to the special organization of work and the better equip- 
ment of the trains. They are more likely to exist in the handling of the ordi- 
nary work train (which is often made up of second-rate engines and equip- 
ment), engaged in distributing ballast or ties, filling trestles, cleaning ditches, 
etc. The delays may often be remedied if the dispatcher is given to under- 
stand that the work train is an important and expensive item in the mainte- 
nance account and should be operated and protected in such a way as to enable 
it to work the maximum time without interfering with or endangering traffic. 
The equipment should be such that the train can be safely run as a section 
of a passenger train. On the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry., the trains 
have sometimes a telephone outfit for communication with the telegraph oper- 
ators at stations. 

A work train is usually given train orders authorizing it to occupy a speci- 
fied portion of the track as an extra, and no other irregular train should then 
be authorized to pass over that portion of the track without provision for 
passing the work train. If it is anticipated that a work train may be where 
it cannot be reached for meeting or passing orders, it may be directed to report 
for orders at a given time and place. Work trains occupying the main track 
on a line operated under the manual-block system, must inform the signalman 
at the entering end of the block (or at both ends on single track), and leave 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 459 

a flagman at the tower. Regular trains will then be stopped, and allowed to 
proceed with a "caution" card. Where work is in progress at some distance 
from a station, a temporary telegraph station or bell-code station may be 
established at the gravel pit, and the men in charge of the train kept informed 
as to train movements. The roadmaster or other officer in charge should see 
that the gravel trains are unloaded as quickly as possible, the rails properly 
cleared, and ballast or filling leveled off so as not to strike car steps, brake 
beams, etc. The train should be sent back or got out of the way promptly 
when unloaded. It is generally advisable to keep one train of cars in the pit, 
while the other is out on the track. In distributing rails, ties, etc., the road- 
master should designate points for unloading, so as to avoid rehandling of the 
material. The handling of work trains in connection with general improve- 
ment work and bridge renewals has already been noted. 

The foreman of the construction gang should act as conductor of the train 
and share with the engineman the responsibility of its safety. A conductor 
who has nothing to do with the work is more likely to hinder tha^ to help. 
The foreman acting as conductor gets a knowledge of the train service which 
enables him to arrange his work to better advantage, and to do the smaller 
items of work (which consume so much of the train's time) between the time 
of certain trains. He must be an expert foreman, qualified in all branches of 
track work. He should have an assistant foreman and a timekeeper if his 
force is large. He is responsible for seeing that the cars are in good running 
order, and must make reports of all track material delivered, work done, and 
delays experienced. Work-train reports are discussed under "Reports." 

The conductor and dispatcher should work in harmony. The former will 
notify the dispatchers to the location of his work, the time it will probably 
require, and his movements when the work is finished. The dispatcher will 
inform the conductor as to expected movements of trains, especially of 
expected extras, so that he can report at a telegraph station in time for orders. 
It often happens that the work train is tied up by signals on regular trains to 
enable the dispatcher to run other trains as sections of the first, when they 
could be run as extras. The limits of the work train should be as short as 
possible, as the dispatcher can handle it better. Where the track is crooked 
and traffic is heavy, the work trains should not be allowed to work under flag 
on the time of freight trains. A work-train conductor working on limits 
should not run past telegraph stations on the way to sidings without ascer- 
taining the times of regular trains and whether the dispatcher can assist in 
any way. On the other hand, dispatchers should be held strictly accountable 
for delays to work trains. 

On the Lehigh Valley Ry., the work- train crews are in the roadway depart- 
ment, and each crew consists of an engineman, fireman and one to two brake- 
men. These men are selected with great care and are considered experts. 
As the work train is important (from being in the way of all extra trains), and 
as the traffic is very great, the best men are necessary for the most effective 
working. There is also a man who acts as conductor and foreman, being 
selected from the roadway force of the division. He is qualified to do all 
kinds of construction and repair work in the roadway department, and is 
required to pass the regular conductor's examination. There is also an assist- 
ant foreman, and with more than 40 men a timekeeper is assigned to the gang. 
The work formerly done by floating gangs is now done by the work-train gang, 



460 TRACK WORK. 

which is an improvement, as the material for the floating gang was handled 
by the work train, and this train was often put to a disadvantage in taking 
that gang to and from work. Work-train extras are assigned working limits 
by special telegraph orders, in accordance with the standard code. They are 
required to clear first and second-class- trains by 10 minutes. Most of the 
freight trains are run as extras, and in such cases the work train works until 
overtaken, being protected by a flagman. When schedule trains are late, the 
work train is given time on the delayed train, the same as any other extra. 
The work-train gang may assist the track gangs at times, as in reballasting 
when waiting between trains. On the Wisconsin Central Ry., the work trains 
are operated under the transportation department, acting under the direction 
of the roadway department. They receive working orders giving the right 
to occupy the main line until the arrival of freight and extra trains, but clear- 
ing the line of all first-class trains. They are given time when trains are late, 
allowing them to occupy the main track as long as possible. They are gen- 
erally required to protect themselves against extra trains, when notified of 
these by orders. In some cases extra trains must look out for work trains. 
A telegraph operator is stationed at gravel pits, grade reduction work, etc., 
to facilitate the movements of traffic and work trains. 

On the St. Louis & San Francisco Ry., the trains are under the transporta- 
tion department, with separate conductors. The roadmaster may arrange with 
the conductor to do certain work, without the necessity of furnishing a fore- 
man, but the conductor is not held responsible for acting as foreman. Wnen 
working on main track, as in ditching or distributing material, they are given 
orders to work within certain limits as to distance and time, with flagmen put 
out in any case. They must protect themselves against scheduled trains, and 
either work trains or extra trains may be required to look out for the others. 
They are given advantage of time when regular trains are late (or are run in 
sections), if the dispatcher can deliver the necessary orders to the work train. 
On extensive or important work, and where the traffic is heavy, a telegraph 
operator is established at a convenient point so as to give the work train all 
time possible for actual work and to facilitate the movements of regular traffic. 

On the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., the work trains are operated by the 
transportation department, except that on new work (such as track elevation) 
they are operated by the engineering department. The duties of foreman and 
conductor are separate, except that in some special cases the conductor acts 
as foreman in a gravel pit where the forces are light. The trains are governed 
by telegraph train orders, issued each day, and confined to as short a territory 
as the work will permit. They must clear the time of scheduled trains, and 
protect themselves in both directions at all times, when not moving from point 
to point. Extra trains are not permitted to move in the territory occupied 
by work trains except by positive meeting orders between them. When sched- 
uled trains are late, work trains are given the benefit of the time as far as pos- 
sible. No distinction is made between districts controlled by manual or auto- 
matic block system and districts not so controlled. On double-track districts 
where work is extensive, the work trains are sometimes given exclusive use of 
one of the tracks. In extensive work, such as track elevation, the territory is 
put under the charge of special train dispatchers. By means of crossovers, 
trains are moved by special orders, manual and automatic signals. Where a 
number of work trains or gravel trains are working in and out of a gravel pit, 



PERMANENT IMPROVEMENTS. 461 

it is the practice to establish an operator at the gravel pit; also at special points 
where work is being done, in order to facilitate both the movement of' regular 
traffic and work trains. 

Camp and Boarding Trains. — The maintenance-of-way equipment often 
includes boarding trains for extra gangs, construction gangs and bridge gangs. 
On the Southern Pacific Ry., the roadmasters have full charge of all track- 
construction trains; they must lay out their work for them and inspect the 
boarding and sleeping accommodations. Camp, boarding and other cars 
used in maintenance-of-way service should be in good condition, well painted, 
and kept clean and neat. When such cars or trains are to be stationed at one 
point for any time they are set out on sidetracks, which should be surfaced 
so that the cars will stand level. The ground around the trains must be kept 
neat and in condition as at buildings and yards. The cars are usually old 
box cars, but the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. has used special cars 50 
ft. long. The bunk or sleeping cars have six berths (upper and lower) on 
each side, accommodating 24 men; the berths are 6| ft. long inside. At the 
middle of the car is a 10-ft. space with side doors, stove, seats, coal bunker 
and water barrel. The foreman's car is similar, but with only four bunks on 
each side, and the same central space. The end of the car is partitioned off, 
and has a stove, table, and upper and lower berths for the foreman and assist- 
ant foreman. One car has half its length devoted to the kitchen. Along the 
middle of the other end is a table 16X3 ft., with side benches; in the corners 
are upper berths for the cooks. The dining car has two tables 21X3 ft. 



CHAPTER 27.— HANDLING AND CLEARING SNOW. 

Many railways encounter difficulties in dealing with snow, and keeping 
the road open during the winter. If a road is carried on an embankment, 
even a low one, the snow will drift up on the windward side until it is level 
with the track, and will then blow over and form a drift on the other side, 
so that it is not difficult to keep the track clear. For this reason, even prairie 
lines should not be built on the surface level, but should be raised on embank- 
ments. Cuts will soon fill if the wind is blowing across them, unless snow 
fences are built (Chapter 8). In deep cuts there will be trouble in getting rid 
of the snow, and all cuts may be made less troublesome by widening them and 
flattening the slopes. In sidehill work, the drifts against the bank are likely 
to be dangerous, especially if the toe is about even with the outer rail, as the 
side pressure on the plow may cause derailment. Drifts and slides contain- 
ing earth or sand are very heavy and dangerous. Steady falls of light soft 
snow at a mild temperature are the easiest to deal with if the road has proper 
equipment, but if the temperature is very low the snow may settle and freeze 
into a mass, or if the wind is high it may be packed very hard in the drifts. 
Hard dry snow, whether drifting or packed, is apt to be troublesome by fill- 
ing up against the rail heads, increasing the liability of the engine wheels to 
slip and even causing derailment unless flangers are promptly used. The same 
trouble, but of greater extent, results from partial thaw followed by freezing, 
which causes the formation of solid ice on the roadbed. The worst drifts are 
formed by heavy falls of dry, hard snow which will form drifts in every place 



462 



TRACK WORK. 



affording a lee side. Where the wind blows through a cut the snow will not 
drift, and in fact a change of wind may clear a cut in which the snow is not 
packed hard. The weight of snow varies from 12 to 25 lbs. per cu. ft., accord- 
ing to its condition, while the heavy masses in snowslides sometimes weigh 
as much as 45 lbs. The weight in Canada has been given as follows: Freshly 
fallen snow, 14i lbs. per cu. ft.; 24 hours after falling, 8° F., 21 1 lbs.; 72 
hours, 30° F., 28.7 lbs. After high winds, which pack it hard, it will weigh 
about 30 lbs. per cu. ft. If the snow in drifts 3 to 7 ft. deep has been partly 
thawed and refrozen and become very hard packed, the plows may ride upon 
it and be derailed. 

Snowsheds are sometimes built in open flat country, but mainly on sidehill 
lines and to cover deep cuts on mountain divisions, at places where snowslides 
or deep drifts occur. They are usually heavy log structures, sometimes with 
rock-filled cribbing on the uphill side, earth being filled in behind the cribbing 




Fig. 222. — Snowsheds; Canadian Pacific Ry. 



to form an even slope from the hillside to the outer edge of the shed. Tri- 
angular bents are often used for the downhill side, with planking spiked 
to the batter posts; an opening for light and air is left under the overhang 
of the roof. The bents are 5 to 10 ft. apart, with timbers 8X10 to 12X12 ins., 
and 3-in. and 4-in. planking. Some forms of snowsheds used on the Cana- 
dian Pacific Ry. are shown in Fig. 222. A line may be laid outside the snow- 
sheds for use in summer. On hillsides where snowslides occur, glance and 
split fences are sometimes used to guide the snow into gullies and to break 
up the slide. The latter are V-shaped, with a sharp angle and a strongly 
braced and anchored crib at the point. They are used to protect the roof 
openings which allow the smoke to escape. The sheds must be carefully 
watched and patrolled, as there is great danger from fire, which, if once well 
started, is very hard to fight. On the Central Pacific Ry., fire trains, equipped 
with tanks, pumps, hose, etc., are kept in readiness at sidings in the sheds. 
Some of the large sheds on the Canadian Pacific Ry. have pipe lines, with 
200-ft. coils of hose at hydrant nozzles 400 ft. apart. 



HANDLING AND CLEARING SNOW. 463 

In fighting snow there are two methods to be followed. The first is defen- 
sive, consisting in the erection of snow fences and sheds, and the use of pilot 
or engine plows or plows hauled by the trains, so as to keep the snow from 
covering the track to such a depth as to interfere with the traffic. Shallow 
drifts across the rails, which cause trains to lose time, or necessitate reducing 
the number of cars, may be successfully dealt with by pilot plows and flangers 
on the engines, or on cars attached to the trains. The second method is 
aggressive, and consists in the use of breaking plows and armies of shovelers 
to clear deep drifts and heavy falls which threaten to blockade or have block- 
aded the road. In a heavy storm or a succession of storms, the main thing 
is to keep on breaking up the drifts by snow plows, so that they do not have 
time to pack and become so hard as to require shoveling. The work of the 
breaking plow must be supplemented by the wing plow and Sanger to widen 
the cuts and clear the rails. A deep snow-cut with vertical sides, as left by 
the plow, is liable to fill very quickly. It is wise to break down the sides, 
shoveling the loose snow into the cut, and then running a wing plow through 
at high speed to fling the snow to a distance. 

In deep drifts, it is well to cut transverse trenches. These may be large 
trenches, 30 ft. long and 10 ft. wide, and about 30 ft. apart; or short ones, 
with two men to each trench, the trenches being just as long as the men can 
work, and 15 ft. apart. This work can be done by the section gangs as well 
as the snow-shoveling gangs, and facilitates the work of the plow. When 
men are engaged on this sort of work, or in a narrow snow-cut with vertical 
sides, a man should be posted on top of the cut to give warning of the approach 
of trains or plows. The shoveling of snow by hand is slow and laborious 
work, especially in heavy drifts and with snow falling or fierce winds blowing. 
Such work is often attended with danger, and the officers in charge should 
see that the laborers sent out are warmly clad, and that provisions and hot 
coffee are provided. In shoveling from deep cuts, the work must be done 
in benches, the vertical height of which is the height to which the men can 
shovel the snow without too much exertion. With shoveling in heavy work 
there is sometimes difficulty in getting rid of the material, and it has to be 
carried out on work trains, and dumped over trestles, etc. In one case on 
the Canadian Pacific Ry., after several small structures had been filled, the 
snow trains had to be run considerable distances, entailing great loss of time 
and constant trouble in backing over track covered with snow due to the almost 
continuous snowfall and drifts. These difficulties were avoided afterwards 
by the use of a rotary plow and wing plow, with a small gang of shovelers. 
The compressed snow on the slope was shoveled onto the track to a width 
covered by the scoop of the rotary and the wings of the wing plow, and was 
thus thrown clear of the track, and a good flangeway left. In heavy level 
snowfalls of over 12 ins., the rotary plow was used, but with less than that 
the ordinary wing plow was used, as it could be run faster, and time was of 
first importance, besides which the wing plow cost considerably less in oper- 
ation. Cuts widened in this way are less liable to fill up again very quickly. 
Some roads slope the snow-cut back for 30 or 50 ft., and the wider the cut, 
the longer it will stay open. 

The use of plows should be commenced as soon as a storm begins, pilot 
plows being used first to clear light drifts. For heavy work, the snow is 
first broken up by a plow driven into it by two or more engines, and when 



464 



TRACK WORK. 



a passage has been made, the cut is widened by running a plow through it 
with wings extended. These wings are hinged to each side of the plow, and 
can extend about 3 ft., their spread being controlled by a man in the "look- 
out" in accordance with whistle signals from the leading engine. They are, 
of course, closed in to clear bridges, tunnels, etc. On lines with two or more 
tracks, an engine with a wedge-shaped, square-nosed plow in front and a wing 
plow behind may be run on one track, throwing a bank of snow over towards 
the next track. Following this on the other track is an engine with a side- 
delivery plow in front and a wing plow behind, with the wing on the outer 
side of the track extended. This will not only clear its own track but clear 
off the snow thrown out by the wing of the first wing plow. 

Flangers and Flanging Cars. — An important auxiliary to the snow plow 
is the flanger, which clears the snow and ice away from the rail heads, espe- 
cially on the inner side, so as to leave an ample flangeway (usually about 5 
ins. wide) for the wheels. This device is usually mounted on the snow plow, 
but sometimes it is fitted to a special flanging car, and operated by hand levers 




AIIBo/tsa/tdB/ets • 
tobeuuntersunkon Bottom. - D 

Fig. 223. — Pilot Snow Plow and Flanger. 

or air cylinders, it being necessarily raised at frogs, switches and crossings, 
and at road crossings where the planks have not been removed. A flanger 
may also be fitted to the locomotive pilot or truck, and one form is shown in 
Fig. 223. The Priest flanger is placed behind the pilot, the thrust being borne 
by the truck axle boxes; slotted connections keep the flanger clear of the 
vertical motion of the engine on its springs. This insures an even depth of 
cut, however rough the track may be. The bar being but little in advance 
of the axle, the lateral motion is not much greater than that of the wheels, 
so that good work can be done on sharp curves as well as on tangents, and 
without touching the rail. The cutters may be set to within f-in. above the 
rail and \\ ins. to 2\ ins. clear of each side of the rail head, the snow being 
unable to remain on top and against the rail head after the removal of this 
backing. With this clearance they will not disturb torpedoes on the rail. 
This flanger cuts 12 ins. wide inside and outside of rail, If ins. deep inside 
and ^-in. deep outside. The knives alone are liable to injury, and these are 
easily renewed. The flanger is raised by an air cylinder. A handy device 



HANDLING AND CLEARING SNOW. 465 

for dealing with moderate depths of snow on side or main tracks is a flat car 
fitted with a nose plow and flangers, the car being well weighted (especially 
at the ends) by car wheels or stone. It has rigid-center trucks. A car of 
this kind on the Pennsylvania Lines has a fixed nose 7 ft. 2 ins. wide at the 
heel, 5 ft. long on the center line, with an angle of about 80°. It is 2 ft. 4 ins. 
high, and faced with iron like a pilot plow. Between the trucks is hung the 
Sanger, which resembles the plow but has an angle of 60°. This is hung on 
the end of two 10X5-in. timbers 14 ft. 8 ins. long, set on edge; they form 
a V, the nose of which is inside the point of the Sanger, while the ends butt 
against the transom in front of the rear truck and are hinged by straps to 
the intermediate sills. The flanger moves vertically in guides, and is raised 
by a 10-in. air cylinder. 

Pilot and Engine Plows. — The use of the pilot plow, or snow plow bolted 
to the engine pilot, is common on most railways which have to deal with mod- 
erate or heavy snowfalls. They serve to keep the track from getting blocked 
with snow, except in case of very heavy storms or drifts, and enable the trains 
to make better time by clearing the track of light snow. In general these 
are curved plates rigidly bolted to the pilot, but Fig. 223 shows an adjustable 
plow, operated by air from the brake reservoir, which has been used on the 
Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry. Four flat bars, A, are bolted to the bumper 
beam, and carried down to within 3 ins. of the rail level, being then bent back 
and inclined upward to have the rear ends attached to the cylinder casting. 
The inclined part is stiffened by a tee iron, B. The plow, C, is of the usual 
form, with overhanging nose and curved wings, 18^ ins. high above the rail. 
The sides and bottom are stiffened by angle irons. On each side of the bot- 
tom is bolted an ice-cutter or flanger, D, consisting of a J-in. steel plate with 
notched edges. When in position for work, this ice cutter is 3J ins. below 
the top of the rail. On the bumper beam are bearings for a shaft, E, carry- 
ing two arms, F, connected by a cross rod. To this rod are hung two links, 
H, by which the heel of the plow is lifted, sliding vertically on the bars, A. 
The diagonal rod, J, lifts the nose of the plow. An upright rocker arm, K, 
has a connecting rod, L, to the piston rod, M, of an air cylinder, N. 

The larger engine plows are usually of iron, bolted to a special frame which 
takes the place of the pilot, the plow extending above the top of the boiler 
and being braced to the frame and smokebox. The Northern Pacific Ry. 
handled snowdrifts up to 4 ft. deep with pilot plows; if they were very hard, 
channels were cut across the track. The engine plows were of the wedge 
type. One design had central deflecting wings to throw the snow to each side; 
the other had a single wing placed diagonally on the wedge portion of the plow 
and throwing the snow to one side. This was adjustable and used on either 
side at will. On double track, the single-wing plow was found to be most 
useful. Engine plows of this kind have been used for drifts even up to 15 
ft. deep, the drifts having first been cut by cross trenches. Wire brushes 
should be attached to engine pilots and behind all flangers so as to clean the 
rail head. 

Breaking Plows. — The ordinary form of breaking or driving plow resem- 
bles a large box car with an inclined front end, the plow being propelled by 
locomotives in the rear. If the plow is run at high speed into a drift it has 
to stand very severe racking and wrenching strains, and not unfrequently 
leaves the track. If the plow and engines strike a heavy drift the sudden 



466 



TRACK WORK. 



shock is likely to derail both plow and engines, or to shift the tender tanks; 
or the plow may run up into the snowdrift. Drifts that have been in place 
for several days should not be attacked until soundings or some investiga- 
tions have been made, as alternate thaws and freezing may have caused dan- 
gerous pockets of hard ice. The plow will only drive a certain distance into 
the drift, and must then be dug out to enable the engines to haul it back for 
another run. One or more of the engines may have to be dug out. The plow 
should have a clearance of 3 to 5 ins. above the rails and 5| ins. from fixed 
structures such as bridge abutments, tunnel walls, freight platforms, etc. The 
plow is sometimes curved outward at the top, so as to have a long C-shaped 
overhang above the lower part; the under side of the overhang slopes upward 
and backward from the center line. This throws the snow to each side, and 
prevents it from going on the roof of the machine. 

The Russell snow plow, shown in Fig. 224, is extensively used. It has 
very heavy framing and lateral bracing, and is mounted on four-wheel trucks 




Fig. 224. — The Russell Snow Plow, with Wings. 

with roller side bearings. For single track, it has a central nose dividing the 
inclined plane of the face; for double track, it has a verticaLnose at one side, 
so as to discharge the snow at the side only. The latter plow may also be 
used for sidehill work. On each side is an elevator wing, 9 X 11 ft., for use 
in deep drifts, the wings being forced out so as to widen the cut, and having 
curved channels by which the snow is delivered above the machine. These, 
with a slight tapering of the sides back from the front, prevent the snow from 
wedging or binding against the side of the plow. The wings are operated by 
gearing by means of hand wheels in the car. The pushing beam is formed 
of two oak timbers bolted together, and the front end is let into the oak tim- 
ber which forms the backbone of the inclined face of the plow, so that the 
propelling power is applied right at the nose of the plow. This greatly reduces 
the danger of derailment. The timber is not a fixed part of the framing, but 
has a certain lateral play for curves. The horizontal edge of the plow is faced 
with steel; about 5 ft. back from the edge begins the share, with curved 
flaring sides to throw off the snow. The sharp cutting edges of the front and 
sides enable the plow to get into and under the snow, wedging it up and lift- 
ing and loosening it before it reaches the share, where the side pressure begins. 
This tends to reduce liabilitv to derailment. The front end is covered with 



HANDLING AND CLEARING SNOW. 467 

|-m. »teel plate, and the double-track plow has on the side opposite the run 
of the share a f-in. steel plate extending the full height of the machine, its 
front edge forming the vertical cutting edge in advance of the share. A man 
in the cab or outlook signals the engineman of the pushing engine by a bell 
cord. The plow has successfully attacked hard-packed snow 6 to 12 ft. deep, 
using two engines, and having a speed of about 30 miles per hour in running 
at the drifts. After the first cut is opened, the plow is run through with 
extended wings to widen the cuts and make a slope instead of a vertical wall. 

Machine Snow Plows. — The introduction of machine snow plows has ren- 
dered the work of keeping lines open and of opening blockaded lines very 
much easier than when only breaking plows and hand shoveling were avail- 
able. The Leslie rotary plow has been used on a number of railways. It 
is a large car mounted on four-wheel trucks and containing an engine and 
boiler, with gearing to drive a wheel 11 J ft. diameter which revolves in a ver- 
tical plane transverse to the track. The wheel revolves in a circular shell 
or drum, in front of which is a rectangular housing 12 ft. wide which trims 
the sides and bottom of the cut. The wheel has 10 or 12 radial hollow scoops 
of conical shape, each having the front side open and fitted with a knife on 
each side of this opening. The snow planed off by the knives falls through 
into the scoops, whose centrifugal action discharges it through a chute in the 
top of the housing. The discharge is directed to either side, and the snow 
falls at a distance of 50 to 200 ft., according to the speed of the wheel. Ice 
cutters are fitted in front of the leading truck, and behind it are the flangers. 
Each of these devices is held by a shearing bolt, which w T ill break and allow 
the blade to swing aside if it strikes an obstruction. The discharge chute, 
ice cutters and flangers are operated by air cylinders, controlled from the 
cab. The machine is about 30 ft. long, weighing 60 to 100 tons, and has a 
tender for coal and water. It is usually propelled by one or two powerful 
engines at a speed of about 6 or 8 miles an hour in snow up to 6 ft. deep, or 
5 to 6 miles an hour in snow 10 to 15 ft. deep. It will make a cut 13 ft. 4 ins. 
wide. It must not make a run at the work, but must be fed forward steadily 
at such speed as will not result in choking the wheel. The wheel should be 
stopped in crossing bridges or trestles. A steam hose is provided for thaw- 
ing out the wheel if it should become frozen. 

On the Colorado Midland Ry., the machine has worked through snow 10 
ft. deep at 10 miles an hour. The greatest trouble is on account of slides. 
The plow is driven slowly in until it cannot throw the snow clear; it is then 
backed out to allow the snow to fall in, when the plow is again forced into 
the drift. This is repeated until the plow gets through the drift. Rocks and 
timbers are often encountered in these slides, and are pulled out by chains. 
In some heavy work on this road, snow 30 to 34 ft. deep was encountered 
which would have choked the discharge outlet of the plow in a few minutes. 
The snow was hard and compact, and partly frozen. Lines of men were placed 
along the slope, each line of men throwing the snow up to the line above, until 
it was raised to a height varying from 40 to 60 ft., and finally disposed of, 
leaving not more than 12 ft. of snow in the bottom of the cut. Holes were 
drilled into this bench of snow, and charges of giant powder were exploded 
to shatter the frozen bank, after which the men were stationed on the bench 
of snow immediately in front of the plow to drag the snow down with shovels 
and throw it in the bottom of the cut in blocks from 1 cu. ft. to 2 cu. yds. in 



468 TRACK WORK. 

size. After breaking this snow down, the plow would run into the loose snow, 
throw it up on the bench excavated on the slope of the cut for men to stand 
on, and the men would shovel it one to the other again until it could be dis- 
posed of over the top of the cut. Each time the plow would run into the shat- 
tered snow it would remove that snow and force itself from 5 to 10 ft. into 
the undisturbed mass of snow. Progress was necessarily slow in such excep- 
tionally difficult work. 

The Jull or "cyclone" plow had at the front end of the car a great cone, 
with its apex at the front lower corner of a housing, and the center of the base 
at the opposite back upper corner. The cone was of |-in. steel plate. It was 
7 ft. 8 ins. long, 1 ft. diameter at the apex and 1\ ft. at the base. Riveted 
upon it were four spiral curved cutting blades, making about 75% of a revolu- 
tion in the length of the cone, and varying in height from 16 ins. at the axis 
to 24 ins. at the base. They were made of two thicknesses of f-in. steel plate, 
pressed to shape in dies. At the front they were nearly straight, but towards 
the base their curve increased gradually. They were cut away at the base 
for a width of 24 ins. on the cone, to allow the snow to escape freely. The 
housing was 10 ft. 4 ins. wide, 9 ft. 4 ins. long, and about 9 ft. deep, the bot- 
tom being 3| ins. above the rail head. The cone was driven at about 350 
revolutions per minute by the engine. The blades carried the snow to the 
base of the cone, where it was discharged by centrifugal force through a chute 
in the housing, and fell at a distance of 40 to 60 ft. from the track. These 
machines have been used on the Union Pacific Ry. to a limited extent. 

Yards and Switches. — The section men and yard men must look to the 
clearing of snow from yards, switches, frogs, crossings, guard rails, and inter- 
locking work. Extra gangs will often be required in heavy storms, especially 
at passenger terminals. Yards should have plenty of good clean ballast, 
and be kept well drained, so that after a thaw there will be less liability of 
freezing up the switches. The trenches in which switch connecting rods work 
should be kept open to prevent the accumulation of water. Salt should be 
used in clearing snow and ice from switches and frogs, and light drifting snow 
must be swept out frequently. The slide plates must be kept oiled, as the salt 
water will rust the iron and make the switch rails hard to move. Where many 
snowstorms occur during the winter it is a good plan to put up posts near the 
switches in yards, with a broom and shovel hung on each ready for use by 
trainmen or switchmen. Hard ice and packed snow usually have to be cleared 
by hand to give proper flangeways, but the Boston & Maine Ry. has a special 
car for this purpose. A heavy cutter blade breaks up the ice, and a scraper 
blade or flanger behind cleans away the loose ice. The blades can be raised 
and lowered by levers or air cylinders. A track sweeper with revolving brooms 
(as used on street railways) has been used in some large yards. Weed-burning 
machines may also be used in clearing yards and interlocking plants. The 
Boston & Maine Ry. has experimented with oil and gas heaters placed at the 
switches in a busy passenger yard, and connected with a pipe system. The 
snow is melted as it falls, so that there is no large accumulation to cause trouble 
with the switches or in its removal. The system keeps the ground warm, 
so that it is not frozen and can absorb the melted snow. 

Electric Railways. — On interurban railways, the regular cars may be fitted 
with pilot plows, scrapers and flangers, and there may be work cars or bag- 
gage cars fitted with nose plows and side leveling boards. Large wing plows 



HANDLING AND CLEARING SNOW. 469 

of the Russell type are sometimes used, and a few lines have rotary plows 
for handling deep snow. These are similar in principle to the railway rotary 
plows already described, but with only four blades on the 8-ft. cutter wheel; 
this wheel runs at about 450 to 650 revolutions per minute, and behind it is 
a fan wheel which discharges the snow. To clear trolley wires from sleet, 
the trolley pole may carry a scraper or a special wheel having ribs or lugs in 
the groove so as to cut the ice and jar it loose. Where the third-rail conduc- 
tor is used, the cars are usually equipped with wire brushes or scrapers to 
clean the head of the rail, and in some cases a small stream of calcium-chloride 
solution is fed upon the rail in advance of the contact shoe. Tests with the 
electric locomotives of the New York Central Ry. showed that there is less 
trouble from sleet when the shoe rides against the bottom of the third rail, 
the top being covered by a shield. City and suburban cars are very generally 
equipped with scrapers or Bangers, and these should be attached to the truck 
frame. Track sweepers and spreader cars are also used in streets. Salt is 
sometimes used at frogs, switches and special work, and on grooved rails. If 
used too freely it is liable to cause trouble with the electrical apparatus, and 
it is objected to in some cities as it makes a slushy mixture injurious to pub- 
lic health and affecting the hoofs of horses. On elevated railways, scrapers 
and wire brushes on the cars (or handled by trackmen) are usually employed 
to clean the third rail, and sometimes there are special cars with rattan brushes 
to clear snow from between the guard timbers. 



CHAPTER 28 —WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATIONS. 

While careful precautions may be, and should be, taken to insure safety 
in railway operation, accidents will occur inevitably. These include train 
accidents (mainly derailments and collisions), washouts of banks and struc- 
tures by floods, landslides, and the damage or destruction of bridges and tres- 
tles by fire or train accidents. Provision must be made for rendering aid, 
and for reopening communication with the least possible delay to traffic. 
Wrecking trains with efficient working gangs are therefore an important fea- 
ture in the operating plant. They are equipped with cranes or derricks, pile 
drivers, tools and appliances for clearing the track and building temporary 
tracks or structures. Special provision is also made for the relief of persons 
injured in the accidents. The trains are stationed at terminal and division 
points, where locomotives and men are available. In case of train accident, 
it is of great importance to remove the wreckage and clear the track as quickly 
as possible. This should not be done by the reckless smashing of cars or other 
equipment which may, with a little care and clear-headedness, be saved and 
moved out of the way without additional loss of time. In repair work and 
temporary structures also, absolute safety is of greater importance than mere 
rapidity. Forethought, judgment, care and speed must be combined in work 
of this sort. 

The systems of organization are various, but the best plan is to have the 
roadmaster in direct and supreme control of the work at train wrecks, sub- 
ject only to the orders of the superintendent (if he is present). The foreman 



470 TRACK WORK. 

of the wrecking train will be in charge until the arrival of the roadmaster. The 
repair of structures or the construction of temporary structures may be in the 
hands of the superintendent of bridges and buildings, or the bridge foreman, 
until the arrival of the former. The crew of the wrecking train is usually 
organized from the shopmen; they are familiar with engine and car work, 
and with the handling of loads by jacks and tackle, and are competent to 
handle and repair damaged and derailed equipment. There will be a wrecking 
foreman (or wreckmaster), an engineman and fireman for the steam crane 
(who may work in the power house, roundhouse, or shops), and 10 to 20 car- 
repair men and machinists. There should be telegraph apparatus, and the 
foreman or one of the men should be able to tap the wires and open communi- 
cation with headquarters. The Oregon Short Line uses telephones, the appa- 
ratus on the car being connected by a 100-ft. wire with a pole which can be 
hooked over a telegraph wire. One man will have charge of the tool car, 
another will act as cook and steward. Another man is stationed (during the 
work) on the front of the wrecking car, where he can see the foreman or road- 
master, and transmit the orders to the engineman. When an accident is 
reported, the men should be notified by messengers; at night, electric bells 
or telephones may be used. It is common practice to sound the steam whis- 
tle at the shops, but this is objectionable. It causes excitement in the shops, 
advertises the fact of an accident, and causes anxiety among the relatives 
and friends of employees. When an accident occurs, the nearest section fore- 
man must collect his gang and at once proceed to the scene, even if it is not 
on his section. When assisting a train delayed by accident he is usually required 
to act under the orders of the conductor until the arrival of the roadmaster 
or wrecking foreman. He must appoint watchmen to protect property and 
prevent theft. The section forces are of great importance at wrecks, as they 
have to repair the track or build a temporary line around the wreck, besides 
helping in the general work. The officers and employees of the different 
departments must co-operate in the endeavor to have the road open for traffic 
as soon as possible. 

The wrecking train usually consists of a powerful steam crane or derrick 
car, flat cars with blocking, track material, and spare trucks, a tool car, and 
a car for the men. The train is always in readiness on a special track that 
must be kept open, and sometimes there is a train crew always in the caboose. 
The first locomotive available is ordered to take out the train when needed. 
The men's car should have sleeping accommodation and facilities for supply- 
ing a large gang with food. This is better than relying on eating houses and 
hotels; the meals are better, the men are better cared for and lose less time, 
and the arrangement is more convenient in many ways. The car should have 
a kitchen equipment, hot-water tanks, coffee tank, and such supply of canned 
goods as may be required in each case. One of the crew should be an efficient 
cook, and in charge of the supplies. The main part of the car may have berths, 
benches, table, stove, etc. The tool car should be equipped for the convenient 
storage of ropes, chains, tools and appliances. It should be in charge of one 
man. He must see that the equipment is complete and in order for immediate 
use, and keep the tools in repair. Wet or dirty ropes must be cleaned, thor- 
oughly dried, and then neatly coiled and put in their proper places. He must 
have a list of the equipment, and immediately after the work is done he must 
check it over; any tools, etc., lost or damaged must be at once repaired or 



WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATION. 471 

replaced. The tools of each wrecking train should be painted or marked in 
a distinctive manner. 

Hydraulic jacks of 10 to 30 tons capacity are important tools, second only 
to the crane or derrick, and some of them should lift by means of claws (like 
track jacks). For putting derailed cars or engines back upon the rails, various 
forms of metal wrecking frogs (or rerailing frogs) are used. One of these is 
shown in Fig. 225. The frogs are set upon or beside the rails, and in raising 
the wheels they guide them laterally so as to place them on the rails. The 
tool car must have an extensive supply of ropes and blocks, wire cables, long 
and short chains, jacks, common tools, track tools, shovels and scoops, baskets 
and bags for handling grain, etc. The track material on one of the flat cars 
will include rails, splice bars, one or two switches, frogs and guard rails; also 
about 100 ties, 5 kegs of spikes and 2 kegs of bolts. The Southern Pacific Ry. 
requires that at the headquarters of each roadmaster's division there must be 
at least 1,000 ft. of rails suitable for temporary tracks, and so placed as to 



Fig. 225. — Wrecking Frogs or Car Replacers. 

be readily loaded on cars. Piles and bridge timbers, as well as ties (for track 
and cribbing), are also generally available at such points. 

The car for the crew may be used for hospital purposes. On one road, this 
car has 10 berths for the men (or for injured persons), and is equipped with 
kitchen, hot-water tanks, stretcher, operating table and medical supplies; 
also instructions for aiding injured persons until medical or surgical aid can 
be obtained. A few railways have hospital cars. As a rule, arrangements are 
made with doctors at towns along the line. In case of an accident involving 
a number of injuries a special train is sent out as soon as possible with doctors, 
nurses and supplies. For the care and transportation of injured persons, an 
ordinary car is better than a parlor or sleeping car, owing to the winding 
entrances of the latter. Stretchers may be placed across two reversed seat backs, 
which gives them about the right height for convenient medical attention. In 
case of cattle-train wrecks, the uninjured stock should be transferred promptly, 
and badly injured cattle must usually be killed on the spot. With refrigerator 
cars, special care should be taken to replace the ice and put scattered freight 
back in one of the least injured cars. 

Efficient lighting is one of the most important features for night work, and 
little can be done when only hand lamps are available. Electric and acety- 
lene lamps are sometimes placed on the boom or A-frame of the wrecking 
crane, and the Erie Ry. has used a revolving headlight on the roof of the wreck- 
ing car. The acetylene system has been used on the Union Pacific Ry. and 
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. The Lehigh Valley Ry. has a too 



472 



TRACK WORK. 



car for bridge work which is equipped with a 12-KW. generator driven from 
a gasoline engine and supplying current for 100 portable 16-c.p. lamps. The 
Pennsylvania Ry. has a special car supplying current for 10 or 12 arc lamps 
mounted on 25-ft. tripods; the poles are carried on the roof. The car has 
engine, boiler, generator and electrical apparatus, and is fitted with track 
clamps to hold it steady when the plant is working. Two sizes of oil torches 
are used, the larger ones hung up at convenient points, and the smaller ones 
carried by hand. The Wells light (and similar lights), which gives a large 
flame of oil sprayed by compressed air, is much used. Ordinary hand lan- 
terns are used in working around inflammable wreckage. Torches and open 
lights are dangerous, especially when oil, gasoline, or highly inflammable 
material is exposed. Where oil is exposed, as in the case of wrecked tank 
cars, it should be covered with earth or cinders before work is done around it 
and before any locomotive or steam derrick is allowed to approach closely. 
If this cannot be done, empty cars should be coupled between the locomotive 
and the derrick car, so as to keep the former at a safe distance. Lighting by 
fires of wood taken from wreckage or cars is objectionable, but such fires may 
be required in inclement weather. 

The usual form of wrecking car is a steam crane of 50 to 100 tons hoisting 
capacity, mounted on a steel frame carried by a pair of four-wheel trucks. 
Very generally the machine is not self-propelling, but is moved by a locomotive 




Fig. 226 — Wrecking Crane. 

coupled to it. Where a self-propelling attachment is used for handling the 
machine at the wreck, it is normally disconnected, as it would interfere with 
the hauling of the machine at high speed in going to and from the work. It 
must also allow of being readily connected when needed. There is a ten- 
dency to use cranes of high capacity, owing to their efficiency in handling 
heavy modern equipment. The 100-ton wrecking crane shown in Fig. 226 
(with boom lowered for transportation) weighs 87 tons, on a wheelbase of 
194 ft. The steel car frame is 26 ft. long, with turntable at the middle. The 
engine has cylinders 12X12 ins., with independent gears and brakes for the 
main hoist, auxiliary hoist, and boom hoist. Thus the load can be raised 
or' lowered while the boom is also being raised or lowered to vary its reach. 
The normal and maximum reach is 21 ft. and 23^ ft. for the main hoist, which 
can handle 100 tons at 18 ft. and 80 tons at 21 ft. The auxiliary hoist at the 
head of the boom has a reach of 27 to 33 ft.; it can handle 15 tons direct, or 
30 tons with block and tackle. To give stability and avoid undue strains 
on the car framing in handling heavy loads, the heavy bed plate of the 



WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATION. 473 

machinery has a bearing on the beams of the middle jack frame. These are 
ran out laterally on either side, and the ends supported by jacks or blocking 
to give an extended base of support. There are also jack arms or outriggers 
at each end, while rail clamps are fitted at the corners. Wedges may be set 
between the truck frames and car sills. Winches or spools on the engine pro- 
vide for handling side lines, independent of the main drums. Another design 
has three hoists: a 6-part 100-ton main hoist, a 2-part 40-ton auxiliary hoist, 
and a 1-in. cable hoist of 15 tons capacity (or If -in. for 20 tons) with an effective 
radius of 33 ft. The main hoist can handle 100 tons at 17 ft. radius with all 
outriggers set, 60 tons with end outriggers, and 20 tons without outriggers. 
For a 25-ft reach, it can handle 30 to 50 tons respectively with end and all 
outriggers set. The machines must be heavily built, and well braced, to with- 
stand the severe shocks, strains and rough usage to which they are subjected. 
The large cranes can handle loaded box cars, and raise the body of such a car 
high enough to place it on trucks or on a flat car. For lifting cars, a heavy 
beam is suspended from the crane hook; this has hooks at each end for the 
attachment of chains or slings. The powerful machines do rapid and effective 
work, and are economical in reducing the breakage or damage of equipment. 

The natural eagerness to get the track clear must not lead to unnecessary 
rough handling or destruction of cars or freight. Note should be made of the 
style, initial or name, and number, of all cars destroyed in the wreck or broken 
up and burned as wreckage. If cars are piled up, the top ones should first 
be removed, and any tilted cars blocked or upset to prevent their falling over 
during the work. On double track, attention should first be paid to clearing 
one track. In hauling with tackle, and in pulling derailed cars upon the track, 
special anchor clamps are used for attaching the end block to the rail; the 
other block is attached to the car sill or coupler, and from it the rope is led 
to a hoisting engine or locomotive. In case of accident, the conductor should 
make a full report, so that the officials may understand the conditions and 
how to deal with them. The following form of report for train wrecks is used 
on the Erie Ry., the conductor giving only the letter of each question: 

Station, 190 .... 

To Supt. Time sent M. Time received M. 

Train No Conductor 

Engine Engineman 

A. Time and place of accident. (State also if on main or side track, company or indi- 

vidual siding, at frog or switch, in fill, cut, or on level) 

B. What caused it ? 

C. Were any persons injured, and to what extent? Give name, age, residence and occu- 

pation and what was done with the persons 

D. Which track is obstructed, and which clear? 

E. Which track can be opened first, and how soon? 

F. What crossing switches or sidings, east and west of obstruction, can be used to pass 

trains around? 

G. How long will it take to get track clear so that trains can pass? 

H. Will the derrick car be required, and which way should it be headed to work to advan- 
tage? 

I. How much force is wanted to clear the obstruction? 

J. Is the track damaged, and to what extent? Have trackmen been notified? 

K. Is engine off track, or damaged? 

L. What position is engine in? 

M. What position are cars in? 

N. How many cars are broken and off track, loaded? (Give numbers, initials and kind). . 

O. How many cars are broken a^d off track, empty? (Give numbers, initials and kind). . 

P. How many cars and kinds are wanted to transfer freight in? 

Q. What does lading of cars consist of? What amount of damage to lading? 

R. How many cars next engine? 

S. How many behind cars wrecked? 

In some cases it may be necessary or advisable to build a temporary track 
around a wreck or washout, and Fig. 227 shows the standard plan of the South- 



474 TRACK WORK. 

ern Pacific Ry. for such work, the dimensions of the lettered parts being given 
in Table No. 39. 

TABLE NO. 39.— LAYING OUT TEMPORARY TRACKS AROUND WRECKS AND 
WASHOUTS; SOUTHERN PACIFIC RY. 

Ten- Degree Curves. 

A, B, C, D, E, F 

ft. ft. ft. ft. ft. ft'. 

10 53.6 103.3 156.9 2.5 7 5 

20 84.0 133.5 217.5 6.3 13*7 

30 107.3 156.5 263.8 10.3 19 7 

40 127.3 176.0 303.3 14.4 25 6 

50 144.8 193.1 337.9 18.7 31 3 

60 160.3 208.3 368.6 23.0 37 

70 174.5 222.1 396.6 27.4 42*6 

80 187.8 235.0 422.8 31.8 48 2 

90 200.2 247.0 447.2 36.2 53 8 

100 211.9 258.3 470.2 40.7 59.3 

Fifteen-Degree Curves. 

10 42.2 92.0 134.2 2.3 7 7 

20 66.2 115.4 181.6 5.7 14 3 

30 85.0 133.7 218.7 9.5 20^5 

40 100.8 149.2 250.0 13.5 26.5 

50 114.7 162.6 277.3 17.5 32.5 

60 127.2 174.4 301.6 21.5 38 3 

70 138.7 185.6 324.3 26.0 44 

80 149.4 195.6 345.0 30.3 49 7 

90 159.2 204.8 364.0 34.6 55^4 

100 168.5 213.5 382.0 39.0 61.0 

Chicago & Northwestern Ry. — The wrecking train kept at the Chicago shops 
consists of a 100-ton steam wrecking crane, a flat car for blocking, chains, 
equalizers, etc., a box car for jacks, ropes and sheave blocks, one car equipped 

with bunks and cooking outfit for the wrecking crew, and one car or caboose 
for the train crew. The wrecking crew consists of the foreman, engineman, 

f __^ '^'"jJ7 : -"- b~ ::::: -I 




' ,'*'* 



■vrve * 

Fig. 227. — Diagram of Temporary Track for Passing Around a Wreck; So. Pac. Ry. 

fireman and two handy men, who are employed in the roundhouse; also two 
car repairers, who are employed in the adjacent repair yard. The section 
gang or gangs nearest to the wreck are also used. It takes about 15 mins. by 
day, or 30 mins. at night, to get the train started. 

Pennsylvania Ry. — The wrecking train stationed at Altoona, which may be 
taken as representative of the main-line practice, is composed of locomotive 
and tender, 70-ton steam crane, low-side gondola car (carrying trucks, coal 
buckets, cables, etc.), tool car and commissary car. An extra tool car is kept 
ready for emergencies during the absence of the regular train. The list in 
Table No. 40 gives in detail the equipment of the wrecking train. It is also 
equipped with the Wells light for night work. In addition to the train crew, 
the wrecking crew is composed of the wreck master, derrick engineman, two 
men in immediate charge of the tool and commissary cars and all tools, and 
about 35 men who are called from the shops when needed. The supervisor is 
present at all wrecks of any importance. The work at wrecks is in charge of 
the wreck master, subject to the direction of the supervisor. 



WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATION. 



475 



TABLE NO. 40.— EQUIPMENT OF WRECKING TRAIN; PENNSYLVANIA RY. 



(300) 2X12X18 ins. 



Blocking: (60 pieces) 6X6X6 ins.; (75) 6X6X48 ins. 
Anchor blocks: (30) 5X10X36 ins. 
Wedges (hickory): (300) 3+X4X24 ins., tapered. 
Manila tank ropes, each with a hook and link: 

(6) 2-in., 30 ft,; (2) 2-in., 60 ft.; (3) 3i-in., 30 ft 

(1) 3-in., 150 ft.; (1) 3+-in., 200 ft. 
Manila 2-in. rope, without hook or link: (1) 100 ft. 
Manila 2-in. rope slings: (2) 3 ft.; (2) 2 ft. 10 ins.; (2) 2 ft. 8 ins.; (1) 1 ft. 6 ins.; (1) 1 ft 

4 ins. 
Manila lf-in. rope for block and fall: 600 ft. 
Block and fall: 3 sets. 
Wire cables, with link and hook: (2) H-in 

(1) lf-in., 18+ ft.; (1) lf-in., 25 ft. 
With link at each end: (2) 1-in., 36 ft.; (1) lf-in., 27 ft. 
With hook and eye: (2) H-in., 9+ ft.; (2) H-in., 5 ft. 2 ins. 
With link in middle and hook at each end: (2) 1-in., 7 ft. 2 ins.; (2) 1 
Log chains: (50) 1-in., 17 ft., with hook and link; (6) 1-in., 5 ft. and (6) 

hook at each end; (16) f-in., 9+ ft,, with one hook. 
Double-lift chains (4): flat hook at each end, and ring HX8 ins. 
Chain slings: (1) 1-in., 3+ ft,; (1) H-in., 4 ft. 

Stone-lift chain: (1) |-in., 19+ ft,, with link 18 ins. from one end and a hook on each end. 
Chains: (2) f-in., 9 ft. and (4) +-in., 3 ft., with one hook; (4) H-in., 8 ft., with hook on 

each end. 
Pulling bars: (2) 6 ft. long, (2) 4 ft,, (2) 1* ft. 
Jacks, short: (3) 15-ton, (2) 20-ton; medium: (1) 15-ton, (2) 10-ton, (2) 20-ton; lone* 

(3) 15-ton, (2) 20-ton. 
Shovels: (8) clay; (10) long-handled scoops; (75) short-handled scoops. 



(2) 3+-in., 60 ft.; (1) 3+-in., 80 ft. 



11 ft.; (1) H-in., 60 ft.; (1) lf-in., 9+ ft. 



in., 12 ft. 3 ins. 
1-in., 6 ft., with 



15 Fire buckets. 

Fire hose, 150 ft. 
6 Fire hooks (4 with attach- 
ments). 

Snatch blocks. 

Grappling irons. 

Fulcrums. 

Levers. 

Track gage. 

Wheel and axle gage. 

Wheel gage. 

Coil telegraph wire. 

Coil copper wire. 

Reel insulated wire. 

Pairs telegraph climbers. 

Vises for splicing wire. 

Pairs pliers. 

Telegraph instrument 
with relay. 
1 Telephone instrument 

with relay. 
1 Portable telegraph office. 

1 Desk. 

2 Wooden mallets. 
35 Coupling pins. 

6 Coupling links. 
50 Key center pins 15-in. 

and 17+-in. 
12 Head center pins 26-in. 

6 Draft pins. 
200 lbs. rail spikes. 

7 Sets patent frogs. 
6 Pinch bars. 

2 Claw bars. 
4 Spike hammers. 
12 Sledges. 

8 Jack braces. 

8 Long jack hooks. 
2 Short jack hooks. 

Augers (1 each), 2-in., 
lf-in., H-in., H-in., 
I-in., f-in., f-in., £-in., 
f-in.; (2) 1-in. 

Hand saws. 

Cross-cut saws. 

Hand axe. 

Pole axes. 

Soft hammers. 

Iron hammers. 

Large and 6 small mon- 
key wrenches. 



11 



2 Carpenters' chisels: (1) 

2-in., (1) f-in. 

1 Gouge chisel. 

18 Chipping chisels. 
6 Files, 14-in. 

3 Sponge hooks. 
6 Coke forks. 

6 Picks. 
18 Cold cutters. 
3 Wrecking trucks (100,000 
lbs.). 

3 Push poles. 

2 Patent coal buckets. 
24 Coupler knuckles. 

2 Couplers. 

1 Large lift beam. 

1 Rail lift. 

2 Sets stone hooks. 

4 Side-lifting hooks. 

3 Center plates. 

1 Rear-end engine lift. 

1 Yoke lift. 
24 Brakeshoes. 
18 Journal bearings. 
18 Journal wedges. 
60 Knuckle pins. 

6 Cutting bars. 

1 Pair body pin tongs. 

2 Pairs backing tongs. 
12 Truss-rod wrenches. 

4 Sets cup wrenches. 
36 S-wrenches. 

5 Patent pulling hooks. 
12 Steel backers. 

4 Locking-pin backers. 
12 Air hose and fittings. 

6 Angle cocks. 

12 Air-hose reducers. 

1 Syphon hose. 

2 Sections hvdrant hose 

(50 ft. each). 
32 Washers for frogs. 

6 Sets clamps for frogs. 
12 Keys for frogs. 

3 Diamond cutters with 

handles. 
3 Diamond cutters without 

handles. 
2 Sets sheet-steel hook lifts. 
2 Pulling jacks with hooks 

and chains. 



2 Portable Wells lights. 
4 Extra Wells lights' burn- 
ers. 
Extra Wells lights' hoods. 
Oil tank (60 gals.) 
Tarpaulins. 
Closet. 

Sponge buckets (filled). 
Cant hooks. 

Set loose iron blocks for 
replacing tires on en- 
gines. 
Patent lever for lifting 

locking pins. 
Post-hole digger. 
Hay hooks. 
Box tong. 
Pipe cutters. 
Hack saw. 
12 Sets rope or cable clamps. 
200 lbs. bolts and nuts. 
50 lbs. nails. 
1 Set rope splicing tools. 

1 Rail clamp. 
24 Duck suits. 

2 Single-bracket lamps. 
Four-bracket lamp. 
Ice box, 500 lbs. capacity. 
Water tank, 60 gals. 
Cooking stove (Acorn). 
Heating stoves. 
Brooms. 
Dusting brushes. 

12 Oil cans. 
100 Three-bushel bags. 
10 lbs. waste. 
4 Fire shovels. 
200 Signal caps. 

2 Sets flags (green). 
Sets flags (red). 
Side lamps. 
Torches. 
Stretcher. 

Boxes first aid to the in- 
jured. 
Lamps: (4) red, (12) 
white, (2) blue. 



2 

4 

18 

1 

2 



476 TRACK WORK. 



Washouts and Burnouts. 

In times of continuous heavy rain, floods and freshets, or in protracted 
droughts, when there is danger from fire, precautionary measures should be 
taken by keeping fire tubs and buckets full, clearing snow and drift from all 
waterways, and by putting on extra watchmen and trackwalkers to look after 
the safety of structures and watch for indications of undermining of founda- 
tions, slips in cuts and washouts in banks. During such times the section 
foremen and roadmasters should keep the superintendent informed as to the 
condition of the road. This will prevent delay in running trains cautiously 
where the road is perfectly safe, and will insure prompt attention to any point 
of danger. After a flood has subsided, an examination should be made of 
the foundations of abutments, piers, trestle bents, etc., as a precaution against 
undermining. Damage to falseworks, temporary trestles, etc., by drift and 
logs, may be prevented by a boom of logs on each side of the stream, with 
the upper end of the boom attached to the shore. These will guide floating 
objects through the waterway. Men may be stationed to guide them through 
by means of poles, so as to prevent any obstruction. Ice jams or gorges may 
be shattered and broken up by explosives. A charge of about 100 lbs. of 
blasting powder in a 4-gallon can is sunk through a hole into the water, and 
allowed to drift some distance under the ice, being held in position by a rope 
tied to a stake at the hole. The charge should be exploded by an electric 
blasting battery, and not by a time fuse. 

In case of a washout, burnout, wrecked structure, caved-in tunnel, etc., 
the foreman should first take steps to send out flagmen to stop trains, and 
then report at once to the proper track official and the superintendent, stat- 
ing in full the exact location of the accident, the number or name of structure, 
character and extent of damage, etc., and particulars of train wreck (if any). 
He should then do what he can with the means at his disposal to prevent further 
damage, and prepare for the repair work. The pile-driver train and bridge 
gang will then be sent out promptly, equipped with the necessary plant and 
tools. Further cutting away of the banks of a washout may be checked by 
covering them with stone, logs, or brush and trees interlaced to form a mat- 
tress, or even by rough cribbing to cut off destructive currents or eddies. It 
is generally useless to try and fill a gap with anything but stone if a current 
is flowing through it. If the water is too high or turbulent to allow of com- 
mencing the repair work at once, the time may be spent in collecting material, 
building trestle bents, cribs, etc., and filling sacks with earth. 

A pile driver is a very important machine where large washouts of banks 
or repairs of trestles or bridges have to be dealt with. Steam shovels can 
be used to advantage at landslides. Railway pile drivers are heavily built 
flat cars, with leaders carried by a frame supported by a turntable on the deck 
of the car In some designs, the turntable is at the middle of the car, with 
the engine and boiler at the rear end of the frame to counterbalance the lead- 
ers. In others the engine and boiler are stationary in a cabin at the rear end 
of the car with the turntable at the front end. The frame has a travel of 16 
to 20 ft. over the turntable to allow of setting piles a panel length ahead of 
the car, and 10 to 20 ft. on either side of the center of the track. The leaders 
should be 40 or 50 ft. long, and adjustable for driving batter piles. The machine 
should be able to work in a through bridge, so as to drive piles for falsework 



WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATION. 



477 



for renewal or repairs. The leaders are usually pivoted about 12 ft. above 
the rail, so that when lowered for transportation the upper end rests on the 
engine-house roof, while the lower ends project in front of the car. This makes 
it necessary to put a flat car ahead to enable the pile driver to be coupled into 
a train, or the machine may have a tender or pilot car. One end of this is like 
a flat car, to pass under the leaders, the other end is like a box car and used 
for tools and supplies. The leaders sometimes fold together upon the car, or 
roll backwards and downwards on a curved heel, so that when lowered they 
do not project beyond the car. A pipe and hose for water jet may be added 
to the equipment, and some pile drivers carry a steam-pile hammer as well 
as the usual 3,000-lb. drop hammer. There may also be a boom for handling 
piles and placing caps and stringers. 

An engine of 25 or 30 HP. will operate the pile driver, hoists and propelling 
gear. The machine should be self-propelling (at 6 to 10 miles an hour), as 
when at work it can be handled more readily by its own power than by a loco- 




Fig. 228.— Railway Pile-Driver Car. 



motive. In one design, the car is of plate-girder construction, and the turn- 
table is mounted on a traveling frame which can be moved along the deck 
of the car. The turntable carries a pair of trusses, with the leaders at one end 
and the machinery at the other; the leaders are raised and lowered by a power- 
operated strut, and are adjusted to drive batter piles. When the leaders are 
lowered and the turntable is at the middle of the car, no part projects beyond 
the end sills. The engine has cylinders 9 X 12 ins. The machine has a chain 
drive for self-propulsion, the chain being disconnected while the machine 
is being hauled by a locomotive. The turntable can be revolved 360° in either 
direction, and the machine can drive piles 20 ft. in advance of the car or 23 
ft. from the center of the track. A railway pile driver is shown in Fig. 228, 



478 



TRACK WORK. 



and a number of designs are described in the Proceedings of the Association of 
Railway Superintendents of Bridges and Buildings, 1902. The pile-driver train 
should be in charge of a bridge foreman, acting also as conductor. When at work 
on renewals and repairs he must notify the train dispatcher, and put out flagmen. 
A pile-driver car used on the Missouri Pacific Ry. is 55 ft. long, and the lead- 
ers can be carried 16 ft. ahead of the car body, so as to build 15-ft. panels. 
It has a reach of 14 ft. on either side. The leaders are 40 ft. long. A 3,000- 
lb. hammer is used. The pile handling and hammer lines are led over different 
sheaves on the leaders and over guide pulleys back to separate drums on the 
engine, which has two cylinders 7| X 10 ins. and two 12-in. drums. Steam is 
supplied by a vertical boiler. The car is fitted with two 1 J-in. manila hammer 
lines, and two lj-in. pile lines having one end spliced to the ring of a |-in. crane 



m^&> 




s^EMI? 



Fig. 229. — Wrecking Crab or Hand Hoist. 

chain 7 ft. long. The free end of the chain has a hook. Next to the pile car 
is a flat car equipped with a 20-ton hydraulic jack, 6 screw jacks, 2 snatch 
blocks for 2-in. line and 2 for lj-in. line, 3 sets of blocks and falls for 1-in., 
lj-in. and l|-in. line, 600 ft. of lf-in. rope, a hand hoist (Fig. 229), 6 sets of 
carpenters' tools, and a supply of bars, wrenches, chains, hauling lines, axes, 
spikes, nails, etc. Also a coal bunker and a 2,000-gallon water tank. The 
crew consists of an engineman, fireman and 7 men, or 24 men for emergencies; 
8 of these are laborers and the others bridge men. In 10 hours, this crew 
could drive 5 bents of 4 piles each, cut them off, and fit caps, stringers, ties 
and track. Fig. 230 shows a derrick car which can be used as a pile driver, 
having the leads suspended from the boom and held at the bottom by a brace 
run out from the deck of the car. The A-frame is fixed, and is short enough 
to allow the machine to work in through bridges. In many cases, however, 
the A-frame is lofty, and is pivoted to swing back to an inclined position for 
transportation. Derrick cars of this latter type on the Illinois Central Ry. 
can drive piles for three bents (14 ft. c. to c.) in advance of the machine. Der- 
rick cars are used in construction, bridge erection and repair work. (See 
"Bridge Work," Chapter 25.) 

If a temporary trestle is required, piles may be driven, cut off to height 
and connected by caps drift-bolted in the usual way. If a pile driver is not 
available, a hand derrick or a gin pole (or shear pole) may be used to handle 
piles, timbers or framed bents. Two piles may be "jumped" and churned 
by means of ropes to sink them into the bed, and secured to each other by 



WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATION. 



479 



plank braces as soon as they are in place. The planks serve to guide the 
additional piles. In this latter method, it is less necessary to get the piles 
evenly spaced than to locate them in holes and soft places. Another method, 
which may be used where there is hard bottom, is to make soundings for each 
leg of the bent, cut the posts to length, connect them by a drift-bolted cap, 
and a 3XlO-in. diagonal brace and 4XlO-in. horizontal plank at what will be 
the water line. The bents are then placed in position and connected by longi- 
tudinal bracing. With a rocky bottom and a swift current, holes may be 
drilled and light charges of dynamite used to make holes to receive the large 
ends of the piles. On each batter pile is bolted a block 12X12X36 ins., with 
a 2-in. gas-pipe sleeve; through this a hole is drilled in the rock for a lj-in. 
anchor bolt. If the channel is wide, rafts or boats may be used, being held 
in place by lines. From these, men guide the piles into the best position that 
can be found, and put in a horizontal cross brace (two 3XlO-in. planks) at 



H 



t — 8" 



B.&H.T.Ry. 

Derrick Car 



504 




- Fig. 230.— Derrick Car and Pile Driver. 

the water line. The top gang puts on a similar top brace or ledger board 
(one plank 2X10 ins.) below the level for the caps. For 16-ft. panels, 4 
or 6 posts may be used, with 32-ft. joists or round timbers. These joists are 
run out over the ledger boards, with the heel chained to one bent, and the 
other end projecting 16 ft. beyond the last bent. A few planks are laid on 
these for the men to carry out the posts for the next bent. Sighting over the 
ledger boards gives the level for cutting off the posts for the caps, which are 
secured to them by drift bolts or spiked batten planks. After the caps are set, 
the ledger boards are removed and diagonal sway braces put across the bent. 
The bents are connected by horizontal sash braces or girts, with diagonal 
bracing in the end panels. 

In many cases, bents are framed on shore and floated out, being then raised 
and set in place by a derrick or by lines from a pile driver or shear pole. For 
a washout, heavy bents may be used, with double sills and caps, the posts 
being well braced. At each end of the sill is a 2^-in. hole with a gas-pipe sleeve 
extending above the water for use in drilling a hole for an anchor bolt. The 
bent may be weighted by pig iron, stone, splice bars, etc., attached to the 
sill; or pieces of rail may be spiked vertically to the lower ends of the posts. 
A box for the weights may be formed by planking up each side of the bent 
for about 3 ft. at the bottom. Fig. 231 shows a four-post bent with a double 
cap to which only the batter posts are bolted, the vertical posts being secured 
by lashing. The lower ends are held in place between the sill planks by block- 
ing, so that when the bent is in place, the posts can be tapped down to a full 
bearing. The posts are then sawed off, the top brace or temporary cap 



480 



TRACK WORK. 



removed, and diagonal bracing put on. The cap is then placed and drift-bolted, 
and stringers are put in place for the ties. The Southern Pacific Ry. has used 
rods for diagonal bracing in high bents. Stone may be filled around the bents to 
prevent undermining. On the shore and in shallow water old ties may be used 
to form a seat for the sills of the bents. Those farther out may be set on 
heaps of broken stone dumped in place and leveled off. 

The timbers should not be put together with mortise and tenon joints; 
this work is expensive, takes time, and prevents the subsequent use of the 
timber in other work. The timbers should be butted together, bored and 
bolted, or secured by plank battens or splices spiked on. A handy method 
of fastening timbers is to use dog irons 12 ins. long, with the ends bent for 
4 ins. to drive into the two pieces; the ends are chisel-pointed, one vertically 
and the other horizontally. One leg is at right angles to the 12-in. side, the 




Bent as 
First Set 



Completed 

Trestle. 



Fig. 231. — Setting Framed Bent for Trestle at Washout. 

other at a little more than a right angle, so as to pull the timbers together. 
Two dog irons should be driven simultaneously on opposite sides of the joint, 
so as not to displace the timbers in driving. Spikes should be |-in. boat spikes, 
8 ins. long. The middle posts are usually 5 ft. c. to c. The caps will be about 
10 ft. long for four-post bents with batter posts, or 14 to 16 ft. if all the posts 
are vertical. The stringers should be built up of two or three pieces (break- 
ing joints) and may be secured in place by triangular blocks spiked to the 
caps and stringers. 

Cribs built of old bridge timbers, logs or ties may be used instead of bents. 
Cribs of ties will be about 8X8 ft. with from two to four ties in each course, 
and a single crib of this kind will suffice for a height of 6 to 8 ft. For a greater 
height, there should be two cribs side by side, or a wider crib with the two 
rows of ties transverse to the track, these ties overlapping side by side. The 
cribs should be brought to a level surface, and topped by regular trestle caps 
10 to 16 ft. long, to support the stringers. For wide openings, cribs (with 
one end pointed to facilitate handling in the current) may be towed or floated 
out to form foundations for crib or frame piers, being sunk by stones onto the 
natural bottom or onto a pile of stone first dumped. An opening of 15 to 
25 ft., with firm sides, such as a washed-out culvert, may be spanned by two 
12 X 12-in. timbers under each rail (6 ins. apart), resting on a sill at each end. 
These are crossed by about four smaller timbers carrying two 12 X 12-in. stringers 
for the rails or ties. Cofferdams are sometimes built for repairs' to piers or 
abutments. The sheet piling for these may be driven by a 700-lb. hammer 
in 12-ft. leaders suspended from a derrick boom. For work done on dry ground, 



WRECKING TRAINS AND OPERATION. 481 

after a flood, cribbing may be built to carry the track across the gap. Where 
an embankment has been narrowed by side wash, cribs may be set or piles 
driven parallel with it. Caps are then laid with one end resting on the piles 
(or cribs) and the other resting on the remaining part of the bank. 

Roadmasters and bridge foremen should be furnished with lists and con- 
densed descriptions of all steel structures and timber trestles and bridges. 
They should have blue-prints with bills of material for from 1 to 30 panels of 
trestle, and for frame and pile bents from 10 ft. to 50 ft. in height, with sway 
braces and longitudinals or sash girts. These will greatly assist in ordering 
and preparing material for rapid reconstruction. The foremen in charge of 
emergency repairs to bridges, etc., should be selected for their judgment and 
self-reliance, as well as skill, since they may often be thrown upon their own 
resources. Great care should be taken to insure strong and substantial con- 
struction in temporary work. Ample longitudinal bracing should be provided, 
so as to distribute the pressure and prevent the collapse of a structure by undue 
pressure upon an unevenly supported bent. At washouts, the liability of a 
second flood or of heavy floating pieces being carried down by the stream must 
be borne in mind. 

On the Norfolk & Western Ry., the work of repairing washouts is usually 
carried out by the master carpenter and the division forces, who report directly 
to the division superintendent. These washouts are usually bridged by frame 
or pile trestles, depending on the nature of the bottom; and the trestles are 
put in by carpenter forces with ordinary tools. Occasionally they are assisted 
by a wrecking car (to clear away debris) and a track pile driver. For exam- 
ple, at Glen Jean, Ohio, 400 ft. of bank, from 16 to 24 ft. high, was washed 
away by the Scioto River. A frame trestle 400 ft. long was built across this 
washout by 37 men in 2\ days, all bents being raised by hand; the only tools 
available were the ordinary carpenters' tools. At Little Otter, Va., 208 ft. of 
a steel viaduct, 85 ft. high, was wrecked by a derailed train, and 22 cars of 
coal went down. This opening, 208 ft. long, and 85 ft. high, was bridged by 
a frame trestle in three days by 75 bridge men. In this case, the wrecking car 
assisted in removing the debris. On the Boston & Maine Ry. this work is 
done by the carpenter crews working under the direction of the supervisor of 
bridges and buildings, who reports to the division superintendent. The wash- 
outs are generally not serious enough to require anything but cribbing, and 
derrick cars are used. However, the road has three pile drivers, capable of 
driving piles 15 ft. ahead of the front axle. Where a large bridge or a high bank 
goes out, the carpenter forces from several divisions are sometimes bunched; 
in this case they work together under the supervisor of the division on which 
the trouble occurs. More or less timber of all kinds is constantly on hand on 
the various divisions, and where a large amount is needed it is gathered from 
the most convenient points where it is stored. 

Work-train gangs on the Vandalia Ry. in 1903 ballasted, lined and surfaced 
track under 12 to 15 ins. of water, in order to reach a washout. This was 
45 ft. wide, with 20 to 25 ft. of water, and was bridged while the water was 
15 ins. above the track level. The pile driver set a bent of piles, followers 
being used to put the piles down to 4i ft. under the water. A cap was then 
put on, the drift bolts being driven by a follower in a 2-in. pipe. The track 
was blocked up on the cap; the pile driver moved forward, and another bent 
was driven and capped. Five bents were thus erected. Although a drop ham- 



482 TRACK WORK. 

mer was used, its blows were so well adjusted as to drive all the piles of one 
bent to the same level. The suspended track was raised by blocks and jacks 
to permit of putting stringers under the ties; the stringers were then fastened 
to the cap, and the ties to the stringers, by drift bolts driven as above described. 
Row boats and timber rafts were used in delivering material to the bridge, and 
regular shifts were arranged for the men working in the water. The train 
reached the washout one morning, and the trestle (under water) was completed 
soon after midnight. 

A through-truss double-track 220-ft. swing bridge of the Erie Ry. at Cleve- 
land, Ohio, had one arm wrecked by a derailed train at 5 p.m. on Oct. 21, 1907 
The wreckage blocked the channel mainly used for navigation, and had to be 
cut away and removed before any other work was done. The other arm was 
left to form a fixed span, and a single-track plate-girder swing span was erected 
on a foundation of piles and grillage in front of the old abutment. This had 
a channel arm of 85 ft. (to the old center pier) and a counterweighted shore 
arm of 48 ft. The bridge was built of a 95-ft. bridge then on the cars for ship- 
ment at one point and 37-ft. girders specially built at the bridge shops. The 
ends were temporarily wedged and locked with regular splice bars bolted to 
the bridge and approach rails, until more permanent devices could be pre- 
pared. Pile driving was started on Oct. 25, falsework erected by Nov. 6, 
and the bridge put in service at 8 p.m., Nov. 7. (" Engineering News," April 
2, 1908.) 



CHAPTER 29.— RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 

Records. 

It is of great importance that complete records should be kept of the phys- 
ical characteristics and equipment of the railway; and of its maintenance, im- 
provements, contracts, purchases, expenditures, etc. It is equally important 
that these should be kept on a comprehensive system which will enable infor- 
mation to be obtained readily and surely, and which will be coordinated with 
the railway accounting system. The records will include real-estate and right- 
of-way properties, rails, ties, fences, bridges, signals, stations and buildings, 
tunnels, yards and terminals. Also the force and work of the maintenance- 
of-way department. Some of these have been dealt with under appropriate 
headings, and others are discussed below. Classified lists of physical equip- 
ment are often kept in tabular form on large sheets or in books. These are 
convenient as office records, but lack flexibility and availability for use or 
reference. Filing cases are valuable devices in keeping together in some sys- 
tematic arrangement the correspondence, drawings, accounts, reports, papers, 
etc., for any one subject or item of work. 

The card-index system affords great facilities for simplifying the keeping 
and filing of records, and it also makes them more available than under any 
other system. This applies to such permanent records as those of rails, bridges, 
structures and land; and to the periodical reports of labor, work and material 
in the construction, maintenance and operation. The system as applied to 
engineering work was described in "Engineering News" of Aug. 2, 1906. 
It is used by several railways for keeping ledger accounts with individual con- 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 483 

tracts or pieces of work. In this way a full record or statement for each 
account is shown on the card, without confusion with other accounts. Records 
of rails, ties, fences, track work, requisitions, purchases, material, etc., can 
be conveniently kept on cards. Records of bridges and bridge inspection are 
also kept in the same way, as noted elsewhere. The system has been intro- 
duced also in the right-of-way, accounting, purchasing, operating and motive- 
power departments, and can be applied to various classes of records for the 
engineering and maintenance-of-way work. The two sizes of cards most gen- 
erally used are 3X5 ins. and 5X8 ins. A record of improvement work may 
be kept by cards of different colors for different classes of work. These are 
arranged between guide cards having raised tabs for the names of stations. 
Thus if ballasting is being done between Greytown and Brownville, the infor- 
mation may be entered on a buff card (for ballasting) filed behind the index 
card lettered Greytown. Particulars of double tracking and installation of 
signals between J3rownville and Greenboro may be entered on blue (relaying 
rails) and pink (signaling) cards behind the card lettered Brownville. Each 
card would show the location of the work, a brief description, the index 
number of correspondence file, the number of order authorizing the work, and 
the dates of ordering, commencing and completing work. If it is desired to 
know what amount of signal work, for instance, is in hand, all the pink cards 
can be taken out and a summary prepared. The amount of clerical work 
required for keeping up the records and keeping the files in order is small when 
compared with the many advantages of the systematic records. 

Track Charts. — Most railways keep some form of map or chart record 
which shows the alinement and profile, track plan, and the important physical 
features (including those relative to operation). The charts may be arranged 
in book form or as large plans for office use; they may also be in long slips 
that can be folded for the pocket. Whenever changes are made, the charts 
should be corrected and revised copies then sent to the general office. Cor- 
rected copies of the entire chart should be issued at least once a year. The 
chart should include both plan and profile, and would usually show the follow- 
ing features: all main and side tracks, and their spacing c. to c.j lengths of 
sidetracks (with car capacity); industrial spurs; junctions; all stations and 
other buildings on the right-of-way (or closely adjacent), with their character 
and dimensions; turntables and roundhouses (with diameter and capacity 
respectively); water and coaling stations; shop buildings; telegraph lines 
(with number of wires); water mains, sewers and electric wires or conduits; 
fences; street, road and farm crossings; track crossings of street, electric and 
steam railways (with their angles); tunnels; bridges, trestles and culverts 
(with particulars as to spans); signals and interlocking; weight and age of 
rails, character of ballast and other track features; section limits; county and 
other boundaries; property monuments, and survey stations. The limits of 
right-of-way should be marked, but all information as to ownership, etc., is 
shown on the right-of-way map. The rated loading for freight engines, the 
ruling grades, and the weight of engine which may safely be run (as limited 
by roadway or bridges), may be indicated. The American Railway Engineer- 
ing Association in 1907 adopted a series of conventional signs for track charts. 
The scale may be from 300 ft. to 5,280 ft. to the inch, but for station or ter- 
minal plans it may be about 100 ft. to the inch, or even 50 ft. where extensive 
industrial developments have to be shown. 



484 



TRACK WORK. 



In Fig. 232 is shown a portion of a division chart used by the Chicago & 
Northwestern Ry. The sheets are 34X52 ins.- inside the border lines; the 
horizontal scale is 1 mile to the inch, and the vertical scale 100 ft. to the inch. 
In one corner is a small map of the division. The charts are corrected annually. 
Blue prints are framed for office use, and are cut into strips and folded for 
pocket use. At the top are shown the track sections and mile posts, and a 
line is ruled across the chart at each mile. Then comes the alinement, show- 
ing the degree of each curve. Below this is a general plan, the railway being 
indicated by a straight line. Bridges, road crossings, sidings, spur tracks, 
buildings, etc., are shown, and notes are given as to spans of bridges, grades 



I3S(A 



SEC.& 



1 14-85' 



SLC.8** 



A5Q'\ 



Mile Posts 48 



49 



50 



51 



52 



53 



54 



Alinement 



Geography 

43TALLF 
N°A7 H0\ 

N°A8slACKWNI 
. .8| ■ 

N°A9.UNDER TRJSS , 

• » • HOWETRUjSS/ 
48 

Profile gA 
Rate of i$f 
Grade perMite 



Meital 



nj (vi 

no ; 32' ' 



<5* 

4.0 |* +f 18.0 



3 V 



8.0 



*La.S5 ' ■4-a.**.^l?.)£.<*-9.BB 



V 




<5 O V> 

! /3 \zi\ 



N.C. 60*~ 81 



3I.S3 styg- 






S6.4- ! 00 | 



/v.c. 6o" ao 



''0/4 Steel 
60* 



Fig. 232. — Track Chart; Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 



of spurs, and capacity of roundhouses. The township and other boundaries are 
marked. Under this is a profile, on which bridges are described, and eleva- 
tions and grades also noted. The profile is broken, if required, to keep it 
below the plan. At the bottom of the chart are shown the make, weight and 
date of rails. Station and yard tracks are indicated merely, reference being 
made to yard plans. Sidings and spurs are not plotted to scale. With each 
sheet is a table showing the dates of construction, and another table giving 
the location of each bridge, its record number, and its clearance in width and 
height 

A chart used by the Pennsylvania Ry. is G ins. high, folding up to 4X6 ins. 
It is divided vertically by sections instead of miles, with the names and 
addresses of the supervisors and foremen along the top of the chart. The plan 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 485 

shows the state and county lines, mile posts, number of tracks (and, by sym- 
bols, the weight of rail), sidings, road crossings, bridges (with their numbers), 
stations, signal towers (with their telegraph calls and the number of the block), 
etc. Below this is the alinement plan, showing the direction and degree of 
curves. Symbols on this line indicate the character of the ballast. Below 
this again is the profile. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. has a rail, 
ballast and fence record consisting of process sheets (blue lines on white ground) 
13X8 ins., divided vertically by lines forming a scale of 1 in. to the mile, with 
five strips of track on each page. Each strip of track has three lines, the cen- 
ter line indicating the rail and ballast, and the two side lines the fences. Numbers 
and symbols indicate the kind of ballast, weight of rail, kind of fence, etc. 

Rail Records. — The set of rail-record blanks as used on the Pennsylvania 
Ry. and the Pennsylvania Lines comprises the following: (A) Manufacture: 
1, Report of chemical and physical examination; 2, Certificate of inspection. 
This gives a statement of rails accepted and rejected, with the reasons for rejec- 
tion; 3, Report of shipment from mill. All these are signed by the inspector 
and the engineer of tests. (B) Failures: 4, Report of section foreman on 
broken, damaged and defective rails removed from main track. This is 
similar to the report noted later; 5, Report of superintendent on rails which 
have failed. This is made monthly, being compiled from the foremen's reports; 
6, A summary of rail failures for a number of years, the rails being grouped 
as to weight and make; 7, A comparison of failures of rails of different weights, 
sections or makes. (C) Statistics: 8, Division engineer's annual report 
of the different kinds of rail in main track; 9, Diagram (1-in. per mile) show- 
ing the location of all rails of a certain kind that have been sent out for trial; 
10, Diagram (2 ins. per mile) for reporting a single group of a special kind of 
rail under trial; 11, Diagram of wear. Rail sections drawn or printed on this 
sheet have the worn contours plotted from actual measurements. 

Bridge Records. — Records of the bridge department have been dealt with 
in the Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association, 1904- 
03-07. The records of the character and design of bridges and culverts may 
be kept in accordance with the following system, as recommended by the 
above Association: 1, The chief engineer or other officer having charge of the 
design and maintenance of these structures should have on file complete plans 
of each structure, showing its details, its location, and the physical charac- 
teristics of the ground within a reasonable distance. 2, Changes in any struc- 
ture should be reported to the head office, and noted at once on the record 
plans. 3, Blue prints of the general and detail plans should be furnished to divi- 
sion officers having charge of the maintenance of structures. 4, Photographs 
of the record tracings may be furnished to the division or other officers f o * 
use in the field; these would be of a size convenient for the pocket and bound 
in book form. A condensed record of all structures is almost indispensable for 
office use and reference. The bridge record is sometimes a blue-print list, cor- 
rected from time to time. This shows the bridge number, the position (by 
miles), number and length of spans, center height, general description, and 
year of construction. Many roads have a tabular record of structures. One 
form is a sheet 16X21 ins., with main headings as follows: Steel bridges, 
trestles, culverts, viaducts, tunnels. These are subdivided to show style of 
piers, trestles with bents of treated or untreated timber, style of culvert, tunnel 
dimensions, length of structure, etc. 



486 



TRACK WORK. 



For bridge records and bridge-inspection records the card-index system 
of filing is specially adaptable. In Fig. 233 is shown the face of an index guide 
card (8X5 ins.). There is a card to each bridge, and upon it is given full infor- 
mation as to the structure; its location, type, dimensions, age, loading, foun- 
dations, repairs, etc. The back of the card may be used for additional infor- 
mation or for a sketch of the structure. The cards give also the file numbers 
of the drawings, correspondence, etc., relating to each structure. Reports 
of inspections are entered on cards of the same size (but sometimes of a dis- 
tinctive color). These are filed behind the index cards of the structures. In 
this way full particulars of the condition, repairs and maintenance expenses 
of each bridge, and the location of drawings and correspondence relating to 
it, can be ascertained very quickly. The inspection card used in connection 
with the index card shown in Fig. 233 has the same heading as the latter, 



p— 

No. Spans Extr. L 


ength 


Design 


5860 

BRIDGE No. -| Q 


Over 


jon 




JLO 

DISTRICT i DIVISION 


Width c. 


to c. Depth 


No. Panels 


Length c. to c. = 


Built by 


in 


Chords = 


= E Beams = E Stringers = E 






Weight of One Span 


Sub-foundation 


Cost per lb. cts. . 


Abutments of amt. cu. yds. 


B. of R. to Top of Masonry 


Piers of amt. cu. yds. 


B. of R. to Underclearance 


Ties , x x ft. Ig. spaced c. to c. 


Clearance, height, 


width 




Alignment Super-,elev. in. 


Underclearance to High-water 


Grade %. No. of Tracks 


' Drainage Area 




sq. ft: 


Notes:— 


Required Waterway 




sq. ft. 




Actual Waterway 




sq. ft. 




Correspondence file 




Profile Drawings 




Masonry Plans 




sh °r^ iis 


Should be inspected times per year. 


Erection Plan 






Span replaced iq 



Fig. 233. — Bridge Record Card. 

with a note "Should be inspected times per year." Below this the card is 

divided into nine columns for the following information, with 12 horizontal 
lines for as many inspection records: Name of inspector; month, day and 
year; condition of superstructure, foundations, deck and paint; date of last 
painting. In some cases a card is used for each inspection, giving details 
of the condition of the several parts. (See also "Bridge Work.") The index- 
ing of the cards is by the bridge numbers or by mileage. To facilitate refer- 
ence, the location of each station may be indicated by a card of distinctive 
color or with a raised tag for the name. On large railways, separate files 
would be kept for the different divisions. This system of bridge records is 
used by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Ry. and the Michigan Central Ry. 
On the latter, colors are used to indicate the different classes of structures; 
buff cards are for steel bridges, yellow for wood, pink for arches, green for 
culverts, etc. These are all numbered and arranged consecutively, regard- 
less of color or class. 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 487 

The right-of-way and real-estate records are incidentally related to the 
engineering and maintenance-of-way departments. They are dealt with in 
the Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Association for 1905 
and 1908. On the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. all such matters are in charge 
of a land department, and the system of records employed (including maps, 
leases, deeds, etc.) is described in the Proceedings of the Illinois Society of 
Engineers, 1903 (" Engineering News," Jan. 29, 1903). 

Reports. 

Numerous periodical reports from subordinate officers to their superiors 
are necessary to show the work of the maintenance-of-way department and to 
enable its progress and cost to be determined. These reports relate mainly 
to labor, work and material, and from them the cost is distributed in the account- 
ing system. They are usually made in books or on ruled sheets or forms. The 
sizes and styles vary widely on different railways, but it is advisable to have 
as few sizes as possible, for the sake of uniformity and for convenience in 
filing. In many cases the reports received by one officer are compiled or sum- 
marized in his own report to the next superior officer. Thus the foremen's 
reports for the several sections may be condensed into the roadmaster's report 
for the division, and the roadmasters' reports for the several divisions may 
be condensed into the engineer's report for the entire line. The reports for 
the use of section foremen, bridge and building foremen, work-train conduct- 
ors, etc., should be as simple and clear as possible. These men are usually 
of limited education, and have little understanding of the details of a system 
of accounting. But upon their reports this system is largely based. Com- 
plicated analysis or dfstribution of work should not be required of these men 
and would be accomplished very unsatisfactorily (and incorrectly) by them 
as a rule. The aim should be to have simple, accurate and definite statements 
or reports from the men. The analysis and distribution for statistical or 
accounting purposes would then be done more accurately and economically 
in the office of the roadmaster or engineer. The office should have, of course, 
a sufficient force for the purpose. This system is employed by the Pennsyl- 
vania Lines. The roadmaster receives the monthly time books (which are 
practically labor reports) from the various foremen. He examines, checks 
and approves these, and then forwards the original reports to the engineer. 
In the engineer's office the pay rolls, reports and compilations are made. 

The reports used vary widely on different railways, but the list in Table No. 
41 summarizes the reports most generally used. 

Reports of the material and tools on each section and division are very impor- 
tant. A daily record of material is usually kept by the section foreman in a 
small blank book, and from this he prepares a monthly inventory or report. 
The reports are sent to the roadmaster or supervisor, who either compiles 
his report from them or sends them (when examined and checked) to the engi- 
neer. The several reports are then combined and summarized, and a classi- 
fication prepared of expenses for material. The form of monthly report as 
recommended by the American Railway Engineering Association (1905) is 
shown in Fig. 234. This is on a sheet 17X14 ins., and is designed to give a 
complete check upon all material received and used. Column No. 4 includes 
material received through purchases; No. 5, that removed from track dur- 
ing repairs; No. 6, that removed from abandoned tracks. These last two 



488 TRACK WORK. 

are often combined. The description covers the various kinds of material 
and their various classes as to weight, size, etc.; for instance, rails of differ- 
ent weights, frogs of different numbers, long and short splice bars. For track 
scrap, only four classifications are given: 1, Rail 6 ft. and over; 2, Rail 
under 6 ft.; 3, Frog, switch and guard rail; 4, Miscellaneous. It has been 
suggested that a more detailed description should be given, as by subdivid- 
ing all the vertical columns to separate "usable" and "scrap" material of 
each class in the list. On the other hand, an individual or ledger account 
is rarely kept with each track section, and it is difficult to get detailed reports 
made out completely and accurately. It is considered doubtful, therefore, 
if the railway company would benefit appreciably by the more extended clas- 
sification. The Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. has a form of report of scrap on 
hand available for sale. This is made out monthly by the assistant engineer 
and is sent by the chief engineer to the purchasing agent. It gives the first 
three classifications noted above, and the following: 4, Track scrap (A, Bars, 
bolts, spikes, etc.; B, Miscellaneous wrought scrap; C, Miscellaneous cast 
scrap); 5, Bridge scrap; 6, Miscellaneous scrap (wrought, cast and malleable). 

TABLE NO. 41.— LIST OF REPORTS. 

Section Foreman to Roadmaster. 

Time book (Monthly). Tools and equipment (Monthly). 

Work performed (Weekly or Monthly). Material and scrap (Monthly). 

Fencing (Weekly, during renewals only). Fires, Stock killed, ) 

Rails removed (Monthly). Accidents to trains, > Occasional. 

Ties laid and removed (Weekly). Broken or defective rails, etc. ) 

Roadmaster to Engineer. 

Distribution of pay roll. Broken rails. 

Work performed. Broken joints. 

Rails laid and removed. Switches and frogs removed. 

Ties laid and removed. Work-train work. 

Track ballasted. Extra-gang work. 

Sidetracks laid and removed. Gravel and earth handled. 

Materials and scrap. Bridge inspection. 

Tools. Train and other accidents. 

Fencing. 

Miscellaneous. 

Work-train foreman to Roadmaster Daily 

Extra-gang foreman to 

Bridge foreman to Sup. Bges. & Bldgs Daily 

Do., materials to " " . Monthly 

CarpenteV foreman to " " Daily 

Do., materials to " " " Monthly 

Steam-shovel engineman to Roadmaster " 

Pump-station engineman to Sup. Bges. & Bldgs Weekly 

Tie inspector to Engineer Daily 

Signalman, condition of sig. or int. plants. . . to Weekly 

Do., tools and material to " Monthly 

Inspector on contract work to " Daily 

Remarks and explanations may be made on the back of the material report, 
and the foremen should be trained to use the report properly and to make all 
necessary explanations. The back may also have a tabular form for daily 
report of material received by shipment and shipped away. This servos as a 
check upon columns Nos. 4 and 12. It shows the date, quantity and descrip- 
tion, from whom received or to whom shipped. In some cases the foremen 
simply make daily reports of material used and for what purpose. The office 
force combines these into a monthly statement. This provides for separating 
the material (and cost) for maintenance work from that of new work, such as 
new sidings and extension of sidings. This is sometimes provided for, however, 
by a separate report of sidetrack work, or by entering in columns Nos. 10 and 
il of Fig. 234 the name of new track and the number of order authorizing the 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



489 



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490 



TRACK WORK. 



work. Reports of tools and equipment are made by the foremen. These are 
similar to the material reports, and are handled in the same way. Fig. 235 
shows one form of roadmaster's inventory, consisting of two sheets 8JX14 ins. 
This is sent to the engineer or the auditor. 

Reports of work done on the sections are made weekly by the section fore- 
men. The report used by the Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. is a sheet 8|Xll 



SECTION No. 



SUB-DIV. No.. 
WEEK ENDING 



.DIVISION. 



RENEWING AND SPACING CROSS TIES. 





RENEWALS 


SPACING TIES 




No- Cross Ties 


No. Hours Work 


Kind ol 
Ballast 


No. Ties Moved 


No. Hours Work 


Kind of 
Ballast 


Number Cross Ties— main Tracks. 














" — Sidings, 














Total, 






Average Number Cross Ties Per Hour. 







REPORT OF MARKED TIES REMOVED PROM TRACK. 



REMOVED FROM MAIM TRACKS 


r REMOVEO FROM SIDINGS t 


Number 
Removed 


Tear Put in 

as Marked 

on Tie 


Kind of 
Timber 


Cause of RemovaJ 


Number 
Removed 


Year Put in 

as Marked 

on Tie 


Kind of 
Timber 


Cause of Removal 



















































































NEW RAILS LAID IN RENEWALS. 



' 


NEW RAILS LAID 


Kind of 
Angle Bars 


CROSS TIES MOVED 




Ft. 90 lb. 


Ft. 80 lb. 


Number 
Hours Work 


Number 
Ties Moved 


Number 
Hours Work 


Number Feet New Rails in Main Tracks, 














Number Feet New Rails Laid in 'Sidings, 














Total, 














Average Number Per Hour, 









Unusual Work Done: 



Business Sidings Built: 



Progress of Work:. 



ForemuiK 



INSTRUCTIONS -.—Report to be sent to Supervisor on 7th. Uth, 21st and last da/ of monTi 
Foreman's time to be included in distribution. 



Fig. 236. — Section Foreman's Weekly Report; Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 



ins., of the form shown in Fig. 236. The foreman includes his own time in 
the report, and after signing it he sends it to the roadmaster on the 7th, 14th, 
21st and last day of each month. It may be stated that the season's work is 
carried on in accordance with a well-defined schedule. In another form of work 
report, the sheet is 5|X9| ins,, and is not ruled in columns. At the left is 
a list of work, including the following: Number of men, total days of work 
(as per time book), frogs and switches examined, rails laid, ties laid, track 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



491 



surfaced (with its location), track ballasted, ditch made or cleaned, condition 
of hand cars, etc. 

Reports of main track ballasted, made monthly by the roadmasters, may 
have vertical columns headed as follows: Between what station stakes, which 
track, feet of track ballasted, kind of ballast, cubic yards deposited. 

Reports of ties received, laid, removed, shipped, burned, etc., are made 
by the foremen. They should show the kind of wood, and should separate 
main track and sidetrack work. It is important to record the date of laying 
and removing ties, but this is rarely done except in the case of treated ties 
which are marked with the year of treatment. For such ties, the foreman 
should report (daily or weekly) the number laid, location, date mark on tie* 



CHIEF ENGINEER'S DEPARTMENT. 



On the^. 



REPORT OF RAIL LAID IN MAIN TRACK. 
Division. Month of 



J90^ 









RAIL LAID. 






RAIL. REMOVED. 






SURVEY STATIOM. 


lorthbound 
or 

Southbound 


Feet 
of 

Trod 


BRUNO AMD DtTE 
OF RAIL 


Veight 
per 
Tard. 


Mem 
or 
Old. 


BR AMD AMD DATE 
OF RAIL 


Weight 
per 
Tard. 






From. 


To. 




1 




















1 ; 























2 . 


3 




















3 . 



Fig. 237. — Report of Rails Laid and Removed; Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 

kind of wood, treatment. These reports will be used in the office in prepar- 
ing statistics of ties^ For treated ties removed, the American Railway Engi- 
neering Association recommends a monthly report ruled in 10 columns to show 
(for main track and sidetrack separately) the number of removals, year marked 
on ties, kind of wood, kind of treatment, and cause of removal. The first col- 
umn gives the number of ties removed bearing the date given in the second 
column. Reports of ties inspected are made by inspectors, and of ties treated 



Division. 



Sub-Division 



Date 



._r9 



Location 


Track 
No. 


Facing 

or 
Trailinq 


Stand 


Points 
Cond'n. 


Frog .; 


Guard 

Rail 

Throat 


Gage 

at 

Froa 


Remarks. 


Kind 


Throw 


Kind 


Cond'n. 





































































Fig. 239. — Report of Main-Track Turnouts; Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 



by the superintendents of preservative plants (or by inspectors). Notices 
of ties shipped for distribution are sent by the engineer to the roadmasters. 

Reports of stretches of rails laid on main track are made monthly (during 
the time of rail renewals) by roadmasters on the Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 
The sheet is 8^-Xll ins., with headings as in Fig. 237. These columns cover 
half the sheet and have 15 horizontal lines. Below them are 15 lines (num- 
bered) for remarks referring to the lines on the tabular part of the report. 

Reports of frogs and switches removed from the track are made in consid- 
erable detail by roadmasters on the Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. The form is 



492 



TRACK WORK. 



shown in Fig. 238, and is on a sheet 8JX11 ins. The report must be made 
after personal inspection, and must show the day of removal. This report 
is used as the basis of an annual summary showing the life of frogs and switches. 



DIVISION. 



REPORT OF FROGS AND SWITCHES REM OVED FROM TRACK. 

Data, 19. 

, 'Survey Station -f 



Section No... Station , 

Name of Track Main or Side Track 



FROGS 



SWITCHES 



Ho... — Length Weight of Bail. 

Spring or Rigid „ .Right or Left Hand 

Bolted or Keyed... Hew or Old When Laid.. 

If Special Hake, give name 

Hame of Manufacturer „ 



Show Location of Break on Sketch. If Spring Frog, mark 
Spring Rail. 




Weight of Rail.. 



Length „ 

Split or Special. ; _ 

Main or Side Track Point. _.. Bight or Left Hand. 

Part Damaged, Broken Or Worn Out , 

New or Old When Laid , _ 

Distance of Break from Point 

Condition of Stock Bail. 

Name of Manufacturer.... .... 



CAUSE OF REMOVAL-BROKEN. —State Cause and. Condition of Point Broken. 



DAMAGED OR' WORN OUT.— State Exactly in What Way. 



DEFECTIVE.— Locate any Flaws and State Cause 



CONDITION. — Fit for Use, Scrapped or can Bepairs be Made ?. 

By Whom can Bepairs be Made? _ 

State if any Accident or Delay was Caused 



Kind of Ballast Condition of Ballast. 

Condition of Ties , _ Line. 



Surface.. 



Date Laid— Year ...Month ......... Date Taken Up— Year Month...... Life in Track— Years Months. 



INSTRUCTIONS. 



Supervisors will make this report from personal inspection for every 
Frog and Switch of over 71-lb. rail removed from track. Date.report day 
Frog or Switch is remaned from Track. 



Correct. 



Supervisor. 



Fig. 238. — Report of Frogs and Switches Removed; Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 



Monthly reports of main-line turnouts and their condition are also made by 
the roadmasters. The sheet is 8X10J ins., with headings as shown in Fig. 239. 
Reports of sidetrack work are made on a number of railways, and Fig. 240 
shows the form used for the monthly reports made by roadmasters on the 
Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry. The sheet is 8JX14 ins. The list of material 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



493 



includes the following: Rails, joints, track bolts, spikes, rail braces, ties, switch 
ties, frogs ; switches, switchstands, switch locks, and switch lamps. Instruc- 



MONTHLY SIDE TRACK REPORT FOR 

Name of Siding connecting ivith- 



-190- 



Located at mile-post- 



.plus* 



-feet north, running in- 



direction 



..side of main track. 



DATE 


LENGTH IN FEET 


AUTHORIZED 


BEGUN 


COMPLETED 


NEW 


ORIGINAL 


EXTENDED 


TAKEN UP 


PRESENT 


CLEAR 






HE 













KIND OP> MATERIAL 




NEW 


OLD 




PRICE 


AMOUNT 


Steel rails pounds per yard _ 


Feet 






























foints _, . 


No. 














Track Bolts 


Pounds 














Spikes 


















No. 
































•No. 






























Switch Tie* .. . 


Feet 






























Frogs, kind No. 


No. 






























Switches, kind 


No 






























Switch Stands, kind 


No. 
































No. 
































No. 






























































































TOTAL 






















KINO OF LABOR 


HOURS 










Section Men 


Eitra Gang 


Work Train 












Cradme 


















Putting in switch 


















Laving rails and ties 


















Hauline ballast 


















Putting in ballast 




































TOTAL 


















GRAND TOTAL 









INSTRUCTIONS. 

A sketch of the track, showing connections, mast accompany 
this report 

The columns "Price" and "Amount" are for use io M. of W. 
office only. 

All lengths except "Clear" to be figured from point of switch. 



The above statement is correct. 



ROAOHAITIIL 



Fig. 240. — Report of Sidetrack "Work; Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry. 



tions on the report state that a sketch of the track, showing connections, must 
accompany the report. The columns of price and amount are for use in the 



494 



TRACK WORK. 



maintenance-of-way office only. All lengths (except " clear ") must be figured 
from the point of switch. This report is for one piece of work. Forms of 
monthly reports covering all the sidetracks built and removed during the month 
are shown in Fig. 241. These are sheets 10X8 ins. 



NEW SIDETRACKS CONSTRUCTED Division. 



190. 



AT WHAT STATION. 



NAME OF TRACK. 



LOCATION BY STA- 
TION STAKES. 



FEET OF 

TRACK 

CONSTRUCTED. 



REMARKS. 



SIDETRACKS TAKEN UP Division 190. 



AT WHAT STATION. 



NAME OF TRACK. 



FEET OF 

TRACK 

TAKEN UP. 



KIND OF 
RAIL. 



KIND OF 
SWITCH RE- 
MOVED.. IF 
ANY. 



REMARKS. 



Fig. 241. — Reports of Sidetrack Work. 

Reports of fence and ditch work are made weekly by section foremen on 
the Grand Rapids & Indiana Ry. They are sheets 8^X5| ins., with a line 
for each day and the total. Each* has columns for date, location by station 
stakes, which side of track, total hours of work, and remarks. The fence 
report has columns for length of fence built (rods), number of posts set, and 
rods of wire used. The ditch report shows length of ditch built, length of 
tile laid (feet), and number of tile laid. A form of daily report for a fence gang 
js a sheet 8^Xl0f ins. It shows the number of men, length and kind of fence 
built and repaired, cattleguards built and repaired, number of post holes dug 
and posts set, kind of soil, etc. A form for a roadmaster's monthly report of 
fence work is shown in Fig. 242, and is on a sheet 8JX14 ins. 

FENCE CONSTRUCTION ON Division, during 190 



Locations by sta. 
stakes. 


Which 

side 

of 

track. 


Feet. 


Kind of 
fence. 


Cost. 


New 

or 

old 
mate- 
rial. 


Remarks. 


From 


To 


Labor. 


Material. 


Total. 

































































Fig. 242. — Roadmaster's Report of Fence Work. 

Reports of the gates at highway crossings are made monthly on the Grand 
Rapids & Indiana Ry. The sheet is 8 ins. wide, ruled in vertical columns for 
the following information: Name of crossing, location, pattern of gate, date of 
inspection, condition, date of repairs, and remarks. Reports made weekly by 
pumping-station men may show the size and style of engine, pump, boiler and 
tank; hours pumped, fuel consumption, supplies received and used, and con- 
dition of plant. If a water-softening plant is used, special additional informa- 
tion will be required. Reports of inspections at stations are sometimes made 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



495 



daily to the master carpenter or foreman of buildings. These may be sheets 
8^X14 ins., one for each station. At the left is a list of parts and a column 
for noting the condition when inspected; more than half the page is left blank 
for remarks. The list may include: passenger station, freight station, other 



Division Engineer. 
Dear Sir.' 

Work train was called for -..— 

was ordered to report at — • ■■ — 

and left at M. Was delayed. 



.igo- 



.-M. at. — 



......-..-«/ M. to-day: arrived at. —M 

.hours in starting and going to work, as follows: 



COMMENCED WORK at. 



__«/_ —M. with Men and did the following: 



KIND OF WORK. 


Time Chirjtd to Each Job. 


Seperale different jobs. Describe each fully. Show Icind and quantity of material and number of Can of each loaded ; 

also kind »f cats. 


Trala. 


A 1 M. W. Me* 
locludlof 
Foreman. 






,j 


























„, 




. 





































Total Time, {of M. W. Men to agree with total time allowed^ ..... 







While working was delayed-~..~.~~ — hours, as follows: — 



■FINISHED at. M. 



— Engineer 

.Number ofBrakeman- 



Used Engine No _. ~~~ ~ 

NOTE — Give each delay and time lost thereby separately, Forward to Division Engineer 
on same day train was used. 
• LEAVE THIS TABLE BLANK.) 



Foreman. 



HOURS. 


CHARCED TO 


WAGES 


Fuel 


Stores 


Repairs 




Conductor 


brakeman 


Engineer 


Fireman 


TOTAL 










































e ■ 



















Wages oj M. of IV. Men, $.. 

Total cost of work Train, • • - -.. . • - • $. 

Fig. 243. — Work-Train Report; Baltimore & Ohio Ry. 



buildings, water tank and tower, water columns, pump house, coaling station, 
stock chutes, mail cranes, freight derricks, track or wagon scales, crossing gates, 
etc. The foremen of buildings may make weekly reports of work done, number 
of men, the time for each day and for the week, the wages, and amount. 
Reports of work trains and extra gangs are made daily by the foremen, 



496 



TRACK WORK. 



being sent to the roadmaster or engineer. On the Grand Rapids & Indiana 
Ry. the report is a sheet 8|X10| ins., having a wide column for description 
of work and a narrow column for the hours chargeable to each kind of work. 
The instructions require the foreman to make a complete diary of the work 
done, describing each job; new sidings and extensions must be separated 
from other work. On the Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry., work-train conductors 
send reports to the assistant engineer each night. The report is a sheet 



^CmiF EHGihEitr's department. 
DAILY REPORT OF EXTRA FOREMAN, 



On what piece of work engaged. 



J90 



Work Train Engine No 




Reported for dut) 


• at.. ..... 


Jt. Went off duty at. 


hi. 


CARS LOADED. 


CARS UNLOADED. 


Initials. 


Numbers. 


Sec. 
No. 


Contents. 


At What Point. 


Initials. 


Numbers. 


Sec 
No. 


Contents. 


For What Purpose- 
































































1 

















































HANDLED FROM STEAM SHOVEL. 

No. of Flat Cars Loaded.. Unloaded. Kind of Material. 

" Gondolas " _ ! " - 



DAILY DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. 

Extra Foremen should till out this blank each night and forward to their superior. 

The Distribution of Time sboujd be taken from the book in which it is kept, the object being to*bbtain, daily, a record of how 

much time is being expended on each piece of work, or portion of it. 



DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. 

{EXCLUSIVE OF T«MS AND DRIVERS.) 


Section 
Number. 


Number 
of Men 
Working 


Total 
Hours 
Worked. 


AMOUNT. 


S 


its. 






























































Teams and Drivers — Give Number 












1 Total, 













,£xtra Foreman. 



NOTE. — Time of Foreman should alwa/s be included. 



Fig. 244. — Extra-Gang Report; Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 

5*X8| ins., with headings to indicate the work, the time of going on and off 
duty, the number of locomotive, etc. The greater part of the sheet is blank, for 
a summary of work done and particulars as to the cause and length of any 
delays. The form of work-train report of the Baltimore & Ohio Ry. is shown in 
Fig. 243. 

On some roads, however, the daily work-train report shows the number 
(and kind) -of cars of gravel and of earth unloaded, and at what points; also 
the number (and kind) of cars held in service for the next day. The extra- 
gang's report may show the number of cars loaded and unloaded, and points 
where unloaded. Foremen of extra or floating gangs on the Pittsburg & Lake 
Erie Ry. make daily reports on forms 8JX10§ ins., shown in Fig. 244. Two 
reports of similar work, made daily by the roadmasters of another railway, 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



497 



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498 TRACK WORK. 

are shown in Fig. 245. They are on sheets 14X8J ins. The same form of 
report is used by the work-train foremen in charge of the laborers. 

Reports of steam-shovel work are important in enabling the cost of ballast- 
ing and filling to be determined. Forms for such reports and for records of 
the work have been adopted by the American Railway Engineering Association. 
The daily report should show the style and capacity of the machine, the charac- 
ter and location of the work, and also give the following information: 

Information for Report of Steam-Shovel Work. 

Time of starting. No. of cars loaded. 

Time of stopping. Kind of material. 

Time for spotting. Material loaded (cu. yds.). 

Actual time worked. Material per car (cu. yds.). 

No. of men at pit. Condition of track. 

No. of men with train. • Weather. 

No. of locomotives. Supplies consumed. 

No. of cars. Haul, average. 

Style and capacity of cars. Delays (time and cause). 

Reports of train accidents are required from roadmasters. These specify 
the train, time, location, and character of accident, together with information 
as to the points noted below. In some cases the information required is noted 
on a printed form 8-|Xl4 ins. In case of a serious accident, special investi- 
gations and reports are made. 

.Information for Report of Train Accidents. 

Main, side or private track. Condition of track. 

At switch or frog. Gage of track. 

Trailing or facing switch. Damage to train. 

Curve or tangent. Damage to track. 

Curve: degree, superelevation and gage. Damage to structures. 

Track construction (in full). Cause of accident. 

Reports of broken and damaged rails found in the track are of great impor- 
tance. These do not include rails worn out in service or those broken in train 
accidents. The report is usually required to be made out by the section fore- 
man. It is checked by the roadmaster, after personal observation, and is 
forwarded to the engineer. The latter will send copies to designated officers. 
The report is made on a printed form. This should have a diagram of plan, 
section and elevation of a rail (showing ties also), upon which the position 
and character of fracture or defect may be marked. Some roads require the 
roadmaster to have about a foot of the rail on each side of the fracture cut 
off, and properly labeled and numbered, for future reference. In describing 
failures, the following terms may be used: 1, "Broken" indicates a rail broken 
completely through (and separated into two or more parts), or having a crack 
which may result in a complete break; 2, "Damaged" includes rails damaged 
or broken by broken wheels, train wrecks, etc.; 3, "Flow of metal" means 
a rolling out of the metal to form a lip or fin on the edge of the head, but with- 
out indications of a breaking down of the metal in the head (that is, the bot- 
tom of the rail head is not distorted); 4, "Crushed head" means a flattening 
of the head, with the sides crushed down below the original level of the bottom 
of the head; 5, "Split head" means a rail showing a longitudinal split near 
the middle of the head, or having pieces split from the side of the head. It 
should be stated whether this is accompanied by a seam or hollow head. 6, 
"Split web" means a longitudinal split in the web, usually starting at the 
end of the rail and running through the bolt holes. 7, "Broken base" includes 
splits in the base and pieces (usually of segmental shape) broken from the edge 
of the base. The information required by the report usually covers the points 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



499 



noted below; the "rail number" means the letter or number indicating the 
part of the ingot from which the rail was rolled. 

Information for Report on Broken Rails. 



Weight per yard (original), 
(present). 
Rail section. 
Brand on rail. 
Heat number. 
Rail number or letter. 
Original length of rail. 
Date when laid. 
Location (mile post and feet). 
Which track and rail. 
Bank or cut. 
Curve or tangent. 
Curve, No. and degree. 
Curve, superelevation. 
Gage of track. 

Rail broken, defective or damaged. 
Character of failure. 
Cause of failure. 
Did rail break under train. 
Last train (and engine No.) before break. 
Amount of traffic and heaviest engine. 
Was automatic signal operated by breaking of rail. 



Rail badly worn. 

By whom discovered. 

Date and time. 

Was rail removed (date). 

Was rail spliced. 

Break over or between ties. 

Break square or angular. 

Distances between ties at break. 

Condition of ties at break. 

Kind of ties, and age. 

Tie-plates used. 

Condition of line and surface. 

Ballast, material and depth. 

Was track properly ballasted. 

Material of roadbed (subgrade). 

Track well drained. 

Roadbed frozen. 

Joint, description. 

Joint bolts loose. 

Spikes loose. 

Weather and temperature. 

Accident or detention to train. 



For reporting progress on track elevation work, the engineering department 
of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. uses white prints (blue lines on a white 
ground) showing a diagrammatic plan and profiles. The plan shows the num- 
ber of tracks, and the arrangement of the streets. Two profiles show the 
retaining walls, abutments and bridge superstructures for the north and south 
sides of the work (the south portion of the piece of work in question being 
completed before the north portion was started). Six profiles show the sand 
filling on the several tracks. A distinctive color is used for each month's 
work, and a coloredr chart for each week is the only record required of the 
engineer in charge of the work. A system of reports of tracklaying, used 
on the Oregon Short Line, has been given in the chapter on "Tracklaying." 

A style of progress report used on the Chicago, Indiana & Southern Ry. 
was designed to show the percentage of work rather than quantities. The 
sheet had a number of columns headed: Earth bank, earth cut, rock cut, steel 
bridge, piers and abutments, concrete arch, pipe culvert, trestle, ties deliv- 
ered, rail delivered, track laid, fences built, etc. This was ruled horizontally 
with a column of percentages (0 at bottom to 100 at top). A separate color 
was used for each month, and the columns were colored to show progress. 
This showed graphically the relative progress of the various parts of the work. 
The system might be adapted to maintenance and improvement work. 

Correspondence. — Communications from superior officers should receive 
prompt and careful attention. The replies should be definite and concise. 
The letters should be filed for reference, together with copies of the replies. 

Instruction Books. — The work of the roadm asters and section foremen, 
who are the men in actual charge of the track, carries a considerable responsi- 
bility. The most thorough means should be taken, therefore, to keep these 
men fully informed as to their duties. Books of instructions and rules for 
this purpose are in use on many roads. In introducing this plan, the books 
should at first be small and inexpensive pamphlets. After they have been 
in service for a sufficient time, improvements may be made so as to embody 
the best results of actual experience. A book can then be made up for per- 
manent use. The matter should be clearly and concisely written, so as to be 
easily understood and to leave little chance for misunderstanding. The char- 



500 



TRACK WORK. 



acter of the instructions and regulations has been outlined under " Organiza- 
tion." The book would include the rules and instructions governing road- 
masters, section foremen, work-train conductors, extra-gang foremen, and 
foremen of the bridge and building department. It would have tables of curve 
elevations and ordinates for bending rails, etc., and bills of switch timbers. 
The illustrations would include roadbed cross-sections, methods of piling ties, 
turnout diagrams, rail joints, and similar details. They should preferably 
be on the pages of the book, or on sheets folded only once or twice. Large 
folded sheets are awkward to handle and are soon torn. 

Requisitions. — One of the troublesome details is the handling of requisi- 
tions for supplies. Requisitions for ties and such material are not infrequently 
disallowed or cut down by an official who has no idea of the actual requirements. 

DAILY RECORD OF TIME FOR 



NAME 


CHECK NO. 


OCCUPATION 


1 


2 


3 


A 


6 


6 


7 


e 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


18 


17 


18 


IB 


20 










































































































































, 

















































Fig. 246.— Time Book; 

He may think that requisitions are too large, or he may entertain the erroneous 
impression that every dollar cut from a requisition is a dollar saved to the 
company. Officers with authority of this kind should realize the economic 
relations between expenditures and the results obtained therefrom. The 
arbitrary cutting of requisitions is discouraging to men who have prepared 
them carefully with a view to actual needs, and the practice will result in care- 
less estimates, or in requisitions purposely made excessive so as to meet require- 
ments even when reduced. The roadmaster, engineer, or superintendent 
should inform himself as to financial and business conditions. He should pre- 
pare his estimates or requisitions with these conditions in view, and be 
prepared to show that they are reasonable and necessary. On the other hand, 
the superior officers should realize the economic relations between expendi- 
tures and results, and should recognize that the men in charge are in better 
position to know the needs for the proper maintenance and operation of the 
road. They should at least consult with them before making changes, and 
may then hold them strictly accountable or responsible. A careful system 
is required for the handling of requisitions in order that exact record may 
be kept of the materials, their cost and disposal. Special blank forms are 
generally used, and are sent to the head of the department. For material 
in small quantities or needed at once, and for which the regular procedure 
would be a red-tape obstruction, the order may be sent direct by the road- 
master to the storekeeper (or other official); he uses a special form and sends 
a duplicate of this to the engineer to provide for proper accounting. Fore- 
men make requisitions monthly, except for special requirements; in such case, 
the roadmaster fills the order from his own store or makes a direct requisition 
upon the store department. All superior officers receiving requisitions should 
examine them to determine if they are necessary and reasonable. 

Time Books. 
Each section foreman has a time book in which he enters up the hours worked 
and the work done each day. These daily reports are of great importance, 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



:01 



as upon them is based the system of accounting and the distribution of expenses. 
In view of the limited education of the men, the time book should be as sim- 
ple as possible, as already noted. Few railways consider it advisable to require 
the men to make a detailed analysis of the work. A new book is issued to 
each foreman every month, the old book being sent to the roadmaster at the 
end of the month. The book should be of convenient form to be carried in 
the pocket, and the foreman should have it always with him when on duty, 
in order that it may be examined by the roadmaster at any time. He should 
enter the records every day, while on the work. This original book should form 
the official report, being sent each month to the roadmaster. On some roads, 
however, the foreman copies his entries into a clean book. The book should 
provide for the record of the name of each man in the gang, the time worked 





















Month 


OF 










,19 












21 


22 


23 


24 


2S 


28 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


TOT»L 
HOURS 


RATE 


AMOUNT 


DEDUCTIONS 


AMOUNT 

PAYABLE 


PAYABLE AT 


Month 


Hour 


Ton 


IN FAVOR OF 


Amount 



























































































































































































Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 

by each daily, the work performed daily, and a summary or classification 
of the work done during the month. A system of daily reports has been tried, 
the purpose of which is to relieve the section foreman from the work of making 
up his book each month. The daily time sheet shows the total number of 
men, the total hours of work, the hours spent on different items of work, and 
the amount of work,done (number of ties laid, length of track surfaced, etc.). 
For this method of reporting, the roadmaster's clerk is trained in the account- 
ing system; he enters up these daily reports and prepares the monthly pay 
rolls and statements of labor and work. A traveling auditor would super- 
vise the work of these clerks. 

The Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. uses a time book 8|X5 ins., bound at the 
narrow end, and having stiff-paper covers. Three double pages are arranged 





DAILY DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR 




O 


DAY 


KIND OF WORK AND WHERE DONE 


Hours 


Rate 


AMOUNT 


1 















































Fig. 247. — Report of Distribution of Labor; Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. 

as in Fig. 246, with 16 horizontal lines; the bottom line is for totals. The 
foreman enters his own name at the top, and takes a line for each man; the 
man's check number and occupation are then shown. In the column for each 
day is shown the time worked by each man, and the total for the day is entered 
at the bottom of the page. At the end of the month is shown the total time 
worked by each man, with his rate of pay, and the amount of wages due. The 
deductions are for board bills (sent with the book), hospital or relief funds, 
etc. The net amount payable to the man is then shown. The next 16 pages 



502 TRACK WORK. 

are for the daily distribution of labor; each page is for two days, with 18 
lines to a day. They are ruled as shown in Fig. 247. The next six pages are 
ruled in the same way, but are for a monthly summary of the daily records, 
showing a classification of the labor. The first column shows the account to 
which each item is assigned (see Table No. 44). The printed classification 
(given in two columns in Table No. 42) fills less than two pages, the remain- 
der being left blank for additional classification and special items. At the 
right are columns for "hours," "rate" and "amount," as in Fig. 247. 

TABLE NO. 42 — SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION OF LABOR; P. & L. E. RY. 
Acct. ^ Kind ^ Work Done Acct. K . nd of Work Done 

1 Superintendence. 68 Snow and ice: Removing from station 

2 Ballast: Loading and unloading. platforms and walks. 

6 Ballast: Applying. 7 Snow fences: Placing and removing. 

6 Ties, cross, switch and. bridge: Loading 12 Snow fences: Building and repairing. 

and unloading. 11 Fences, cattleguards and road crossings: 

6 Ties, cross and switch: Applying. Building and repairing. 

6 Ties, cross and switch: Respacing. 11 Signs: Repairing. 

6 Rails: Loading, unloading and handling. 13 Signals and interlockings: Repairs and 

6 Rails: Applying. renewals. 

6 Other track material: Loading, unload- 14 Telegraph and telephone lines: Repairs 

ing and handling. and renewals. 

6 Other track material: Applying. 16 Station grounds: Repairing walks., drive- 

6 Track repairs: Surfacing, lining and ways and fences. 

gaging. 16 Station grounds: Cleaning and cutting 

6 Track repairs: Tightening bolts and grass. 

spikes. 16 Stock yards: Repairing. 

6 Roadway: Cutting grass and weeds. 18 Tools: Repairing and sharpening. 

6 Roadway: Ditches, constructing and 19 Cars, work equioment: Repairing. 

cleaning. 38 Cars, freight: Repairing. 

6 Roadway: Banks, widening, sloping and 95 Cars, freight: Cleaning. 

sodding. 68 Cars: Transferring freight. 

. . Roadway. Retaining walls to protect 68 Stations: Cleaning; handling baggage 

roadbed. and freight. 

6 Roadway: Slides, removing and repair- 72 Stations: Handling fuel. 

ing washouts. 68 Lampman: Station lamps. 

6 Scrap handling: Track scrap, including 75 Lampman: Switch and yard signal and 

scrap rail. interlocking lamps. 

38 Scrap handling: Car scrap. 96 Lampman: Block and signal lamps. 

6 Watchmen: Track, cuts and banks. 87 Handling ashes: Ash pits and round- 

8 Watchmen: Tunnels. houses. 

9 Watchmen: Bridge, except at draw- 79 & 88 Fuel for locomotives: Handling. 

bridges. 16 Water stations and track tanks: Repair- 

97 Watchmen: Street crossing and gatemen. ing. 

98 Watchmen: Drawbridge. 80 & 89 Water stations: Pumping and clean- 
9 Bridges and culverts: Repairing or clean- ing tanks. 

ing. 80 & 89 Water stations: Handling fuel. 

7 Snow and ice: Removing from tracks. 99 Wrecks, clearing: Except work-train 
7 Snow and ice: Removing from tracks wrecks. 

(overtime). 

The Illinois Central Ry. uses for the time roll and distribution of labor a 
book which gives a sealed carbon copy of all entries. This provides against 
alterations and erasures of original entries. It is required that all unfilled 
spaces must be cancelled each day, so that there is no opportunity to date 
back a new man in order to give him pay to which he is not entitled. The 
roadmasters examine the books frequently, and special time inspectors travel 
over the line to check the number of men in each section gang with the num- 
ber in the foreman's time book. On the 27th of each month, the books are 
sent to the roadmaster. He examines them and uses them in preparing his 
own report, and then forwards the original books (with his report) to the audi- 
tor's office. The pay rolls are then compared with the work shown in the books, 
and the books are returned to the roadmaster. The book is 8^X9 ins.; 
arranged to fold to 5|X9 ins., so that it can be carried conveniently in a case 
for the pocket. The first double page is in duplicate, with a carbon sheet 
between, and the edges of the two sheets are pasted together, so that the 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 503 

duplicate is inaccessible. This part of the book is ruled as shown in Fig. 24S. 
There are 20 lines for names, but under the date headings the space for each 
name is subdivided by a horizontal line, making two spaces. These are for 
recording the morning and afternoon time. 

The time is entered four times each day. When a man reports for duty 
in the morning, a dot is made in the upper space, and at noon the number 
of hours worked is entered in this space. When he reports after dinner, a 
dot is made in the lower space, and when the day's work is completed the 
number of hours worked is entered in this space. If a man does not report, 
a heavy cross is made in the space opposite his name. If he leaves and is 
given an order for his time, the foreman enters "Time given" in the column 
for remarks, and cancels each space opposite the name by a horizontal line. 
When the number of men is such that the 20 lines are not filled, the empty 
spaces below the last name are cancelled by drawing a heavy line immediately 
above the space for "Total." This must be done immediately after dinner 
(1 p.m.). Thus Fig. 248 shows that on the 28th, John Brown, foreman, worked 
five hours before dinner and five hours after dinner; James Lincoln, laborer, did 
not work in the morning, but worked four hours in the afternoon. Amos Gar- 
field worked only two days. A roadmaster or inspector examining the book 
in the field will note if the number of dots is the same as the number of men 
at work. The column must be added up each day, and the total entered at 
the foot. For overtime (after 6 p.m.) the hours must be entered after the 
morning -record, with explanation on a special page which is divided horizon- 
tally into three parts for explanations of "New work," "Overtime," and "Er- 
rors." If an entry is incorrectly made, by mistake, it cannot be erased, but 
must be explained under "Errors." The system is less complicated than might 
seem from the description, and is easily understood by the foremen. 

The distribution of labor is entered on a double page having date rulings 
as before, but with a classification of labor at the left and a list of accounts 
chargeable at the right, as in Fig. 249. This is not in duplicate. The next 
two pages are ruled for explanations as to work done under certain specified 
items of the classification. Blank lines provide for work which cannot be 
entered properly against any of the printed items. Another double page is 
then ruled like the time roll, but is for teamsters; this gives the name of each 
man and number of teams. The last page is for the use of the accountant, 
giving detail of charges to "Construction," "Additions and betterments," 
and "Sundry distribution." On the inside of the cover is a table of wages 
for various rates per hour and per day, giving the amount due for various 
numbers of hours at each of the several rates. This is for a 10-hour day. The 
time book for the bridge-and-building gangs is similar to that of the section 
gangs. The time sheet is followed by 20 double pages for report of labor per- 
formed. These are ruled in the same way, except that the column for "deduc- 
tions" is omitted, while in place of the two columns for name and occupa- 
tion, there is a wide column for the foreman's description of work performed. 

All time books are numbered. The division officers are required to keep a 
record of the number of the book delivered to each foreman, and the foremen 
are not allowed to keep extra books on hand. This provides a check upon the 
books used and returned. The auditor of disbursements also keeps a record 
of the number of the books sent to each division, and the division officers are 
required to make an explanation as to books that are not returned. 



504 



TRACK WORK. 



L_ 


7W£ /?0£L 








Section No 


._ 




NAME 


OCCUPATION. 




28 


29 


30 


31 


1 


2 


3 


4 




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Fig. 248.— Time Book; 



Charge to 
Account 
Number. 



28. 



4. 
9. 

10. 

11. 

11. 

12. 

12. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

14. 

14. 

15. 

17. 

17. 
19-20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 
26-27-28. 

29. 
30-31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

35. 

36. 

37. 
39-40-41 ) 
51 to 65 f 

92. 

92. 

92. 

92. 

92. 

105-118-119. 

130. 

135. 

145. 



Unloading ballast 

Ditching and embanking 

Putting.. ..... .ballast in track 

Laying ties in track 

Loading and distributing ties 

Laying and surfacing rails in main track 

Laying and surfacing rails in sidetracks 

Loading and distributing rails for renewals 

Removing grass or weeds from track or right-of-way 

Putting in frogs and switches 

Taking up sidings. (Give location.) 

Other work on tracks 

Repairs to tracks, account wrecks or washouts 

Distributing and putting up snow fences 

Cleaning snow and ice from tracks 

Cleaning under or repairs to bridges. (Give number.) 

Roadways under or bridges over highways 

Highway grade crossings 

Repairs to cattleguards and signs 

Repairs to right-of-way fences 

Repairs to interlocking, block or other signals. (Give location.). 

Repairs of telegraph 

Repairs to buildings. (Give name and location.) 

Repairs to scales 

Repairs to fuel stations 

Repairs to water stations 

Cleaning station grounds 

Cleaning shop grounds 

Repairs to docks and wharves 

Repairs to cars or locomotives. (Give number.) 

Cleaning stock pens or chutes. (Give location.) 

Tending switch lamps. (Give location.) 



Cleaning station platforms 

Cleaning snow and ice from station platforms 

Transferring or rearranging freight in- transit 

Pumping water 

Cleaning stock cars. (Give location.) 

Clearing wrecks 

Burying stock 

Grading for new siding. (Give detail.) 

Other work on new sidings. (Give detail.) 

Handling company coal, wood or ice. (Give detail.). 



Cook's wages. 



Fig. 249. — Distribution of 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



505 



-Division. Month ending 27th of- 



190_„ 



18 


19 


20 


— 
21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


TOTAL 
TIME 


RITE m PIT. 










Per 

Month 


Per 
Hour 


OF WAGES. 


Decoctions. 


REMARKS 










































































































































20 




































/Z**<jL&<4>4<4^ 






















































































































« - 
































, 1 





Illinois Central Ry. 



29. 



26. 



27. 



Total 
Time. 



Account 
Number. 



2 

4 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
' 35 

36 

'37 
5 39-40-41 ) 
151 to 65 t 

92 

105-118-119 

135 

145 



Accounts Chargeable. 



District 
No 



Superintendence — Salaries 

Ballast 

Ditching and embanking 

Applying ballast 

Applying ties 

Applying rails 

Removal of grass, weeds, etc 

General repairs of roadway and tracks. . . . 
Extraordinary repr. of roadbed and tracks 

Water-front protection 

Removal of snow, sand and ice 

Tunnels 

Bridges, trestles, etc. — timber 

Bridges, trestles, etc. — permanent 

Over and under grade crossings 

Highway grade crossings 

Cattleguards and signs 

Right-of-way fences 

Snow and sand fences and snow-sheds. . . . 

Interlocking plants 

Block signals 

Other signals 

Telegraph and telephone lines 

Shops, engine houses and turntables 

Stations, office and miscellaneous buildings 

Scales 

Fuel stations 

Water stations 

Station grounds 

Shop grounds 

Docks and wharves 



R. & R. of loco, or cars. 

Other station services 



Water supply. 

Clearing wrecks 

Damage to stock on right-of-way. 



Construction. (Detailed on page 10.). . . . 
Sundry distributions. (Detailed on p. 10) 
Additions and betterments. " " " 



Labor; Illinois Central Ry. 



506 



TRACK WORK. 



The time book of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry. is peculiar in requiring 
the foreman to make an elaborate distribution of time and labor for each man 
each day. There is a double page for each man, ruled as in Fig. 250. The 
book is 8§X9£ ins., with stiff-paper covers, and five double pages. A similar 
book is used for work trains and gravel pits. On the second page of the cover 
are detailed instructions to track foremen, and these (in condensed form) are 
given below. On the third page of the cover is a form for recording the names 
of employees who have left during the month; the cause of leaving and other 
particulars are given. The record cards of these men (sent by the foreman to 

WORK PERFORMED IN THE 







MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY AND STRUCTURES. 




















Repairs of 


4 










REPAIRS OF ROADWAY AND 






Bridges and 


■+j 
















TRACK. 








Culverts. 


43 

Oj 












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u 

o 

s 








M 

a 

u 

M 
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CI 
•— 1 

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GO 43 


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bp 

o 

s 

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o 

CO 




rs of Fences, Road 
ssings, Signs and C 
rds. 


a 

cm 

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% 
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al Repairs of 
iges and Cul- 
ts. 


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30 




































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31 












1 I 






















Total 
No. of 
Hours 






































Total 
Wages 














1 























Fig. 250. — Time Book with Distribution 

the division superintendent for each new employee) can then be removed from 
the file. 



Instructions to Foremen for Keeping Time and Distributing Track Labor; 

Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 

At the close of each day's work the total number of hours worked by the 
foreman and each laborer should be entered in the column headed "Total 
time worked,'' a separate page being used for each man. Then under the 
proper headings in the columns following should be entered the number of 
hours chargeable to each account. At the close of the month, each column 
should be added, the totals being inserted in the spaces opposite the words, 
"Total number of hours." The sum of the distribution columns should equal 
the footing of the column headed "Total time worked." 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 



507 



As soon as the last day's time is entered each month, and the book footed, 
it should be certified by the foreman and forwarded by first mail to the road- 
master. The latter will carefully examine it to see that the entries are correct 
in accordance with his knowledge of the work done. He will certify it, and 
forward it to the division superintendent for use in making the pay roll. 

Maintenance of Way and Structures. — This is chargeable with the cost of 
all work necessary to keep the property in as good condition as when first 
built. If, for instance, a road crossing is worn out, the whole cost of renew- 
ing it with one practically the same as the old one was when first built should 
be charged to this account. But if a larger or better crossing should be put in, 
then only that part of the expense which would be required to replace the old 



MONTH OF , 190. . . 

OCCUPATION , RATE . 



PER. 





s 

U 

o 

□ 

'6 

03 

m 
u 
o 

a 
o 

bo 

a 

1 

o 


Unload' g 


Construction. 






Fuel into 
Storage. 


M 

a 

a 

c3 
H 

H 


be 

.2 
'■+3 
at 

"os 

PS 


ori 
0) 
73 

e3 
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a 

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a) 


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a 
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C 
03 
be 

•as 

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of to 

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a 

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in 
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o 


Sidings 


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"si 

c 

he 
02 

h 
1) 

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O 


IS 
o 
O 


H3 
O 

o 


Remarks. 


1 








- 






























1 















































































of Labor; Chicago & Northwestern Ry. 



crossing with one like it is chargeable to this account. The excess, or cost of 
the improvement, is chargeable to Construction. 

Laying Rails. — Time used in taking up and disposing of old rails; and 
unloading, handling, and laying new rails to replace those taken up. 

Laying Tieo. — Time used in taking up and disposing of old ties; and unload- 
ing, handling, and laying new ties to replace those taken up. 

General Repairs of Track. — Time used in repairing and renewing frogs, 
switches, switchstands, rail braces, tie-plates, track fastenings, etc.; picking 
up and loading miscellaneous scrap material along the roadway; inspecting 
track, repairing and renewing retaining walls, etc., made to protect track, and 
taking up old sidetracks. The expense of repairing and renewing snowsheds 
and snow-fences (when not also right-of-way fences) must be entered 
here. 

Ballasting. — Time consumed in preparing, distributing, and renewing bal- 
last, in order to put the track in as good order as when originally ballasted. 



508 TRACK WORK. 

Filling Bridges, Trestles, and Culverts. — Time used in filling with earth 
work, when the cost of such work is not in excess of the cost of replacing the 
structure. The number and location of the structure should be given under 
" Remarks." 

Cleaning out Ditches. — Time used in opening, clearing, and repairing ditches 
in order to make them as good as when first made. 

Clearing Track of Snow and Cutting Weeds. — Time used in clearing snow, 
ice, weeds, brush, and grass from the track; and mowing and burning weeds, 
brush and grass inside of right-of-way fences. 

Track Watchmen. — Time of men engaged as track watchmen and flagmen 
while repairs of track arc in progress, rendered necessary by such repairs. 

Freshet Repairs. — Time used in repairing damages to roadway and track 
caused by freshets and washouts. 

Sidetracks. — Time used in repairing sidetracks should be included under 
"Repairs of roadway and track," under the appropriate headings. 

Repairs of Interlocking Plants. — Time consumed in repairing interlocking 
plants, including tower buildings, and switches and signals operated by the 
plant. The name and location should be given under " Remarks." 

Repairs of Block Signals.— Time used in repairing train -order, distant, and 
block signals, including tower buildings. The name and location should be 
given in the " Remarks" column. 

General Repairs of Bridges and Culverts. — In this column should be entered 
time used in repairing; also time of men engaged as watchmen and flagmen 
while repairs of bridges and culverts are in progress, rendered necessary by 
such repairs. The number and location of the structure should be given under 
"Remarks." The cost of repairing the track (rails, ties, guard rails, fasten- 
ings, etc.) over bridges, trestles, and culverts should not be charged to this 
account, but should be charged to "Repairs of roadway and track," under 
the appropriate headings. 

Bridge Watchmen. — Time of bridge watchmen who are regularly employed 
as such, and not required on account of special repairs being made. 

Repairs of Fences, Road Crossings, Signs, and Cattleguards. — Time in repair- 
ing right-of-way fences, road crossings (including the roadways and streets 
thereon), track and crossing signs, and cattleguards (or rebuilding them if 
necessary), in order to render them as good as when first built. 

Maintaining Telegraph. — Time used in repairing or looking after telegraph 
and telephone lines, resetting poles, etc. 

Laborers at Stations. — Time assisting station agent in loading or unloading 
freight, cleaning or caring for stations and station grounds, cleaning stock 
yards, cleanisig snow and ice from station platforms, sidewalks, etc., and car- 
ing for switch lamps. In each case the name of the station and nature of the 
work done should be given. 

Flagmen. — Time of men while engaged as flagmen at public crossings, except 
when rendered necessary by repairs to track or similar special work. 

Fuel for Locomotives. — Time consumed in coaling engines, filling coal 
buckets or chutes to deliver coal to locomotives. 

Clearing Wrecks. — Time of men employed in clearing up wrecked cars or 
locomotives, including all time consumed in reloading cars, transferring pas- 
sengers and baggage, or other necessary work resulting from a wreck, such 
as building temporary tracks around wrecks, etc. The cost of repairing dam- 
age to the track caused by a wreck should not be charged to this account, but 
should be entered under the appropriate headings under " Repairs of road- 
way and track." 

Loading Cinders at Cinder Pits. — Time used in loading cinders at cinder 
pits, no matter for what purpose same are to be used. 

Unloading Fuel Into Storage. — Time unloading coal from cars into coal 
houses or on the ground (and loading or unloading wood from or into cars), 
when same is to be stored, no matter for what purpose it is to be used. 

Construction. — This is chargeable with the expense of building entirely 
new or additional pieces of work; such as constructing a new crossing, build- 
ing a fence where the right-of-way was not previously fenced, or laying tiling 
or making ditches where there was none before. It is also chargeable with 
the expense of enlarging or improving any existing facilities or structures. 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 509 

If the length of a crossing is increased, or if a fence has a fifth wire added, the 
cost of such extension or additional work is chargeable to Construction. The 
idea is to charge Construction (under the proper account) with the added ex- 
pense which the company may incur in the improvement of its property. Any 
additional expense which increases the value of the property (excepting that 
which merely restores it to its original condition when new) is chargeable to 
Construction. 

Tracklaying. — Time used in putting in rail braces, tie-plates, etc., on main- 
line tracks where there were none before. 

Ballasting. — Time used in ballasting main-line tracks which were not pre- 
viously ballasted. Also the increased cost (if any) of labor required in replac- 
ing one kind of ballast with a better kind, over the cost of the labor required 
to replace the old ballast with same kind. 

Rectifying Grades. — Time used in cutting down grades, changing grade 
levels, or filling sags, when such work is a change from the grade of the line 
as originally 'constructed and not repairing wear and tear due to operation. 

Changing and Straightening Line. — Time used in changing and straighten- 
ing the line of road, eliminating curves, etc. 

Widening Embankments and Cuts. — Time used in widening them beyond 
the original width. 

Filling Bridges, Trestles, and Culverts. — Time used in filling with earth- 
work when such outlay is in excess of the amount which would be required to 
replace the structure with another like it. The number and location of the 
structure should be given. (The cost of the filling up to the amount required 
to replace the structure with another like it should be charged to the proper 
account under "Maintenance of Way and Structures.") 

Ditching. — Time used in laying additional tiling, making new ditches, and 
deepening or widening old ditches beyond the depth or width when originally 
made. (The cost of reopening old ditches or digging out dirt, etc., deposited 
in such ditches since their construction, should be charged to the proper account 
under "Maintenance of Way and Structures.") 

Fences. — Time used in building right-of-way and snow fences where there 
were none before. When a fence is improved by adding more wires or more 
posts, the time used on account of such work should be charged to this account. 

Road Crossings and Signs. — Time used in putting in additional road cross- 
ings, including roadways and streets thereon, farm gates at new openings, 
track and crossing signs, and cattleguards ; also any labor spent in improv- 
ing such structures. The location and name or number of each crossing should 
be given under "Remarks." 

Sidings. — Time used in building new sidetracks, crossover tracks, etc., and 
extending or improving old ones, including grading, ballasting, putting in 
switches and connections with the main line, and any other expenses connected 
with the laying of a siding. The time should be entered under the proper 
headings: "Grading," "Tracklaying," "Ballasting," etc. In the column 
headed "Remarks" should be given the name and location of each siding, and 
the authority for doing the work. 

Block and Other Signals. — Time used in putting in additional train-order, 
distant, and block signals (including tower buildings), or improving old ones. 
The name and location of each block station, etc., should be given in " Remarks." 

Interlocking Switches. — Time used in putting in additional interlocking 
switches and tower buildings connected therewith; also cost of additions 
to or improvements of existing plants. The name and location of each plant 
must be given in "Remarks." 

Blank Columns. — In these should be entered all labor expended which is 
not properly chargeable under any of the headings preceding. A full descrip- 
tion of the work should be given in "Remarks." 

Accounting and Maintenance-of-Way Expenses. 

The expenditures for maintenance-of-way and structures represent from 
12 to 25% of the operating expenses of a railway, but there is very little relia- 
ble information as to the cost of the various classes of work included. In all 



510 TRACK WORK. 

r 

accounting for engineering and construction work, it is important that unit 
costs should be determined or made available, but this feature is to a great degree 
neglected in maintenance-of-way. The annual reports of railway companies 
form the most available source of information, but these give merely totals 
and lump sums for the entire mileage, so that no definite deductions or com- 
parisons can be made. Division reports as a rule do not enter into greater 
detail. The system of accounting as finally compiled is generally arranged 
to meet the requirements of the Interstate Commerce Commission; there 
are certain arbitrary classifications, and there is no separation of labor and 
material. On very few railways is information as to itemized expenses or 
unit cost available even to engineers in the maintenance department. This 
was shown by an investigation made by the author in 1905, in seeking to 
obtain information of this kind for compilation and analysis. ("Engineer- 
ing News," July 27, 1905.) Several engineers stated that they realized the 
desirability of such information, but that the systems of accounting used by 
their roads did not provide for this, and they had not the time or the oppor- 
tunity to develop or introduce such a system as would produce the desired 
results. 

The only method, as a rule, is to take the total amounts given for the fe"w 
general classifications and divide these by the mileage, so as to obtain some 
very rough approximate figures of cost per mile. The annual reports of 
railway companies give among the operating expenses the expenditures for 
maintenance-of-way and structures. Sometimes these are subdivided into 
rail renewals, tie renewals, roadway repairs, etc. But there is nothing to 
show the amount of work. Rail renewals may be done on 50 miles of a 100- 
mile division or a 1,000-mile railway. The cost of this work divided by 100 
or 1,000 would give an absolutely useless (and misleading) figure of average 
cost of rail renewals per mile. On some railways it is possible to determine 
these costs by wading through files of detail reports, but this is rarely done, 
and as a rule the information is not obtainable in any way. It is very desir- 
able, however, that summaries or compilations of the time-book figures should 
be made available as a basis for estimating unit costs. 

The reports of the Illinois Central Ry. and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa 
Fe Ry. give the annual expenditures for maintenance-of-way and structures 
per mile of road for a term of years. These range from $1,127 to $1,448 on 
the first, and from $782 to $1,194 on the second road, but it will readily be 
seen that the figures are practically valueless in that they do not show the 
amount or character of the work covered. The cost of rail and tie renewals 
per mile of track on 20 railways also, has been found to range from $19 to $143 
for the former, and from $66 to $225 for the latter. On the Hocking Valley 
Ry. the ratios of some items of the maintenance expenses to the total operat- 
ing expenses in 1904 were as follows: Repairs of roadway, 4.84%; rail renew- 
als, 1.15%; tie renewals, 1.69%; repairs and renewals of bridges and culverts, 
1.09%; repairs and renewals of fences, crossings, and cattleguards, 0.20%; 
repairs and renewals of buildings and fixtures, 1.23%; total, 10.31%. A 
few reports list such items as quantities of rails, ties and ballast laid. 

As already noted, the accounts of the maintenance-of-way department are 
based usually upon the requirements of the auditor. On the Pennsylvania 
Lines, these accounts are kept under the arrangement shown in Table No. 43. 
The auditor cares only for the general heads, while the division officers keep 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 511 

their accounts under the subheads. It will be seen that the accounts are not 
kept in such a way as to give unit costs. 

The lack of complete and uniform records of the cost of various items of 
work is a drawback to the economical administration of the roadway depart- 
ment. In an address delivered before the Roadmasters' Association in 1897, 
the author pointed out that if statistics were kept of the cost of the various 
items of work on the track, they would furnish very valuable information. 
As a matter of fact, there is great uncertainty both as to the cost of work and 
as to the amount of labor involved in the work. The importance of this matter 
may be recognized when it is understood that a roadmaster may have charge 
of the expenditure of large sums of money, as already explained under " Organ- 
ization" and in the introductory chapter. The matter has also an important 
relation to the economy of maintenance-of-way and the general operation of 
the road. If properly planned and carried out for a few years the records may 
show that expensive ties (including cost of preservative processes and tie- 
plates) may be really more economical than cheaper ties, by reason of their 
greater life, thus giving a lower cost per year. They may also show, in the 

TABLE NO. 43.— DISTRIBUTION OF MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY ACCOUNTS; 

PENNSYLVANIA LINES. 

1. Engineering and superintendence: A, Pay of officers; B, Pay of clerks and attendants; 

C, Office and traveling expenses. 

2. Track maintenance. 

3. Applying track material: A, Rails; B, Ties; C, Ballast. 

4. Roadway clearing and policing: A, Care of roadbed; B, General cleaning; C, Snow 

and ice; D, Patroling and watching; E, Refuse material. 

5. Ballast. 6. Rails. 7. Ties. 

8. Track appliances: A, Rail fastenings; B, Frogs and switches. 

9. Roadway tools. 

10. Other roadway maintenance: A, Tunnels; B, Viaducts; C, New tracks; D, Bank 

protection; E, Filling; F, Other expenses. 

11. Bridges and culverts: A, Structures; B, Watchmen and supplies; C, Other expenses. 

12. Buildings and grounds: A, Buildings; B, Furniture and fixtures; C, Incidental build- 

ing expenses; D, Machinery and fixtures; E, Other expenses; F, Driveways and 
grounds. 

13. Docks and wharves: A, Repairs; B, Dredging and cleaning. 

14. Interlocking plants and signals: A, Interlocking plants; B, Automatic signals; C, 

Other expenses. 

15. Fences, road crossings and signs: A, Highway grade crossings; B, Other crossings; 

C, Fences; D, Other signs. 

16. Telegraph and telephone lines. 17. Electric traction lines. 

18. Stationery and printing. 19. Insurance. 20. Incidentals. 

general cost per mile of track, the false economy of laying new rails on poor 
ties and ballast, the same rails showing a shorter life and a greater total cost 
for maintenance of track than when laid as part of a good track. 

These are questions of railway economics, for it must be understood that 
merely cutting down expenditures is not necessarily an economy. It may 
be a wiser policy to make a large outlay at one time, and thus reduce the cost 
of maintenance for several years, than to distribute the expenditure in small 
sums, with the result of having a continual high charge for maintenance. The 
work of keeping such records might seem somewhat complicated at first, but 
after a few years it would become crystallized into a uniform standard prac- 
tice, so that extremely valuable records could be kept with very little trouble 
or cost. If railway managing officers more generally realized the importance 
of the expenditures on track, both directly as cash expenditures and indirectly 
in their influence upon traffic and other expenses, they would demand a more 
detailed accounting of these expenditures and their results. 

It is important that the cost of labor and materials should be separated, 
but in most cases this is not done. The plan outlined by Mr. Marshall M. 



512 TRACK WORK. 

Kirkman, Vice-President of the Chicago & Northwestern Ry., in his pamphlet 
on "The Track Accounts of Railways," is to have the final records attained 
in two distribution books, one for labor and the other for material. These 
are posted up by the superintendent monthly from the foremen's books, and 
show all track expenditures, and the accounts to which such expenditures 
are properly chargeable. At the general office a "track material" account 
is kept with each division superintendent. In the superintendent's book the 
average cost per mile for repairs of track and roadway is obtained by summing 
up the total number of hours worked on each subdivision, and taking a full 
day's work for each man for the entire month. On the Minnesota & Dakota 
division (1,300 miles), the average maintenance-of-way expense per mile in 
1903-04 was $285 for labor and $180 for material, or $465 in all. The classi- 
fication is so broad and the mileage included so great that the figures are indefi- 
nite in the absence of information as to work done, labor employed or materials 
used. On the Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry., the distribution of labor is made 
monthly for each division according to the list in Table No. 44. This list is 

TABLE NO. 44.— DISTRIBUTION OF PAY-ROLL LABOR; PITTSBURG & LAKE 

ERIE RY. 

A. Maintenance of Way and Structures. C. Transportation Expenses. 

1. Superintendence. 66. Superintendence. 

2. Ballast. 68. Station employees. 

6. Roadway and track. 72. Station supplies and expenses. 

7. Removal of snow and ice. 75. Yard switch and signal tenders 

8. Tunnels. (lampmen). 

9. Bridges, trestles and culverts. 78. Engine-house expenses (yard). 

10. Over and undergrade crossings. 79. Fuel for yard locomotives. 

11. Grade crossings, fences, cattleguards 80. Water for yard locomotives, 
and signs. 87. Engine-house expenses (road). 

13. Signals and interlocking plants. 88. Fuel for road locomotives. 

14. Telegraph and telephone lines. 89. Water for road locomotives. 

16. Buildings, fixtures and grounds. 91. Other supplies for road locomotives. 

18. Roadway, tools and supplies. 95. Train supplies and expenses. 

19. Work equipment: Repairs. 96. Interlockers, block and other sig- 
26. Maintaining joint track, yards and nals (lampmen). 

other facilities, Dr. 97. Crossing flagmen and gatemen. 

99. Clearing wrecks. 

B. Maintenance of Equipment. J08. Damage to property. 

106. Damage to stock on right-of-way. 
28. Superintendence. ^. .-, , ,-, 

35. Passenger cars: Repairs. D - General Expenses. 

38. Freight cars: Repairs. 115. General office supplies and ex- 

47. Shop machinery and tools. penses. 

printed in one column at the left of a sheet 8X14 ins., attached to which is 
a blank sheet for "Work authorized." The amounts are entered at the right 
of each sheet. This list may be compared with the time-book classification 
of work in Table No. 42. 

During construction and maintenance, careful notes should be made and 
records kept and tabulated to show the work done, time occupied, materials 
used, items of cost, etc. The regular reports should show the number of men 
engaged on each particular item and class of work, and the character and 
amount of materials used. All work of this kind tends toward the improve- 
ment of work and methods, since it puts figures on record and enables com- 
parisons to be made, and the relations between work, expenditure, and results 
to be comprehended. Proper financial accounts of all expenditures for main- 
tenance and renewals and betterments should also be made. In the annual 
estimates, some railways allow to each division a certain amount for track 
work, but the appropriation for betterments or construction should be entirely 
separate from that for maintenance. The cost of additions and betterments is 



RECORDS, REPORTS AND ACCOUNTS. 513 

very generally charged to operating expenses in this country, although some 
railways charge it to capital. 

Accounts should be kept for additions and betterments (or improvements), 
separate from maintenance, and this practice is becoming more general. The 
system should require an estimate of cost and formal authority for the appro- 
priation or expenditure for each piece of work. Ledger accounts with indi- 
vidual pieces of work are thus necessary, in order to show the detail, total, 
comparative, and unit cost. Forms for the estimate and authority have been 
adopted by the American Railway Engineering Association (Proceedings, 
1907 and 1908). Under the system recommended, the ledger accounts include 
five steps: 1, Preparation of the estimate; 2, Authorization; 3, Appropria- 
tion; 4, Monthly report of expenditure; 5, Ledger record of total cost of the 
completed work. A general manager (or vice-president) will request the 
chief engineer to make a study of and estimate for a proposed improvement. 
The chief engineer will submit his statement and estimate on the proper form; 
if approved by the general manager it will go to the president and board 
of directors. On their approval, the manager will issue to the engineer a form 
authorizing the improvement. This will show the total sum appropriated, 
a brief description of the work, and whether it is classed as construction, addi- 
tions, renewals, etc. Requisitions against this appropriation will be made 
as required, and will show the relations between the appropriation and the 
expenditures. There will also be a monthly report of expenditures. At the 
head of this will be the number of the authorization, the amount of the appro- 
priation, description of the work, and date of commencement and completion. 
Under this will be columns for the expenditure of the month, previous expen- 
diture, total expenditure to date, and estimated expenditure for the next month, 
etc. The form of this report is a sheet 8X14 ins., with the headings across 
the 14-in. width. The ledger account serves as a final statement and a per- 
manent record of cost. It should show the character and quantity of materials 
used, with their cost, and the quantity of labor performed. This will enable 
unit costs to be determined, which is an important feature. 

This system can be adapted to the work of the maintenance-of-way depart- 
ment, and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie Ry. uses it for all new work. The records 
of such accounts may be kept conveniently on the card-index method. Each 
piece of work has a number, and all papers and correspondence relating to it 
are filed under the same number in suitable cases. In the office of the engi- 
neer of the Southern Pacific Ry. a set of cards 5X3 ins. is used to record in 
condensed form the essential particulars regarding requisitions for new work 
and the progress of this work. The requisitions are sent in to the engineer, 
and a card is taken for each. The character and purpose of the work, and 
its estimated cost, are written along the upper part of the card, and below 
this are columns showing the dates on which the card was sent to the several 
superior officers for their approval. The appropriation for the work is shown; 
also the dates of the authorization, commencement and completion of the 
work. At the bottom is a space for remarks. On the back of the card (and 
printed across the 3-in. width) are columns showing for each month the expen- 
ditures for labor and material, the total for the month, and the total from 
date of commencement. A number is assigned to each piece of work, and 
certain series of numbers are used for different classes of work, such as " Lay- 
ing rails," "Building bridges," "Repairing stations," etc. Cards of different 



514 TRACK WORK. 

colors indicate the different districts in which the works are located. The 
cards are filed by the numbers, and are indexed both by subjects and districts. 
With these cards (and additional plain ruled cards filed with them), full infor- 
mation as to cost and progress of work can be obtained at any time. 

In regard to the classification of maintenance-of-way expenses and the 
distinction between repairs and improvements, Mr. W. G. Berg, Chief Engi- 
neer of the Lehigh Valley Ry., has advocated a general separation of these 
expenses into "repairs" and "improvements" (Proceedings of the American 
Railway Engineering Association, 1904). The repairs he divided as follows: 
1, Current; 2, Contingent; 3, Special, and 4, Extraordinary repairs. The 
improvements he divided as follows: 1, Betterments, and 2, Additions. The 
work is classed in order of its necessity. Thus current repairs (under control 
of the division engineers and the roadmasters) must be carried on, whatever 
may be the financial conditions. In the same way, some betterments will 
be made even in time of financial stringency. But other classes of repairs 
can be temporarily deferred. The bulk of the betterments also (and more 
especially the additions) can be postponed indefinitely, even though this may 
involve increased operating expenses or a loss of revenue. 

Accounting is sometimes thought to be a matter that does not require much 
attention from engineers. As a matter of fact it is very important that they 
should have proper records and proper distribution of the expenses on work 
entrusted to their care. It is important for the information of (and some- 
times even the protection of) themselves and their superiors or employers. Rail- 
way engineers are apt to fail to realize the importance of an accounting sys- 
tem for their own work, and especially its important relation to the general 
business and accounts of the railway. In other words, they sometimes over- 
look the fact that their department is only one feature in the business of oper- 
ating railways, and they need to give greater consideration to the financial 
relations of their work. It is not enough for an engineer to know (or for his 
superiors to believe) that he is competent and faithful. He should be able 
to demonstrate this at any time when his work may be called in question, or 
when it is necessary to support an estimate or opinion. For this reason he 
should give careful attention to the systems of records, reports and accounts 
for his work, whether it is in the line of construction, of general improvement, 
or of maintenance. It is probable that in the future more will be required of 
the engineer in recording and accounting for the expenditures on the work 
entrusted to his charge. 



APPENDIX. 515 



APPENDIX. 

A REVIEW OF STANDARDS OF TRACK CONSTRUCTION ON AMERI- 
CAN RAILWAYS. 

An investigation as to the standards of main-line track construction of Ameri- 
can railways was made by the author in 1907-08, and the results are given in 
the accompanying tables, which were published in "Engineering News/' June 
4, 1908. The railways included represent those of the smaller class as well 
as the more important lines and railway systems. They have an aggregate 
length of 153,800 miles, of which 15,100 miles are in Canada (on two railways). 
The total railway system of the United States is approximately 225,000 miles, 
and about 66% of this total (nearly 140,000 miles) is represented by the rail- 
ways for which information is given. The mileage of each railway is given 
as an indication of its importance. The figures have little bearing upon track 
conditions, as a railway of any length will include various kinds of track. The 
tables represent the character of track applied in new construction and in 
renewals. Of course a great mileage of lighter track exists on the railways 
mentioned; not only on their branches and secondary lines, but also on their 
main lines. The information (which was obtained through the courtesy of 
the engineers of the various railways) is very complete, but it must be remem- 
bered that the extent to which the standards are in actual use is an unknown 
and extremely variable quaatity. 

As to the weight of rail, since 1900 there has been a general raise in the 
"standard," which is of course the maximum. Of 40 railways, over 50% 
report an increase of 5 to 20 lbs. per yd. The form of section approved by 
the American Society of Civil Engineers is used very generally. Only a few 
roads report other sections, although it must be noted that these lines repre- 
sent an extensive mileage. In regard to length of rails, there is a surprising 
unanimity in the adoption of 33-ft. rails. In 1900, only eight railways reported 
33 ft., against 44 reporting 30 ft. as the standard length; one reported 30 and 
60 ft. and another 30 and 45 ft. In 1 908, 53 railways report a standard length 
of 33 ft.; only two report 30 ft., and four report both 30 ft. and 33 ft. No 
mention is now made of rails longer than 33 ft., which are evidently excep- 
tional and used only in special cases. The 33-ft. rails eliminate 10% of the 
joints, and are practically no different from the 30-ft. rails as to handling and 
maintenance. 

As to rail joints, the tendency is towards short splice bars with four bolts; 
40 railways have bars from 24 to 28 ins. long, as compared with 12 having 
bars from 30 to 36 ins. long, and only four have bars from 38 and 44 ins. long. 
In regard to the number of bolts, 36 railways use four bolts, 19 use six bolts 
and 2 use both four-bolt and six-bolt splices. The bolt spacing is generally 
from 4 to 6 ins.; the minimum is 4 ins., while 7-in. and 8-in. spacing is used in 
a very few cases. The maximum is 9 ins., which is used on only two roads, 



516 TRACK WORK. 

and is in each case for the outer bolts of a six-bolt joint with 40-in. and 44-in. 
angle bars. The bolts are f-in., |-in., and 1-in. diameter. On many roads 
a grip thread is used on both bolt and nut, the latter forming a lock nut and 
dispensing with the use of a separate nut lock. Nearly all of the railways lay 
their rails with broken joints; eight use square joints on tangents and broken 
joints on curves. 

The old style of supported joint, with a single tie and short splice bars, is 
practically obsolete; it is used on parts of the Michigan Central Ry. and the 
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry., with 23-in. and 24-in. bars respectively. 
The three-tie joint with long splice bars is used on a few roads, but is not the 
standard pattern, as a rule. The two arrangements of joints in most com- 
mon use are as follows: (1) Suspended joints, with rail ends projecting beyond 
the shoulder ties and spliced by angle bars. In several cases these joints are 
stiffened by the use of bars having webs which extend below the rail. In few, 
if any, cases is the base of the rail now supported by a device fitted between 
the rail and the lower webs of the bars, but not resting upon the ties. (2) 
Bridge joints, with rail ends projecting as above described, but resting upon 
bridge plates whose ends are supported on the shoulder ties. These plates 
are either independent of or integral with the splice bars. The Chicago & 
Northwestern Ry. has used independent bridge plates for several years. The 
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Ry. has recently adopted a similar arrangement 
as its standard, but has not yet applied it to any extent. There is a very gen- 
eral use of patented joints of various types, most of which have either a base 
support or a deep and stiff splice bar (extending below the rail) as the special 
feature. Some roads report that there is less work of maintenance required 
with rail joints of the bridge type as compared with those of the ordinary angle- 
bar type. Such a result would be reasonably expected. The Michigan Cen- 
tral Ry. is experimenting with several forms of rail joints, as shown below: 

RAIL JOINTS; MICHIGAN CENTRAL RY. 

, Bolts.* * ^Splice Bars.-^ 

Rail Diam. and • Wt. 

Wt. Susp. or No. Length under Spacing of Bolts. Length. per 

per Yd. Type of Joint. Supp. Head Pair, 

lbs. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins.ins. ins. ins. 

100 38-in. angle bar . Supp. 6 1X5 8 6 4 68 38 95.8 

100 25-in. angle bar . Susp. 4 1X5 .. 7 4 7 .. 25 64.8 

100 100 per cent ...Susp. 4 1X5 .. 7 4 7 .. 24 73.0 

100 Wolhaupter Bridge. 4 1X5 .. 7 4 7 

80 44-in. angle bar . Supp. 6 MX4J4 9 6 6 69 44 76.8 

80 38-in. angle bar . Supp. 6 KX4J/ 2 7H 6 6 6 1Y 2 38 65.2 

80 25-in. angle bar . Susp. 4 7 AX±K •• 6 6 6 .. 25 46.9 

80 23-in. angle bar . Supp. 4 7 AX4% . . 6 6 6 .. 23 

80 Continuous Bridge. 4 %X4% • • 6 6 6.. 25 62.9 

80 100 per cent Susp. 4 MX4M •• 6 6 6 .. 25 

*A11 bolts have square heads. 

The common spike, though inefficient for heavy track carrying heavy traffic 
is used almost universally. Sharp-pointed spikes are extensively used, but the 
practice of curving and grooving the spike to improve its hold in the tie has 
been given up, as affording little real advantage. Of 59 railways, only 8 are 
experimenting with improved fastenings. These fastenings are screw spikes 
in all cases, but the experiments are on a very limited scale. Bolts and clamps 
are occasionally used on bridges having steel decks. The bolted clamp fasten- 
ings used with steel ties are generally efficient in direct holding power, but 
appear to be deficient in ability to resist lateral thrust. In many cases the 



APPENDIX. 517 

bolt bears directly against the back of the bolt hole, and has consequently a 
small bearing area. In European practice the clamp (or a tie-plate) engages 
with the hole in the tie and gives an increased area of bearing for the bolt. 

Figures as to the life and cost of ties are indefinite and unreliable, usually 
based upon guess work and vague averages. They indicate a decided stiffen- 
ing of prices. Oak ranges from 60 to 90 cts. (27J cts. on one road in Louisiana); 
cedar, 30 cts. to 70 cts.; pine, 45 to 90 cts.; chestnut, 45 to 65 cts. The 
quality also has doubtless deteriorated. The 8-ft. tie is in most extensive use, 
35 railways using this, as against 19 using 8|-ft. ties. Only three report using 
9-ft. ties, and this length is not standard, but used in special cases. It is com- 
ing to be realized that ties 6 ins. thick are not stiff or rigid enough for the heaviest 
class of traffic, and there is a general tendency to increase the thickness to 7 ins. 
Anything more than this is exceptional. 

In width, the specified standard is generally 8 or 9 ins.; but narrower ties 
are used. The Duluth & Iron Range Ry. uses ties 6 to 10 ins. wide, but instead 
of a fixed number of ties per rail it specifies 130 linear inches of tie-bearing to 
a 30-ft. rail length. The Michigan Central Ry. is also considering the plan 
of making the number of ties per rail variable according to width of ties, so that 
in all cases the rail would be supported for a certain percentage of its length. 

Treated ties are used to some extent by many of the railways, but in only 
a few cases have they been used in large numbers, or for a sufficient length 
of time to enable definite results to be stated. The economy of such ties when 
well treated and properly used has been amply proved. Their more general 
use as a regular feature of track construction rather than as an experiment 
is much to be desired. 

The use of metal ti6- plates is very general, but would be more effective if 
combined with the use of screw spikes instead of common spikes. The plates 
used most extensively are those having flanges or chisel points which enter 
the wood and make the plate practically an integral part of the tie. Some 
important railways, however, are reverting to the use of flat-bottom plates, 
or else plates in which the flanges are only large enough to prevent the plate 
from slipping on the face of the tie. Screw spikes are particularly desirable 
for these latter types of plates. The flat-top tie-plate and the tie-plate with 
a shoulder or rib on the top to fit against the outside edge of the rail base 
are used to about the same extent, but there is an evident tendency toward 
increased use of the shoulder plate. On most railways, the tie-plates are used 
mainly on curves and on soft ties; also for turnouts. 

Ballast continues to be most variable in character, quality and quantity. 
The term "gravel" covers anything and everything from dirty bank gravel 
(full of sand or loam, or with a considerable proportion of large stones) to 
clean-washed and screened gravel, which is nearly as good as stone ballast. 
While the use of stone ballast is reported by many railways, it is very gen- 
erally confined to comparatively short stretches of busy main track. The 
new Virginian Ry., however, is using stone throughout; this road is being 
built for a very heavy coal and freight traffic. The tendency is to use smaller 
sizes of broken stone than were used some years ago, the purpose of the change 
being to obtain a denser and more substantial bed of ballast. In some cases, 
screenings have been applied upon coarse stone ballast. The size of ballast 
is specified usually for a range of from f-in. to 2J-in., although some roads 
specify a single size (lj-in., 2-in. or 2i-in.). Slag does not seem to be used 



518 TRACK WORK. 

except in the near vicinity of furnace plants, and burned clay appears to be 
going out of use. The depth of ballast under the ties on main track averages 
from 8 to 12 ins., but might in many cases be increased to advantage where 
heavy loads and traffic are carried. A combination is used in some few cases. 
Thus, on some parts of its line the Michigan Central Ry. uses 6 ins. of l*-in. 
stone on 6 ins. of gravel. The Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Ry. also uses 
8 ins. of stone (|-in. to 1^-in. in size) on 12 ins. of gravel or slag. For stone 
ballast, limestone is used in a majority of cases. Granite, trap and hard sand- 
stone are also mentioned. 

For turnouts, the bolted type of frog continues to be most generally used. 
Spring-rail frogs are usually adopted for main-line turnouts where the siding 
or turnout traffic is relatively small. The frogs for main track are usually 
Nos. 9 to 12, the higher numbers being for passing sidings. Rigid frogs of Nos. 
15 to 20 are often used at junctions and the connections of double-track to 
single-track sections. For yard work, Nos. 7 to 9 are most commonly used. 
The Yards and Terminals Committee of the American Railway Engineering 
and Maintenance-of-Way Association formerly recommended No. 9, but has 
changed the recommendation to No. 8. The reason given was that the latter 
takes less room, turns a greater angle, costs less and is equally good from the 
point of view of yard service. The Pennsylvania Lines use No. 7, and the 
same is practically standard for all the classification yards around St. Louis. 
The No. 7 and No. 8 frogs put the leads closer together than where a No. 9 
is used, and thus give a shorter distance for the cars to travel in switching. 
This is of importance in utilizing the available space and in operating the yard. 
However, No. 7 should be the minimum for yards of modern design. 

In regard to the width of flangeway for frogs and guard rails, 38 railways 
continue to use If ins., while 18 use If ins. and three use 2 ins. The increase 
from the old standard of 1| ins. to If ins. is usually intended to provide for 
the latest wheel design of the Master Car Builders' Association. It has been 
shown, however, that the increase in thickness of wheel flange below the level 
of the rail head is very slight, and that the wheels can safely operate in the 
11-in. flangeway. If any change is to be made, it should first be discussed by 
the rolling-stock department as well as the maintenance-of-way department, 
in order that both sides of the question may be given consideration. 

The split switch is practically universal as a standard. A few roads con- 
tinue to use special switches (with unbroken main-line rail) in certain cases, 
but the use of such devices does not appear to be on the increase. The stub 
switch is practically obsolete for main track and is rapidly disappearing from 
yards. For ordinary turnouts, the 15-ft. switch rail is almost universal, whether 
for 30-ft. or 33-ft. rails. A few roads using 33-ft. rails make the switch rail 
16J ft. long, and others make the length 18 ft. or 20 ft. Switch rails 20 ft. to 
30 ft. long are used in high-speed turnouts. In yards and on unimportant 
branches or industrial spurs, 10-ft. rails are sometimes used. 

The automatic switch (with spring connection in the head rod of the switch) 
has almost disappeared, and where used it is confined to yards or branch lines. 
Automatic and rigid switchstands are used almost equally, but the latter is 
gradually superseding the former for main-track switches. In 1900, 24 rail- 
ways reported the automatic and 23 reported the rigid switchstand as stand- 
ard; in 1908 the numbers are 23 and 29 respectively. 

There has been a marked increase in the use of distant signals to protect 



APPENDIX. 519 

main-track switches, aided no doubt by the numerous cases of derailment 
and collision caused by open switches having no other protection than a com- 
mon target and lamp on the switchstand. The increase is partly accounted 
for by the extension of the block system and the use of interlocking plants. 
Apart from these, however, there is a marked tendency to apply distant signals 
in connection with ordinary outlying switches, especially where the view is 
obstructed or other dangerous conditions exist. In view of the increase in 
density and speed of traffic on many lines not operated on the block system, 
it is most desirable that a safety device of this kind should be more generally 
adopted as a protection for trains, pending the introduction of block signals. 

Footguards should be used to prevent employees from getting their feet 
caught under the rail heads in the angles of frogs, the heels of switches and 
the ends of guard rails. There are numerous fatalities and injuries resulting 
from men being struck by trains while held in this way. The use of the guards 
is not so general as it should be, and some railways use them only in states 
where their use is compulsory. In many modern frogs, the raising block forms 
an effective footguard at the heel. An iron bar or heavy strap set on edge 
makes an efficient guard, being bent into a loop which is forced between the 
webs of the rails. Many railways prefer cast-iron blocks. Wood blocking is 
efficient when new, but is liable to become worn and damaged, and to be left 
neglected in that condition. The Hart footguards used by several important 
lines consist of wooden bars of triangular section fitted against the rail webs 
as fillers; the inclined face slopes from the bottom of the rail head to the edge 
of the rail base, thus effectively preventing a man's foot from being caught 
under the rail head. 

Guard rails and transverse tie-rods or tie-bars on curves are for the purpose 
of preventing derailment, the former by guiding the wheels and the latter 
by holding the rails. The use of these devices is limited, and is confined mainly 
to sharp curves in yards. In view of the many derailments on curves, the 
stresses to which the spikes are subjected, and the difficulty and expense involved 
in maintaining gage on curves, it would seem desirable to place guard rails and 
tie-bars on main-track curves used by high-speed trains, thus relieving the 
outer rail of some of the lateral or "bursting" pressure. The tie-bar may be 
in two parts, each having one end bent up to engage the edge of the rail base- 
The inner ends are threaded and connected by a turnbuckle. The Michigan 
Central Ry. is considering the use of long plates (like the slide plates at switch 
points) extending under both rails. These would be for curves of over 30°, 
and it is thought that they would be preferable to tie-rods passed through the 
webs of the rails, such as are used in street-railway track. 

Guard rails are, of course, generally used on bridges; they are used some- 
times on high embankments, where derailments would be disastrous unless 
the guards were provided to keep trains from going over the bank. It is strange, 
however, that many railways in building concrete bridges lay the track level 
with (or even above) the coping, but omit to provide any guard rails. The idea 
seems to be that such protection is needed only on the open floors of trestles 
or steel bridges, and not where the regular track construction is carried across 
a structure. A derailment when crossing (or approaching) a concrete bridge 
under the conditions noted above would be very liable to result in a serious 
accident. 

Reviewing the situation as a whole, it may be said that the tables show the 



520 TRACK WORK. 

present standards of track construction to be good as far as they go, but it has 
been pointed out already that they have not yet been applied universally 
even where fast and heavy traffic is imposed upon the track. In too many 
cases the actual track construction (whether "standard" or not) is far from 
being consistent with or in proper relation to the loads and work imposed 
upon it. 



TABLES OF STANDARD TRACK CONSTRUCTION 
ON AMERICAN RAILWAYS (APPENDIX). 

Table I. — Rails and Rail Joints. 

Table II.— Ties and Tie-plates. 

Table III. — Frogs, Switches, Switchstands, and Turnouts. 

Table IV. — Rail Fastenings, Ballast, Guard Rails on Curves, Tie-rods for Curves. 



! 



L 



TABLE I. -STANDARD PRACTICE AS TO RAILS AND RAIL JOINTS 



RAIL JOINTS 



BAIL JOINTS 



No. 



RAILWAY 



Miles 



Weight per yard. 



1 Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 6717 

2 Baltimore & Ohio 3495 

3 Bangor & Aroostook 521 

4 Bess. & Lake Erie 216 

5 Boston & Albany 392 

6 Boston & Maine 2288 

7 Buffalo* Susquehanna 382 

8 Buffalo, Rochester & Pitts. . . . 558 

9 Canadian Pacific 9425 

10 Central of New Jersey 646 

11 Chicago & Alton 989 

12 Chicago & East. Illinois 823 

13 Chicago & Northwestern 7363 

14 Chicago, Burlington & Qulncy 9023 

15 Chicago, Ind. & Louisville 592 

16 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. P.. 7186 

17 Chicago, R. I. & Pacific 7393 

18 Cnicago Great Western ....... 1 367 

19 Cincinnati, Ham. & Day 1038 

20 Cincinnati, N. O. & T. P 338 

21 CI.. Cin., Chi. k St. Louis 1939 

22 Delaware, Lack. & Western.. 957 

23 Denver & Rio Grande 1822 

24 Duluth & Iron Range 161 

25 Erie 2169 

26 Florida East Coast 500 

27 Fort Dodge, Des M. & So 85 

28 Georgia 307 

29 Grand Trunk 4644 

30 Great Northern 6 168 

31 Hocking Valley 346 

32 Illinois Central 4371 

33 Kansas City Southern 762 

34 LakeShorefc Michigan So... 1520 

35 Lehigh Valley 1434 

36 Louisiana*; Arkansas 226 

37 Louisville & Nashville 4349 

33 Michigan Central 1745 

89 Missouri Pacific J470 

40 Nashville, Chatt. k St. Louis. 1212 

41 New York Central 2829 

42 New York, N.H. &H 2057 

43 Norfolk k Western 1877 

44 Northern Pacific 5617 

45 Pennsylvania 5190 

46 Pennsylvania Linos 2717 

47 Philadelphia k Reading...... 1488 

48 Pittsburg & Lake Erie 191 

49 St. Louis & San Francisco 4740 

6<) St. LouiB Southwestern 1451 

51 Seaboard Air Line 2611 

52 Somerset 91 

63 Southern 7496 

54 Southern Pacific 5971 

55 Toledo. St. Louis & Western. . 450 
50 Union Pacific 3092 

67 VirginiaiM200 m. open) 445 

68 Wabash 2517 

69 Wisconsin Central 1022 



100 
100 



85.100 
S5 (ion Chicago! 
Term. Division) j 



100 
100 



100,85 
100, 85 



170 
\75 

75,80,85 



Lightest in 

main track 

(exc. branches) 



A. S. 0. E. 
A. S. C. E. 
A. S. C. E. 
Dudley 
A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. 3. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. 8. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 
fA. S. C. E. but] 
■I with sloping )■ 
I aides to head J 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C, E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 

D. &R. G. 

A. S. C. E. 

A. S, C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 



A. S. C. E. 
G. N. Ry. 
A. S. C. E. 



Mo. Pacific Ry. 
A. S. C. E. 
A. S. C. E. 

A. S. C. E. 
A S. C. E. 

Mo. Pacific Ry. 
A S. 0. E. 
Dudley 



Pa. R. R. 
A. S. C. E. 



Car. S. Co. 75 
Dudley 



A. S. C. E. 

Dudley 
A. S. C. E. 

Dudley 
A. S. C. E 



Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 

Supported 
Bridge 

Suspended 



Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 

Bridge 

Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 

Bridge 

Suspended and Bridge 

Bridge 

Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended and 3-Tie 

Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 

f Suspended (and expts. 

[ with bridge plate) 

Suspended 

Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 
Suspended and Bridge 



Suspended and Bridge 



Suspended, Bridge, 3-Tie 

Suspended and Bridge 

Supported 

Suspended 

Suspended 

Suspended 

Supported, Susp., Bridge 

Suspended 

Suspended and Bridge 

Supported (3-Tie) 
Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 

Suspended 

Suspended 
Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended is standard 
Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 
Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 
Suspended and Bridge 

Supported (3-Tie) 

Suspended and Bridge 

Suspended 



Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Square on tan. 



Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 



Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
f Square on t 
\ Broken on cu 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Square on t 
Broken on cu 



Broken 
Broken 



Broken 
Broken 



on patented 
on angle bar 
4 and 6 



4 (Harvey) 
4 (Harvey) 



I 6 on angle bar J 



| 4 Samson bar 



6 (4 for 70-lb.) 
4 and 6 



[ Square on U 

\ Broken on cu 

Broken 



Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 
Broken 



M 



% and 1 

%x5K 
%*■*% 

xxty. 

%xb% 



SPACING OF BOLTS 



( See Table V ) 



NTJTLOOK 


NUTS 


No nutlock 
No nutlock 
National 


Square 

Square 
(Square on %\ 
{Hex. on 1 In. ( 


Ideal nut 


Square 


National 


Hexagon 


National 


Square 


Harvey nut 


Square 


Harvey nut 
Verona, National > 
% x ft inch / 
Harvey nut 


i Square 
1% in. Square 
Square 


National 


1% in. Square 


No nutlock 


Square 


Verona tail 


Square 


Verona heavy 


Square 


Verona 


Both 


Verona 


Square 


Verona % s % 


Square 


>4-in. spring nutlock 


Square 


No nutlock 


Square 


Verona 


Hexagon 


No nutlock 


Square 


Verona 


Square 


Verona tail 


Hexagon 


No nutlock. 
Verona tail 
Various 


Square 
i Square for 80 lb. 1 
I Hex. for 100 lb. J 

Square 


Ideal nut 


Square 


No nutlock 


Hexagon 


National (extra wide) 


Square 


Verona 


Square 


No nutlock 


Square 


National 


Hexagon 


Verona 


Square 


Verona improved 


Square 


Verona 


Square 


National 

j Harvey grip nut 

I Verona nutlock 

Verona 


Hexagon 
Harvey; square; I 
Hexagon J 
Square 


Tail 
Spiral >£-in., National 


( Square (flex, with] 

1 heavy bars on V 

1 light rail) J 

Square 


Harvey grip nut 


Square 


Harvey grip nut 


Square 


Harvey grip nut 


Square 


No nutlock 


Square 


Spring washer 


m Both 


Verona 


Hexagon 


Excelsior, National 


Square 


Verona tail 


Square 


Verona 


Square 



SPLICE BARS 

Length. Weight per pair." Special or Patented Joints Used 
InB. Lbs. 

"36"'" ""'.!!"'.} Continuous, Weber, Wolhaupter 

26 5314 J Weber. Bonzano, 100% and I 

I Duquesne 

Plaln 4 32 "siV" Weber. Bonzano 

Duquesne SO 91 ( Duquesne 

36 80 

24, Weber 80. Weber Weber Is standard 

26 52 None 

26 Continuous Is standard 

26 48 All abandoned 

28 65 100% and Continuous 

29 60 Weber 

1 Weber, Continuous, | 

26 53% ) Wolhaupter and Bonzano ) 

26 50 None 

(35>sfor751b. 64 1 - ., _ .. 

1 24 lor Cont. 70 ! Continuous, Weber 

24 50 None 

) 25 lor Patent 66 and 81 1 „ ., _ ,. 

1 24 for Angle Bar 44 and 61 j Continuous, Wolhaupter 

or J 62 (84 with I _ „ 

26 i bridge plate)) Continuous 

24 65 Continuous (standard), 100% 

24 50 Weber 

24 48 Wolhaupter, Webor, 100%, etc. 

) 38 tor 90 lb. 1 „ 

i30tor801b.| None 

30 52 Continuous 
26 52.2 None 

34 Ordinary 63 tor 80 lb. I 

24 Samson 8'i for 100 lb. f Bonzano 

24 52H 

24 38 tor 70 lb. Continuous, Weber 

24 30 None 

26 4b Continuous, Weber 

24 63 None 

24 60 I Continuous, Bonzano, 1 
1 Wolhaupter, 100% f 

24 None 

40 and 24 80tor40-in. ) Wolhaupter. Bonzano, I 
I Webor, 100% J 

24 45 Weber (on light rail) 

| 80 1b.. 24 40.081 „ * ' 

i 100 lb., 40 52.55) None 

28 60 100%, old stylo Bonzano 
32 5.-.50 Abbott 

29 | 40 for 70 lb. ( Nono to any extent 

(See Table V) Continuous, 100%, Wolhaupter 



(Various arrangements of Jointst 

No nutlock Square 

No nutlock Square 

Plain coil Square 

Verona Square 

Verona Square 

Square 

Square 

Square 

Square 

Hexagon 



52 
62 (Continuous) 



Verona 
Harvey Rrlp nut 
Harvey grip uut 



80.6 (Continuous) 

42.72 
86 (Continuous) 



Continuous 

Weber 

(Bonzano (many), Weber, Oon-l 
tlnuous, 100% and Wol- \ 
haupter on trial J 

J Weber, Continuous and! 
I Wolhaupter on trial | 

Bonzano, 10u% and Duquesne 
(Bonzano (old style), 100%, j 
\ Duquesne ( 

J Duquesne, Continuous, 100%, 1 
( Wolhaupter, Weber J 

None 

Ward, Weber 

Weber, Bonzano 

Weber 

J Bonzano, Wolhaupter, Weber 1 

Contln., Duquesne, Abbott / 

Continuous 

None 
Continuous 

Bonzano, Continuous 
NewBonznD- 



TABLE II. -STANDARD PRACTICE AS TO TIES AND TIE-PLATES. 



Wood, and whore obtained. 



itch rt>p.&S.Fe jl^(T,x.),FI:-(Ore)} 

Baltimore & Ohio 



(Treat., 52. 63: Unt„ 40 ; | 



8 Bangor & Aroostook. 



ltv.1.1 



.) Mo 



*; wild cherry, bl. 1 
irry. (Chestnut, ! 
■How pine under f 
lyW. Va. anclEy. ) 



Bess. & L. Erie W. oak (Pa. and W. Va.). Steel (145,000) 

Boston & Albany Chestnut. Hard pine 

Boston t Maine jCedar (No. Maine, Canada) 

B0s.tou \ Maine (Chestnut (South and N, Eng.) 

Rnffalofc Sos. I Chestnut and white oak (Pa.) 

Buffalo \ bus (Yellow pine (Ga.) 

Buff., Bo. & Pitts Oak(Pa.& W. Va.); Pine (So.) 

«._ p Ar iAi (Cedar, tamarack. Jack pine. hemlockand ( 

tan. .aciuc j B. Col. flr. ) 

f White oak (So. and local) 

Central ot N. J j Yellow pine (So.) 

[Chestnut (along line) 

Chicago k Alton (Whiteoak, red oak (chl.ot zinc), hard) 

cnica e o a. Alton j pim? (Tenu ^ Mo#f Art ^ } 

Chicago & E. Ill Bed and black oak (treated) 



13 Chicago .v X. w 

14 Chicago, B. & Q.... 

15 Chicago, Ind. & Lo. 

16 Chicago, Mil. & St. 



W. oak, cedar, treated hemlock. 



JCedar (Mich.): Oak (South).... 

•"' ) Treated pine (Tex.) , 

R. Id. &Pae Various, from north and south. 



cm. 

Chicago Gt. West Oak 

Cin Ham t Dav 1 w * ftnd Dul ' r oab> chestnut (E. Ey., W. 

t Va„ So. Ohio). 
Cin..N. 0. &T. P W. oak (along line) 

CI., Cin.. Chi. & St. L (W. oak (untreated) 

I Beech, red oak, gum (treated) 

Del., Lack. & West Pine, white oak, chestnut 

Denver & Bio G Native pine. Oregon fir 

Duluth & I. R Tamarack, cedar (along line) 

Erie Yellow pine (So.) 

Fla,E. Coast Yellow pine (Ga. and Fla.) 

Ft. Dodge, Des. M. & So Oak (So.) 

Georgia Yellow pine (Ga.) 



Hock. Valley 'W. oak (Ohio, W. Va.). 

(W. oak and cypre 



Ean. City So 0ak(0kla., Ark., La.) 

Lake Sh. & Mich. So w. Oak, chestnut, cedar 

Lehigh Valley Oak, pine, chestnut 

Louisiana & Ark W. and post oak (La.) 

Louisv. & Nash Yell, pine, W. oak, post oak, cypress 

Mich. Can Cedar (Mich., Can.) switch ties, W. Oak.. 

MlesouriPac J w - and red oak. gum, pine (Mo., 111., i 



Ark., La.) 



Nash., Chatt. k St. L W., post and chest, oaks (along line).. 

New York Central Oak. Yellow pine , 

N. Y., N. H. &H Largely chestnut; some oak, (local)... 

Norfolk & West W. and chest, oaks (along line) 

Nor. Pacific Oak, pine, fir, tamarack, etc 

Pennsylvania. Oak, chestnut, yellow pine 



Penna. Lines Oak (W. Va.) 

Phila. & Bead Oak, pine, chestnut (90% from So.). 

Pitts. & L. Erie W. oak 



49 St. L. & 8. Fran W. oek (Mo.. Ark., Ind. T.). 



50 St. L. So. West W. and poet oak. treated pine.. 

51 Seaboard Air Line Oak, pine, cypress (local) , 



10 (untreated) 



C, 15; 0.,8 

Not known 
No good records 



\, 7K; Ced., 11 

with tie-plates 

8 to 10 



7 to 14 

0.,7; P. & C., 10 

5 to 6 

7 to 10 



0.,4; P.,lndef. 
P. &0., 7; C. 9 



62 Somerset Cedar (along line) 

53 Southern Oak, pine, cypress, chestnut 



54 So. Pacific. 



f W. oak. 8 to 10 

4 Red oak, 2 to 3 

I P., 3 to 7 

fR., 5 (12 with t-p.)l 

Redwood, pine, flr (Cal., Ore.) J P. & F., 6 (12 " ' 

treated & with 



55 Tol.,St. L. & West Bed oak (Tenn.) 

56 UnionPaciflc Pine (treated), (Wyo., Tex.) 

57 Virginian - So. pine and oak 10 

68 Wabash W. and red oak (local and So.) 7 

60 Wisconsin Cen Hemlock, tamarack, cedar (local) j H " Ced °5 to' lV° ? I 



80 to 90 (deliv.) 

C.,60; P., 85 

C. 50 

Ch. (So.), 60; (N) 55 



Ch., 45 
O., 75 



W. O., 65 
Y. P.. 85 f 

85 to 90 at N. Y 



Decay 
Decay 
Decay 



t-p.)) 
12 if \ 
t-p.) J 



W. 0., 70 
Y. P., 81 
Ch., 47 



W. O., 56 to 72. 

Oaks, 39; Ced. , 70 

0., 65; 0-, 70 



Chic, 70; Ean. C, ( 
O., 70; Ch., 65 



T., 56; C, 64 



1st class, 40; 2nd., 20 
80 to 90 



1st class, 49; 2d, 32 



10., 76; Ch..52; Y. P., 85 \ 



O., 75; P., 88 
1st class, 82; 2d., 72 



Cedar, 40 to 45 



Decay 

{ Wear without t. p. ) 

\ Decay with t. plate \ 

Decay with and wear ) 

without tie-plates j 

Decay 
Decay 

Both 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 

Both 

Decay 

Decay 

Decay 

Decay 

Wear ) 

Decay J 

Decay 

Decay 

Decay 

Decay 

Decay 

Both 

75% dec. ; 25% wear 

Decay 
Cedar, wear > 
Oak, decay j 

Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Both 



Decay 
Decay 

Decay 

Decay 
Decay 
Decay 
Both 



Decay 
H. &T., Decay 
Cedar, both 



6 to 7 

9mln. 



6 to 7 6 to 10 24 1 



Preservative process. 



No. of treated 



-TIE-PLATES 

Weight. 



18 (Note) 
1G to 18 



18 (16 to 30-ft.) 
18 (16 to 30-ft.) 



51 18 (16 to 30-ft.) 



18 c. to c 

20 to 24 c. 1 

14K 



None None 

None None 

None None 

fAfew old creosoted andkyanized ties 

{, in side tracks. 



16c. toe. 

24 c. to c. 

17 c. to c. 
Joints GG°,o a-Bd. 
shoulders 80°/ o 
Of body spacing 

20 c. to c. 

8,4 clear 
8 clear 

17 c. to c. 



8 clear 
8 clear 



None 

None 

Creosoting 

Zinc-chloride 

Zinc-tannin 

Zinc-chloride 

Creosoting 

Creosoting (beginning) 

Zinc-chlorido and zinc-creo 

Zinc-chloride; creosote 

None 

None 

None 

Creosote; zinc-creosote 



ntal) 



None 
Wellhouse (expert 

None 
Creosoting (experiment) 

None 

None 
Zinc-chloride for red oak 



Susp., 8 clear 
3 tie, 10 clear 


} 


Creo. 


(Rueping), zi 










17 c. to c. 






None 


20 c. to c. 






Creosoted 


20 c. to c. 






None 


19 e. toe. 






None 


10 max. 






None 


12 






None 


16 c. to e. 






None 


14K c. to c. 






None 


19c. toe. 






Creosote 



17 c. to c. 
6 clear 
10 clear 
10 clear 
19Mc. toe. 
10 clear 



t-ft. 1 
>-rt. ; 



8 clear 

9 clear 
15&c. toe; 6 clear 



Burnetising mainly 
None 



Will try creosoting 

Wellhouse 
None 
None 
None 

Burnetising (zinc-chloride) 

Zinc-chloride 

Burnetising (zinc-chloride) 

None 

Zinc-chloride 

None 



None 
None 



Goldie. Hart 

Goldie. Glendon 

Goldie 

Wolhaupter 

Goldie 

Q. & W., Hardin 

Goldie 

Q. &W. 

Flat, shoulder 



Varies with rail 

%*% 1 
5 x 8), Joint f 



I Varies 
with ' 
rail 



Flat, with shoulder 

Glendon, etc. 

Sellers j 

Goldie, Wolhaupter 

Mall, iron flanged 

(C.B.I. & P. shoulder) 

I with flanges j 

McKee 

Hart, Servis 

Goldie 

1,500,000 McEee, Wolhaupter 

3,000 Wolhaupter { 

Various 

180 Servis, Wolhaupter 

Goldie claw 

16,000 Shand 

None 

Goldie, Glendon 

j* Goldie, shoulder t 
\ (no claws) j 

3,500,000 Goldie, Glendon 
Elyria, Goldie 

4.000,000 J *-C. Std.; flat with ) 

I shuulder j 

Fish-hook 

f Single flange, with 6 

1 shoulder 

f A few laid sev- Goldie, McEee, \ 

\ eral years ago Wolhaupter J 

Not used 

Goldie claw 

Wolhaupter, Green j 

Various 

Goldie 

Various 

[ 6 ' t tafdge E1V- } Gl6Dd0n (boulder) 

Wolhaupter, Glendon ' j 

Various 

Pa. E. R. std. 

40,000 Various { 

Ph.&R. i 

Goldie claw 

( St. L. & S. F. std. ) 
\ flange & shoulder j 

Malleable 

Hart, Wolhaupter 

Glendon, Wolhaupter 

Hart, Goldie 5: 

8,000,000 So. Pac. std. 

846,550 Goldie Claw 

4,500,000 Flat bottom 

f Hart flat top 

t McKee shoulder 

50% of ties Plain, with shoulder 



6x81,', 


5x8^x,«, 


x9(8x 11 Joint 
K In. tulck 


OX x 6 X x a 


8>£x5 


6x8 track 
7« x 8 bridge 


5x7>; 



Joints and curves 



Joints and curves 

Only on curves 

On curves 

Curves of 4° and over 

Curves and soft ties 

Curves and soft ties 

Joint ties, all soft ties, curves 



All ties c 



l tangents 



, many 



i curves 



On main track, 

and H. pine ties 

Largelyon soft ties; alltlesonl 

curves, bridges and turnouts j 

Curves and soft ties 

Curves and soft ties 



On all soft ties 



5f 4 'x8Kx% 
x8'-. x \, 100 lb. 
6x8x>i;,801b. 
5x6and6x8>£ 



Curves and soft ties 
( Curves, soft ties with heavy t 
( traffic f 

Only on curves 

f Joints and treated ties under 1 

I 90 lb. rail. J 

On all curves 

Only on curves 

On all cedar ties 

On curves 

On creosoted ties only 



Experimentally 

On cedar ties on curves, oa 

oak ties on sharp curves, on 

switch leads and in yards 

On all ties 

On curves 



On curves and soft ties 

Onjt. ties and curves 

Curves at pull-out points. 



Qx7H*X 4.84 

5x9x^and5x ) 
JjSis r * fl (torlOO-Ib.)/ 

No standards as to tie plates 



s of 2° and over 37 



. f On curves and all bridges, I ._ 

i tans, where sand is used / 4U 

.... On all ties 41 

.... On all creosoted ties 42 

4.9, 5.5 All ties on curves of 5° and over 43 

.... On all ties 44 

!0n Joint ties, curves, soft ties. 1 . _ 

Will be on all ties / 45 

On ourves and where ties ) ._ 

fail by mech. wear f 49 

6.3, 10.6 All ties on curves 47 

5 Only on curves 48 
(M. t. curves of 4° and over,] 

J m. t. turnouts, heavy switch i . a 

3 1 tracks and where life of tie f 4tf 
[ Is limited by wear J 

(Alt. ties on 2° curves. All) _ rt 

1 ties on ourves over 2° ) 50 

Only on curves 51 



8xJi (Joint 6x8) 



5x8 

5x8K 



Mainly c 



6.63 On all ties except at Joints 

a % \ All ties on curves, and allsoft ties 
2.75 Only on curves and soft ties 

.„. Only on curves 



I 



No. 



1 A 

2 I 

3 I 

4 
5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 



TABLE III.— STANDARD PRACTICE AS TO FROGS AND SWITCHES 



Sharpest Turnout In 



Standard Pattern 



Spring or Rigid 



Nos. Tor Main Track 



Nos. for Yards 



ions j 



Spring 

n m. t. 

d turnc 

Both 

Rigid 

Both 

Both 

Spring on main track 

Spring on main track 

/Spring on main 

t Rigid at busy Ji 

Both 

Spring 

Both 

Spring 

f Spring on main track ) 

\ Rigid on sidings J 

Spring 

Spring in main track 

Spring in main track 

Spring in main track 

Rigid 

Spring in main track 

Spring 

Spring 
Spring on main track 



Spring r 



. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Riveted 

I Baltimore & Ohio Bolted 

Bangor & Aroostook „ Clamped, Bolted 

Bessemer & Lake Erie { (mMe J*l CSIteI , } 

Boston & Albany Plate, Bolted 

Boston & Maine Bolted 

Buffalo & Susquehanna Bolted 

Buffalo. Rochester & Pittsburg Plate, Bolted 

Canadian Pacific Plate, Riveted 

Central of New Jersey Riveted 

Chicago & Alton Plate, Bolted 

Chicago & Eastern Illinois Bolted (with plate) 

Chicago & Northwestern Bolted 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Bolted 

Chicago, Indianap. & Louisville Bolted 

Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Bolted 

Chicago. Rock Island & Pacific Bolted 

Chicago Great Western -f Combl. Plate and Bolt 

Liiicago ureat western j Bolted (Rigid) 

Cincinnati. Hamilton & Dayton Bolted 

Cincinnati, New Orleans & Tex. Pacific. Plate, Bolted 

Cleveland. Cincinnati, Chicago & St. L Bolted 

Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Riveted plate 

Denver & Rio Grande Riveted plate 

Duluth & Iron Range Riveted plate 

Erie Clamped, Bolted, Plate 

Florida East Coast Clamp. (Rigid) Keyed (Spring) 

Ft. Dodge. Des Moines & Southern Bolted 

Georgia Various 

Grand Trunk Plate, Bolted, Keyed 

Great Northern Bolted 

Hocking Valley Bolted 

Illinois Central Riveted 

Kansas City Southern Clamped, Plate, Rlv., Bolted 

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Bolted 

Lebigh Valley Riveted and Plate 

Louisiana & Arkansas Bolted 

Louisville & Nashville Clamped 

Michigan Central Bolted 

Missouri Pacific Plate, Bolted 

Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Plato, Riveted 

New York Central Bolted 

New York. New Haven & Hartford Bolted 

Norfolk & Western Plate 

Northern Pacific Various 

Pennsylvania Plated, Bolted (P. R. R.) 

Pennsylvania Lines Bolted 

Philadelphia & Reading Bolted Spring on main track 

Pittsburg & Lake Erie Bolted Spring 

St. Louis & San Francisco Bolted Both, and sliding wing 

St. Louis Southwestern Eureka Spring In mam line 

Seaboard Air Line Plate. Riveted 

Somerset Bolted and Riveted 

Soy.'nerY) Bolted, Plate 

SouthernX Pacific Bolted 

Toledo, St- Louis & Western Riveted 

Union Pacific Bolted 

Virginian Clamped Plate 

Wabash Bolted 

Wisconsin Central Bolted 



10 at passing sidings (1G it) 
interlocked); 20 at onds )■ 
of d. t. J 



10 (13 at ends of d. track) 



8.9,10,12.15 

10 

10, 12, 15 

10,14 

9 (11 for passing track) 

10 

10 (5° 44') 

( 10 Sp. (15 rigid at juncts. 

i and ends of d. t.) 

( 9 (15 at end of 2nd t. and 

( passing tracks) 

10 to 18 



8X, 10 

10 Spring 



7,8 

6*. 7. 8 

7,9 

8 

8X(6°45<) 

6,7,8 



IX. IK deep 



lJi (2J* on heavy curve) 18 



Both 

Both 

Rigid 
:. ; rigid In sidings 
in main track 
Spring 
Spring 
i .straight track 



10 Spring 

11 

10,14.20 

10(15 forhigh speed turnouts) 



Both 

(Spring, except at Juncts. 

( where turnout much used 

Spring on main track usuall 

Spring (except yards) 

Both 

Both 
( Spring where most traffic 
i on main line 

Spring in main track 

Both 

Both 



Spring 

Both 

Spring in main line 

Spring 

Spring 

Both 

Spring on main track 

Both 

Spring 



10, 12, 15 

9 

9K and 12 

11 (14 for high speed) 

r j 10 (22 for gantlet and I 

( high speed crossover j 

9,12 

19, 12. IS 

10 and 15 

9 for m.l. sidings; li.lSforl 

important turnouts with i- 

both sides equally used j 

9, 11,12 
8, 10, 15,20 

10, 15.20 



7 (Special cases 
numbers) 
6,7,9 



7 mostly 
7 and 9 
6 and 8 



14 Rigid ends of d. t. J 
10 
9, 20 (Spring) 



6,7.9 

7.10 

7 (Rigid) 

Band 7 



Split 
s Wlt and Whartc 



Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Spilt 
Spilt 
Split 
Split, Wharton 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 



Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 



Split 

Split 
Split 
Split 
Split 
Split, Wharton 
Split 
Split 



Split. Stub 
Spill (few Wharton) 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 
(Split (Wharton for) 
1 special cases) J 

Split 
Split, some Wharton 

Split 
' Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 

Split 



Length of Switch Rail 



Automatic Switch 



Distant sl^u/ils 



Footguards 

f..r 

Frogs aud switches 



20,30 

15. 18 

15; 18, 24 



15 (24 tor No. 15 frog) 
( 15 (24 for No. 15, I 
X 10 tor No. 7) J 



15 and 21 

15 

10,12,15, 18 

15 (22 for high speed) 



15 (10, 15 yards) 

10, 18, 30 

18,30 

20 and 30 on main 

track; 15 yards 



9=32' 
No. 10, 6° 5' 
No. 9. 8° 50' 



8=26' 
No. 10 



12"30' 

3° 
13.65" 



No. 9, 8° 18 



9° std., 14° max. 



12° 34' 
No. 10 



Both 
Auto. 



Auto. 
Auto. 
Auto. 
Rigid 
Rigid 
Rigid 
Auto. 



Blocking 
Steel Strap 
Hart 
Metal 
Hart 
Hart 



Auto, also used 
Rigid 



Rigid 
Rigid 
Both 



Only facing points on d. 
Yes 
Yes 
Partly 
Yes 
Yes 



Two 
Where view is obstructed 
Where view is obstructed 



None 
Cast Iron 



Hart (wood) 1 1 

Wood block 12 

Hart aud wood block 13 

Hart 14 

None 15 

Hart (wood block) 16 

Hart or solid 17 

18-ln. cast iron block 18 



On branches only 



Both 
Rigid 



Rigid 
Rigid 



No 


All by el. auto, block 


signals 


Wood 


No 


Partially 




Cost Iron 


No 


Block signals on ma 


in line 


None 


No 






V ood blonb 


No 


No 




j Wood (Hart on 




| rail frogs) 


No 


Yes 




( Wood where le 
( roqulres 




No 




None 


No 


No 






No 


No 






Abandoned 






Castings 


No 


Where dangerous 


Fiat blocks 


No 


10JJ 




Metal 


No 


In dangerous pia' 




Wood block 



{Facing, where not protec-) 
ted by automatic block >• C. I. blocks i 
signals ) 



7« 31' 
6<» 6' 



Both 




No 


Yes 


Not usually 


Rigid (auto in 


yards) 


No 


No 










Where view is obstructed 


Metal 


Rigid (auto, in 


yards) 


No 


( Block signal lain line; 1 

( where uec. on branches J 


Cost Iron, wood 


[ Both (auto, on 
[ line) 


main ) 


Being removed 


Signals being installed 


Metal 




Yes; all 


(When not In plain sight 


Wood (where re- 






1 lor 25011 feet 


quired by law) 








Yes 


Wood block 


Auto. 




No 


Where necessary 


Hart (wood) 


Auto. 




No 


No 


Steel strap on edge 


Rigid 




Few in yards 


f At crossovers and obscure 1 


Wood 


Both 




No 


Nearly all 


Experimental 


Auto. 




No 


( Where heavy traffic or 1 
\ view obstructed f 


Metal 


Auto. 




/ Yes, where auto. last. 


At bad places whero no ) 
automatic block signals ( 


None 


Rigid 




No 


Automatic el. block signals 


Lucas 


Rigid 




Some in yards 


Iu special casos 


Wooden 


Rigid 




No 


No 


Wood In Missouri 


Rigid (standard) 


No 


No 


Cast iron 


Auto. 




No 


No 




Both 




No 


Some 


Wood block 


Auto. 




No 


Many 


Wood 


Rigid 




No 


No 
Yea 


Metal 


Rigid 




No 


Cast iron 


Auto. 




No 


Where Interlocked 


None 


Auto. 




No 


Where Interlocked 


Wood 


Rigid 




No 


Some 


Hart 



TABLE IV.— STANDARD PRACTICE AS TO SPIKES, BALLAST AND CURVE PROTECTION 



Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 

Baltimore & Ohio 

Bangor & Aroostook 

Bessemer & Lake Erie 

Honton & Albany 

UoKlon & Malm? 

liuflfiUi & Susquehanna 

Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg 

Canadian Pacific 

Central of New Jersey 

Chicago & Alton 

Chicago & Eastern IMInolK 

Chicago &. Northwestern 

Chicago, Burlington & Qulncy 

Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville 

Chicago, Milwaukee & Si. Paul 

Chicago, Kock Inland & Pacific 

Chicago Great Western 

Cincinnati, llamlHon & Dayton 

« nail. New Orleans & Texas Pacific 

ci.-v. i. mi. i, (Mnelnnati, Cbli igo a- St. Louis 

ill-., -ir, Lackawanna K. Wcnlern 

Denver & Rio Orande 

i nihil ii A iron Range 

Brie 

Florida Bast Coast 

I'-ort Hodge, Dea Moines & South. m 

■ ■ Me 

■ .1 ana Prunk 

Great Northern 

Hocking Valley 

Illinois Central .. 

Kansas City Soulhiri* 

Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 

Lehigh Valley 

i i [ana & Arkansas 

LoulHvllle & Nashville ■ 

Michigan Central 

Missouri Pacific 

Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louhi 

New York Central 

NOW York. New H.iv.o & I hi 1 1 ford , 

Norfolk & Western 

orthi mi Pacific 

Pennsylvania 

Pennsylvania Lines 

Philadelphia ft IC>-nd1iig 

Pittsburg A Lake Erie 

St. Louis & San Francisco 

S'. Louis Soul h western 

Bi iboai i Mr Line 

on i "i 

; outhern 

Bouthern Pacific 

Toledo, St. Louh & Western 

i - 'aclic 

Virginian 

v. aha h 

Wisconsin Central 



Ordinary. 
Ordinary. 

Goldie. 
Ordinary. 
Ordinary. 

Goldie. 
Ordinary. 



Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Chisel point. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Chisel point. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Ordinary. 
Ordinary. 
Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Chisel point. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Chisel point. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Chisel point 

Goldie. 
Chisel point. 
Chisel point. 

Ordinary. 
Chisel point 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Goldie. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 
Chisel point. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 

Ordinary. 



•A. 


x 5M 

x 314 


•A, 


x 554 


•/a 


I 514 


"A. 

"/,„ 
•A. 


x 5% 
x 614 
x 6J4 


•A. 


x 514 


•A, 


x 514 

x 514 
% x ! 


•A. 


x 5% 


»/u 


x 514 


96 


x 514 


H 


x 514 

x 514 
x 514 


•A. 


x 514 


•A. 

"Am 

•A. 


x 514 
x 514 
x 514 
x 514 



Screw Spikes Used 



Experiment 
Experiment 
Experiment 



On creos. bridge ties 



Experiment 

23.000 

No 

Experiment 

Experiment 



guard kails for turves 



Kinds Deed 



size ot Stone 



On What Curves 



Flnnge.way 
[n 



Stone, slag, cinders, gravel. 



Gravel, cinders, hard sandstone. 

Stone, gravel, cinders, slag 

Gravel 



10 Stone (trap) 



Stone, gravel 

Gravel 

White limestone, gravel, slag 

Limestone, gravel, cinders, bt. clay , 

Stone, gravel, cinders 

Gravel mainly 

Limestone, gravel, cinders, bt. clay 

Limestone, gravel , 

Gravel 

Limestone, gravel, cinders, slag 

Stone, gravel 

Stone (granite and trap), gravel, cinders 

Slag, cinders, gravel, earth 

Pit gravel 

Stone (trap and linustone), gravel, cinders 

Coraline rock (similar to oolitic llmi 

Gravel 

Granite 

Gravel 

Gravel 

Limestone 

Stone and gravel 

r Gravel (bank and washed), chatts, chert, cinder, 
1 stone (limestone, sandstone and trap) 

f Stone, wash. A gra\ Hi 'in.' on IJ Ins. 
t gravel or slag) 

Limestone 

Cementing gravel 

Stone, slag, gravel 

Gravel (G ins. limestone on G Ins. gravel) 

Stone, gravel, cinders, chatts , 

Stone, gravel 

Stone, gravel 

Stone (trap), gravel... 



Stone, gravel, sand, cinders, slag. 

Stone (trap, limestone, hard sandstone & granite). 

Stone 

Stone (trap and limestone) 

Limestone 

f Mostly chatts. AU-o stone, slag, gravel, cinders. » 
I earth i 

Stone, gravel 

Stone, gravel, slag, sand 

Gravel 

Stone (granite and limestone), gravel 

Stone (basalt and granite-), gravel 

Limestone, gravel, cinders 

Limestone, gravel 



* 4 tO Ulfc 

Dp to a 

1 to S 



a '■.. 



It, to 11., 

%toa\b 



Vs» 



J1.J max. 

1 to 9 
%K>9 

n, 
Mb 



Nona 

Bualy 

v 

SO" on aide iraaxi only '" $"" 

IS' 1*4 

ftona ... . .. 

16° ami ovai 2V1, 

I 1 1 1 T » ) 

I rlO" 2$ j 



(Ho itaarp onrraa) 

!&OaadOTar 

(To 5°. l\. hi li"'. IV h> I 

1 

n'u„ 1 -. 

A toil b'l itifN 

N ' 

1 OTM 

None 

I2« a 

in 
(Ko ourraa iharp 

if." m yarda 

tO* ■■■ji.j" 

(N..t ..11 main l 

' . ,Dd '>ver \ 111 Inlil. 

(Not Decoaaary on main iraok] 

19 1 ■ — .... 



1 pin.'. 1 1 



1 main track) 



traekH 

■ 



(Hoi required) 



1 
1 I 



Are Tit* Bode or Bars 
Used to Hold Oorp 
ou Sharp Turves | 





H mm 










id over 




2 


1 ' 






•kxovt, 


8 


1 1 ■,„.! DTI ' 


idi 




12 


1 orar 1 on blah hunk.* 1 


M 


ili 


\ III .I 1.. : 1 . i 




18 


, 


1 ; . 



,„>,,, 



on 11 r.M\ mi gndea 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Accidents 293, 469, 519 

Bridge 164, 169, 481, 482 

Care of injured 471 

Derailments 169, 410, 420, 519 

Reports 290, 291, 473, 498 

Stopping trains 476 

Washouts 476 

Wires down 444 

Wrecking trains 469 

Accounts, basis of 487 

Depreciation allowance 2 

Engineers 514 

Labor distrib 502, 506, 509 

Ledger 482, 513 

Maintenance-of-way 2, 9, 509 

Railway and maint.-of-way 482 

Acetylene light, wreck trains 471 

Air hoists ". 336, 337 

Alinement, improving. . . .307, 355, 432, 451 

Anchor, rail clamp for cable 473 

Angle bars. (See Rail Joints.) 
Annunciator, interlocking plant. . . .161, 272 

Apprentices, track 287, 297, 303 

Arches, concrete 167 

Ash conveyors 197, 199, 200 

Ashes for filling 30, 31, 338 

Ashpits 199, 226 

Asphalt, bridge floors 164, 168 

Asphaltic concrete, floors 220 

Baggage platforms and subways. . . .223, 224 

Ballast 13, 25, 325 

Avoidance of 23, 24, 164 

Bearing pressure 4 

Black-wax, burned 30 

Bridge and trestle floors 164, 167 

Chats 18, 21, 31 

Chert 26, 31 

Cinders 18, 30 

Clay, burned 26, 29, 30, 517 

Clay in 14 

Clean and dirty 25, 27, 29, 30, 325 

Compression 4, 7 

Cost 11, 28, 30, 31, 415 

Covering ties 26, 28 

Cross-sections and depth 5, 15, 26, 31, 518 

Deflection under traffic 4, 7, 80 

Disintegrated granite 18, 31 

Distributing 238, 325, 327, 328 

Earth 19, 30, 327 

Earth, grass on 31 

Effect on rolling stock. 25, 27, 30, 31, 341 

Effect on surfacing 350 

Effect on track circuit 27 

Experiments with 6 

Grass Une. <3ee Grass Line.) 354 

Gravel... 15. 17, 18, 19, 27, 28, 327, 517 

Gravel, cemented 19, 27 

Gravel, washed 21, 27 

Gravel <vith stone 518 

Handling. (See Ballasting.) 



Page. 

Ballast: 

Heaving by frost 27, 361, 373 

Large stones in 27, 31 

Load distribution by 4 

Materials • 15, 25 

Oiling 26, 30 

Protecting against wind 30, 32, 242 

Quantities per mile 16, 19, 20 

Records 484, 491 

Relaying 25, 325, 353, 364 

Sand 18, 30 

Sand, protecting from wind 30, 242 

Screened and washed 27, 28 

Settlement 7, 328, 365 

Shells 26, 31 

Sidetracks and yards 16, 30 

Slag 18, 29, 517 

Soft, holding track in 31, 355 

Steel ties 60, 62 

Stone 15, 17, 18, 26, 517, 518 

Stone, cleaning 27, 325 

Stone screenings 26, 517 

Sub-ballast, coarse 14, 16, 25, 518 

To check trespassing 381 

Traffic and 25, 325, 355, 518 

Variable character 517 

Ballast and grade stakes 324 

Ballast cars. (See Cars.) 

Ballast spreader. .. .238, 326, 328, 346, 453 

Ballasting 27, 324, 3.33 

By freight train 327 

Cost 325 

Records and reports 483, 491 

Track under water 481 

Banks. (See Embankments.) 

Barges, car transfer 236 

Blasting ice and rocks 240, 476, 479 

Block signals. (See Signals.) 

Block system 133, 139 261 

Pilotman 436 

Protecting repair work 352, 450 

Switch protection 519 

Train staff 436 

Work-train 458 

Blocks, for ties 6, 42, 62, 65, 365 

Sighting 357, 362 

Board bills 293, 501 

Boarding trains. (See Trains.) 

Boilers, locomotive, water for 188 

Bolts, bridge tracks 165 

Cost 66 

Fang 24, 93 

Hook 6, 174, 408 

Rail fastenings 24, 58, 61, 64, 92, 516 

Rail joint .98, 106, 516 

Rail joint, tight fit 75, 98 

Removing nuts 373, 383 

Steel ties 61 

Tightening 295 

Bonds, electric, rail 24, 274 



II 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Boulders, in ballast 27, 31 

Boundaries, signs 177 

Brakeshoe, tire-dressing 130 

Bridge (and Building) dept., organiza- 
tion 300, 303, 435, 440 

Time books 503 

Bridge floors 41, 163, 408 

Ballasted and unballasted .... 92, 164, 454 

Concrete 164, 169, 220, 519 

Corrosion 82, 168 

Derailments on 164, 169, 170 

Ditch crossings 168 

Elevated railways, open and solid. 173, 175 

Examples 172 

Foreign railways 164 

Guard rails. (See Guard Rails.) 

Longitudinal timbers for rails 41, 90 

Masonry 22 

Old rails 166 

Solid, wood and steel. . .41, 164, 166, 175 

Steel floor 41, 165, 169 

Superelevation on curves 407 

Treated timber 53, 167, 437 

Without ties 175 

Wood, fire protection 166, 169 

Bridge gangs. 436, 440, 481 

Bridge inspection 438 

Records 483, 486 

Bridge records and reports 438, 485 

Bridge renewals 436, 439, 449 

Bridge repairs. (See Bridge Work.) 

Bridge seats, cleaning 380, 443 

Bridge tell-tales 203 

Bridge work 300, 307, 435, 476 

Company forces 440 

Cost 510 

Emergency 476, 482 

Erie Ry 440 

Protecting against traffic 185, 436 

Tools 224, 244, 253, 437 

Track elevation 457 

Bridges. (See also Trestles.) 

Asphalt-concrete floor 220 

Asphalt paint 165 

Bumper piles at 170 

Car transfer 236 

Cattleguards at 150 

Classification by strength 438 

Cleaning seats 380, 443 

Contract plans 440 

Corrosion, by brine and smoke. ..82, 168 

Curves on 408 

Derailment, protection 169 

Drawbridge, rail connections. (See 

Signals.) 105, 269 

Electric railway, strength 438 

Erection 436, 440 

Fire protection. . .162, 164, 169, 291, 296 
Guard rails. (See Guard Rail.) 

Loading for 438 

Maintenance-of-way 350 

Masonry, drains and floors. 21, 22 

Memphis, rail and expan. joints. . .98, 104 

Noisy 164 

Numbering 178, 441 

Old, replacing 436, 439, 449 

Painting 437 

Pennsylvania Ry., "Long". . .. 41 

Poughkeepsie, expansion rail joint . . . 104 

Rail and expansion joints 98, 104 

Rail fastenings 90, 92, 163 

Rails and rail creeping 87 

Records , 483, 485 

Refuges on 164 

Rerailers on 170 

St. Louis, track creeping 87 

Signs and numbers. . 178, 180, 183, 203, 441 

Small, guard rails on 171 

Speed reduction 185 

Strength 438 

Testing 441 

Thebes, floor and track 21, 173 

Tie-plates 54 



^ . , Pa S e - 

Bridges: 

Tools 224, 244, 253, 437 

Track, approaches and bridge 21, 

164, 363, 442 

Tracklaying 307, 308, 323 

Track work 164, 361 

Treated timber 53, J67, 437 

Victoria tubular, G. T. Ry 41 

Washouts 476 

Watchmen 296, 443 

Waterway 337 

Brine, corrosion by 82, 168 

Brown's system of discipline 299 

Brushes, snow plow 465, 468 

Buffer stops, fixed and hydraulic .... 206, 208 
Building dept. (See Bridge and Bldg. 
Dept.) 

Buildings 210 

Cabins, crossing and watchmen.. .210, 

214, 295 

Cost of repairs 510 

Enginehouses 219, 226 

Freight houses and piers 235 

Painting 211 

Reports of inspection 494 

Section and tool houses 210, 213 

Shops 219 

Stations, platforms and roofs... 210, 

216, 218, 220, 223, 225, 382 

Stations, trainsheds 224 

Towers, signal and telegraph. . . .214, 

262, 270, 272 

Bumping posts 170, 206 

Cables, aerial, telegraph. . 448 

Wire, wrecking train 475 

Card index system 290, 439, 482, 486 

Accounting, maintenance-of-way 513 

Bridge records 439 

Employees' records 506 

Car detentions 8, 223 

Car replacers 471 

Car trucks, movements on curves. .389, 

390, 393, 399, 401 

Cars. . 7 8 12 

Baliast.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 28, 278,' 324^ 325 

Boarding 323, 461 

Bridge repair, tool 238, 437, 477 

Curves and 390, 399 

Derrick 238, 279, 376, 436, 477 

Ditching 328, 346 

Dump, ballast and filling 223, 455 

Dumping coal 236 

Dynagraph 70, 417 

Electric 6, 128, 159, 276, 281 

Electric light, wrecking 472 

Flanging 464, 468 

Hand or section 210, 257, 259, 

311, 344, 350, 412 

Hospital 471 

Inspection 70, 259, 412 

Motor; section, inspection and yard 

234, 259, 350 

Pile driver 238, 476 

Push 259, 311, 344 

Rail carrying 311, 334 

Rail sawing 84 

Rail wear on curves 390 

Refrigerator, brine from 82, 168 

Repairing 229 

Spike peddling 311 

Spreader 238, 326, 328, 346, 453 

Stop blocks 209 

Street. (See Electric, above.) 

Switch repair 434 

Switching on curves ... 229, 233, 400, 431 

Tank, water carrying 188 

Tie tram 31 8 

Tracklaying 310, 315, 317, 318, 323 

Turning 202 

Unloading earth and ballast. 225, 345, 453 

Wear of 7 

Weed burning 379 

Weighing 202, 234 



INDEX. 



in 



Cars: 



Page. 



Weight and wheel loads 71, 94, 347 

Wrecked 291, 469 

Wrecking. (See Wrecking Crane.) 

Yard service 226 

Cattle, straying 150, 151 

Cattleguards 150 

Cattle pens, whitewashing 211 

Center-bound track 4, 365, 368 

Centrifugal force, curves 396, 403, 410 

Chairs, guard rail 128 

Rail supporting 6, 24, 66, 85, 157 

Stub switch Ill 

Charts, track 483 

Check plates. (See Creeping.) 

Cinders, ballast and filling 30, 31, 338 

Clamps, cable anchor 473 

Rail fastenings 93 

Clearing right-of-way 350, 354, 378 

Cost 378 

Coal, handling and storage 197 

Coal mines and piers, tracks at 235 

Coaling stations 8, 196, 209 

Cofferdams 480 

Commissary, boarding and wreck trains. 

299, 436, 461, 470 

Concrete, asphaltic 165, 220 

Bridge floors and girders 165, 166 

Buildings 210 

Bumping posts 206 

Culverts 167 

Curbs and platforms 218 

Dry 278 

Posts 141, 181, 187 

Street 275 

Tar 220 

Ties 64, 232 

Track and foundation 6, 272, 275 

Concrete mixer 277, 278 

Construction trains. (See Work Train.) 

Conveyors, ash and coal 197, 199, 200 

Ballast 325 

Freight 235 

Correspondence 288, 482, 499 

Corrosion, brine and smoke.... 82, 168, 350 

Fence wires 145 

Cost, accounts of 482, 509, 512 

Ballast 11, 28, 30, 31, 415 

Ballasting 325 

Bolts 11, 66 

Bridge and culvert repairs 11, 510 

Bridge floors. 163 

Building repairs 11, 510 

Clearing right-of-way 378 

Clearing snow and wrecks 346 

Coal and water stations 11 

Concrete track const 6 

Crossings and cattleguards 11 

Curves, operating 389 

Ditching and drainage 343, 344, 415 

Fastenings 11 

Fencing 11, 377, 510 

Frogs and switches 11 

Grade crossings 155, 159 

Labor 325, 346, 512 

Maint.-of-way..l0, 11, 286, 346, 509, 512 

Mile post, concrete 181 

Rails 11 

Rails, man. steel 84 

Rail laying 415 

Rail renewing 510 

Signals and interlock 11 

Spikes 66 

Stations 11 

Surfacing 11, 346, 361 

Ties 35, 49, 50, 63, 65, 415, 517 

Concrete and metal 66 

Laying 66 

Renewals 43, 346, 510 

Treated 49, 50, 66 

Tie-plates, wooden 58 

Tile drainage 343 

Track, steel and con. const 11 



Cost: 



Page. 



Tracklaying 11, 310 

Track maintenance. . . .286, 346, 509, 512 
Weed burning and clearing . . 378, 379, 380 

Work train 325 

Counterbalance for steep grades 276 

Cranes, freight 229, 232, 235 

Mail 204 

Rail-handling 336, 337 

Water. (See Water Column.) 
Wrecking. (See Wrecking Cranes.) 

Creeper plates 88, 115 

Creeping, rails, crossings, switches. .87, 

88, 115, 341, 358, 432 

Creosote 48 

Creosoting. (See Tie Preserving.) 
Cribbing, slides and washouts. .46, 338, 

476, 480 
Crossings (Highway and Street). . . .155, 159 

Approaches 156 

Cabins 214 

Country road 1 56 

Drains 15 

Electric railway 280, 281 

Eliminating 155 

Fences, gates, cattleguards 149, 

158, 180, 494 

Laws relating to 155 

Removing planks and fences. ... 150, 354 

Signs and signals 158, 179, 187 

Watchmen 158, 296 

Wires under and over 1 56, 1 58, 448 

Crossings (Railway), avoiding and 

abolishing 1 59 

Construction 126, 128, 162 

Continuous rails 126, 128 

Creeping 88, 358, 432 

Curved tracks 432 

Gates 161 

Interlocking 128, 160 

Laws relating to 160 

Lining 358, 432 

Movable-point frogs 127, 128 

Moving 376, 434 

Protection. . . 159 

Separation at junctions 160 

Setting out 431 

Signals and signs 179, 267, 269, 272 

Steam and electric railway. .127, 159, 272 

Telegraph wires over 448 

Timbers for 162 

Traffic relations 159 

Trains, notice of approach 272 

Wear of 159 

Crossovers 120, 132, 225, 419, 421, 429 

Stations 225 

Cubic parabola, curves 395 

Culverts, arch, pipe and open 167, 357 

Area 337 

Clearing 289, 337, 354 

Flat-top 167 

Inspection 289 

Track over 167 

Washed out 480 

Curve offsets 392 

Curves 388, 405 

Bending rads 309, 370 

Bridges and trestles 407 

Centrifugal force 396, 403, 410 

Compound 355, 394, 407 

Cost, surfacing and operating. . . .295, 

361, 389 

Degree 390, 391 

Divergence from tangent 392 

Easiest 399 

Electric railway 276, 280 

Elevated railway. 400, 402, 406, 407, 409 

Flattening ends 393 

Gage widened 249, 390, 400 

Grade compensation 387 

Guard rail. (See Guard Rails.) 

Improving 355, 357, 399, 451 

Lateral pressures 91, 409 



IV 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Curves: 

Length of rails 333 

Lining. .355, 358, 359, 362, 370, 393, 

399, 405, 449 

Loop terminals 225, 400 

Maintenance 85, 295, 389 

Middle ordinates 358, 371 

Monumenting 355 

Oiling rails 281 

Ordinary 399 

Parabolic 398 

Radius 390 

Rails and rail braces . . 80, 83, 84, 85, 93 

Rails, hard-steel 83 

Rails, spreading 91 

Rails, wear 89, 393 

Relining and reducing 355, 399, 449 

Reverse 394, 407 

Roadbed inclined for 14, 308 

Setting out 392, 396 

Sharp 399 

Shifting rails 370 

Short rails 80, 85, 309, 329, 333 

Sidetracks 223 

Signs for 180, 185 

Speed 185, 404 

Spiral. (See Transition.) 394, 399 

Spiral, tunnel 399 

Stakes 324, 360 

Steel ties 62 

Street railwav 275 

Superelevation 6, 399, 400, 403, 405 

Bridges and elev. rys 174, 276, 407 

Determining 406 

Electric and street railways. . . .276, 280 

Marking 180 

Run-out 406 

Uniform 405 

Surfacing 361 

Ties on 35, 38, 62 

Tie-bars for gage 94, 390, 519 

Tie-plates 54, 389, 390 

Track for 390 

Tracklaying 309, 392 

Trains and train resistance 389, 409 

Transition 392, 399 

Existing track 394 

Lining 360 

Marking 180 

Run-out 407 

Setting out 397 

Turnout 420, 422, 424, 427 

Turnout, degree and radius 427 

Uniformity 355, 405 

Vertical, grade intersection 324, 387 

Wear of rails 89, 393 

Wheels on 389 

Wheels, lap of flanges 390 

Y-track 202 

Cuts; cattleguards and snow fences. . 148, 150 

Retaining walls 16, 339 

Rock, watching 295, 296 

Rounded corners 340 

Sandy, protecting from wind 341 

Sliding 339 

Slopes, protecting. (See Slopes.) 

Slopes, steep 338 

Snow in 148, 461 

Width and widening. .13, 15, 149, 348, 

453, 463 

Depreciation, improvts. for 2 

Derailments 169, 410. 420 

Derails 117, 159, 160, 269 

Derrick cars. (See Cars.) 

Detector bars 271 

Ditches. (See also Drains.) . 14, 16, 338, 343 

Cleaning 350 

Irrigation, track crossing 168 

Oiled, lined and paved 14, 16, 339 

Road crossings 149, 156, 343 

Sod in 14 

Tile drain in 18 

Tunnels 22, 342 



Page. 

Ditching 343, 353 

Cost 344, 415 

Reports 494 

Ditching machine 238, 328, 344 

Ditching tools 248 

Dog irons 480 

Dollies, bridge and tracklaying. .. .319, 437 

Double-track, capacity 8, 452 

Rail renewals 329 

Signals at ends 140 

Single-track connections. . . .140, 426, 429 

Double-tracking 307, 449, 452 

Protecting traffic 450 

Records 483 

Drainage, banks and cuts 338, 340, 453 

European railways 338, 340 

Land, ground water 337, 338 

Roadbed 13, 14, 15, 25, 342 

Sidehill 339, 340, 342 

Slides 339 

Sub-drainage 342, 453 

Drainage openings. (See Waterway.) 
Drains (see also Ditches), box.. . .15, 22, 342 

Bridge floor 21, 165 

Cross 15, 16, 338, 340, 343 

French 16, 340 

Pipe and tile.. 15, 18, 156, 338, 342, 343 

Pole 342 

Road crossings 15, 149, 156, 343 

Tunnels 22, 342 

Drawbridge. (See Bridges.) 

Drills, rail. (See Tools.) 350 

Economics, railwav, 1, 2, 9, 43, 66, 70 

71, 74, 78, 346, 456, 449, 500, 511, 517 

Electric and street railways 

Bridges. (See also Guard Rails) . 164, 

172, 438 
Crossings and protection. ... 16, 159, 162 

Curve guard rails 401 

Lining track 281 

Maintenance-of-way dept 231 

Poles 53, 279 

Rails 75 

Rails, grinding 279 

Setting poles and wires 279 

Signals 159, 268, 280 

Third-rail and trolley 279, 468 

Track 272 

Tracklaying 322 

Trolley-wire protection 162 

Electric light, repair and wreck trains 

437, 471 

Electric power, freight houses 235 

Electric traction, mountain divisions . . 456 
Elevated railways, Boston. .88, 175, 276, 

395, 400 

Bumping blocks 209 

Chicago 91, 114, 174, 175 

Clearing snow 469 

Curve guard rails 402 

Curves and superelevation . . 276, 395, 

400, 406, 407, 409 

Foreign 175, 176 

Noise of 175 

Renewing rails 332 

Sand track 237 

Spike pullers 245 

Track and floor 88, 173, 175 

Embankments, building 453 

Drains under 340 

Hydraulic filling. . . ' 455 

Protecting from flood and wind. .337, 

341, 476 
Replacing trestles and timber struc- 
tures 167, 453 

Round-cornered 340 

Sawdust, and on soft ground 341, 455 

Settlement in swamps 455 

Washout 476, 481 

Width and widening 13, 15, 348,' 

449, 453 

Employees, railway, No. of 12 

Floors and stop-blocks 209, 214 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Engineers, accounting by 514 

Maintenance-of-way . . 1, 12, 283, 285, 

286, 302, 303, 511, 514 

Training for track work 285, 287, 303 

Enginehouses 226 

Extra gangs 284, 297, 304, 343, 353, 

364, 459, 495 

Electric railway 281 

Reports 495 

Fences, A frames 141 

Anchoring and angles 142, 145 

Apron and wing 149, 150 

Cattleguards 149 

Erecting 377 

Hedges 146, 149 

Hog and sheep 143, 145 

Iron and railings 146 

Legal 140, 142 

Maintenance 142, 376 

Picket 146 

Records and reports 485, 494 

Road crossings 149, 150 

Snow 147, 150 

Station and yard 146 

Stays for tightening 142, 143 

Walls 146 

Whitewashing loO, 211 

Wire 142, 377 

Wire, corrosion 145 

Wooden 141, 142, 377 

Fence gates 146 

Fence posts, anchor, corner, gate.. .141, 142 

Concrete and metal 141 

Old ties 46 

Plantations for 32 

Post holes 247, 248 

Fencing 140, 376, 494 

Cost 11, 377, 510 

Ferry, car and train transfer 236, 456 

Filing cases 482 

Filling, hydraulic, ete 455 

Fireguard, plowed • • •• 354 

Fire protection, snowsheds, bridges 

164, 168, 291, 296, 354, 462 

Flagmen 158, 344 

Flags, track work 260, 351 

Flangers 180, 464, 467, 468 

Signs for 354 

Flange wav, frogs and crossings. 119, 120, 

128, 156, 518 
Guard rails on bridges and curves 

129, 171, 401, 428, 519 

Street-railway tracks 2/3, 277 

Floating gang. (See Extra Gang.) 

Floods 337, 476 

Floors, shop 209, 219 

Footguards, frog 129, 519 

Foremen. (See Section Foremen and 
Work Trains.) 

Forestry, ties and 32 

Four-track and six-track work 228, 452 

Freight, handling 229, 232, 235 

Frogs 110, 118, 121, 518 

Angle and number 119, 427 

Breakage and repair 7, 124, 434 

Care of 435 

Conlev and Graham 129 

Coughlin 126 

Crossing 126, 128, 431 

Crotch 120, 423 

Curved wing rail 121, 422, 423 

Double track 426, 518 

Eureka 124 

Footguards 129, 219 

Gage at 118, 129 

Guard rails. (See Guard Rails.) 128 

Hard steel 119, 128, 275, 429 

High speed. .120, 140, 423, 426, 429, 518 

Illinois Central Ry 123 

Locking 124 

MacPherson 125 

Movable-point and wing rail.... 124, 

127, 429, 435 



Page, 
rrogs: 

Price's 125 

Repairing 434 

Reports 491 

Rerailing or wrecking 471 

Rigid and spring-rail 120, 122, 

124, 125, 428, 435, 518 

Sharp turnouts 120 

Sidetracks 429 

Sliding 429, 435 

Snow at 128, 468 

Street railway 275 

Substitutes 125 

Swing-rail 125, 126 

Turnouts 120, 419 

Vaughan 124 

Wear 119, 434 

Wheels and .119, 122 

Without guard rails 129 

Wood's 124 

Yard 124, 229, 232, 431, 518 

Gage, adjusting 61, 360 

Break of, interchange 384 

Broad and narrow 383 

Changing 384 

Curves 249, 390, 399, 400, 402 

Foreign railways 384 

Frogs and switches. 112, 118, 129, 403, 435 

History 383 

Spread by locomotives 420 

Street-railway track 275 

Wheel wear 131 

Wheels, distance back to back. . . . 130, 400 

Widened by wear 54, 360 

Yard tracks 403 

Gaging track 360 

Gantletting tracks 237, 436 

Gardening, station grounds 381 

Gates, fence and crossing 146, 158, 494 

Girders, ashpit 199, 226 

Concrete 166 

Grade crossings. (See Crossings.) 

Grade revision 386, 449 

Grade stakes 324 

Grades, checking 385 

Coal piers 236 

Compensation 348, 386 

Counterbalance on steep 276 

Ditch 344 

Economics of 456 

Gravity switching 234, 236 

Hauling capacity 348 

Improving 386, 449 

Inclines and switchbacks.. . .236, 411, 456 

Maintenance-of-way 385 

Momentum or virtual 386 

Relation to traffic 385 

Sags in 348, 385 

Sand tracks on 237 

Separating at crossings 155 

Steep 236, 411, 456 

Street railway 276 

Tie-plates 54 

Uniformity of 348, 385 

Yertical curves on 324, 387 

Grading, finishing for track 307, 325 

Grass, mowing, and on track. . .13, 14, 

19, 31, 340, 342, 378 

Sand binding 30, 341 

Grass line 354, 378, 379 

Guard rails, braces for 93 

Bridge and trestle. 128, 169, 171, 408, 519 

Bridge, electric railway 172 

Curves 276, 390, 399, 401, 519 

Frog 94, 128, 129, 428, 435 

Frog, angle-iron 129 

Light rails for 128 

Small bridges 171 

Street tracks 157 

Switch 114 

Guard timbers, bridge 169, 408 

Hand cars (see Cars), turnouts 210 

Heaving, by frost 27, 355, 361, 373 



VI 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Hedges, fences and wind protection. 146, 342 

Hoists, air and hand 336, 337, 477 

Hydraulic filling. . . 455 

Hydraulic power, freight houses 235 

I-beams, under ties 5 

Ice, blowing up and flanging 468, 476 

Inspection, bridge steel 440 

Inspectors, bridge 438 

Instruction books 499 

Insulation, rail fastenings and joints. .60, 

61, 103 

Switches Ill, 262, 301 

Insulators and pins, telegraph 445 

Interlocking 8, 261, 270, 301 

Derails 117, 269 

Drawbridge 105, 269 

Grade crossings 160 

Switches and turnouts. 133, 139, 270, 519 

Yards 220, 221, 229, 232 

Jacks. (See Tools.) 

Junctions. (See Turnouts.) .. .113, 116, 

120, 160, 270 

Avoiding track crossings 160 

Labor, apprentice system 287, 297, 303 

Bridge gangs 436 

Carpenters 300, 303, 435, 481 

Cheap and inefficient 298 

Cost 325, 346, 512 

Daily capacity 349, 377 

Electric railways 281 

Expenses 512 

Extra gangs. .281, 284, 297, 304, 343, 

353, 364, 459, 495 

Fence gangs 376, 494 

Maintenance-of-way 284, 296, 350 

Men's capacity 349 

Railway employees, number 12 

Reports 487, 502, 506 

Rock gang 296 

Section forces 12, 240, 284, 296, 502 

Skilled, track 293, 299, 350, 365 

Switchmen 300 

Ladder tracks. .229, 232, 233, 419, 426, 

430, 434 

Setting out 430 

Shifting 434 

Lamps, bridge, crossing, switch. 137 ,139, 294 

Colors 138, 139, 267, 352 

Long-burning 139 

Signal 137, 139, 351 

Trackwalkers 260, 295 

Track work 260, 350 

Train 352 

Landslides and slips 238 

Laws, fences and grade crossings. . 140, 

142, 155, 160 
Lead. (See Switches and Turnouts.) 
Lightning conductors, telegraph work 

445, 447 
Lights, repair and wreck work. .350, 437, 471 

Wells torch 472, 474 

Lining. (See also Alinement.) 29, 

307, 355, 357, 432. 451 

Bridges and cattleguards 154, 164 

Curves. (See Curves.) 

Engineers' work, economy of . . . .355, 356 

Jacks and sighting blocks 359, 362 

Third-rail track 281 

Locks, switch and turntable. .114, 201, 271 

Locomotives, cleaning fires 198 

Coal and water supply. .. .188, 193, 

195, 196, 226, 494 

Coaling stations 196 

Damage to track 7, 71, 81, 94, 

130, 347 

Electric 400, 456 

Electric, snow plow 469 

Lateral thrust 410 

Operating switches from 140 

Passing curves 402 

Shifting rails and switches. .331, 370, 

376, 434 
Smoke and gas at bridges 168, 296 



Locomotives: 

Snow plows 465 

Spark arresters 378 

Switching, sharp curves 400 

Terminal facilities 188, 200, 226 

Track inspection 412 

Turnouts 420 

Turntables 200 

Wear by sand 341 

Wear of rails 390, 402, 420 

Weight and wheelbase. . . .68, 70, 94, 

347, 401, 402, 405 
Wheels, distance back to back. . . . 130, 400 
Work and wrecking trains. .325, 458, 470 

Longitudinals, ashpits 199, 226 

Bridge floors 163 

Concrete 6, 275 

Steel and wood 5, 6, 23, 24, 41, 

90, 163, 166, 219 

Under ties 5, 6 

Loops. (See Curves and Terminals.) 

Lowering track 363 

Machines, ballast and earth unloading. . . 326 

Car dumping 236 

Concreting 277, 278 

Ditching 238, 344 

Fence-post setting 141 

Freight-handling 229, 232, 235 

Grass-line cutter 379 

Post hole 247, 248 

Rail drilling and sawing. .84, 98, 256, 

257, 280, 350 

Rail handling 334, 336 

Screw spiking 92, 277, 350 

Surfacing and tamping. . .. .349, 363, 366 

Tie hewing and splitting 37, 46 

Tie trimming 38, 369, 385 

Tie-plate setter 56, 369 

Tracklaying 313, 315 

Track throwing 376 

Track work 84, 92, 98, 141, 244, 

256, 257, 280, 334, 349, 363, 379 

Weed destroying 379 

Whitewashing 211 

Mail bags, catching and dropping 206 

Mail cranes 204 

Maintenance-of-way. (See also Track 

Work.) 1, 8, 328, 346, 350 

Affected by construction 346 

Bridges and trestles. . .350, 352, 435, 442 

Contract and piece-work 349 

Cost 286, 346, 349 

Electric and street railway 272, 281 

Force for 285 

Heavy rails 71, 74 

Importance 298, 349 

Light track, heavy traffic 7 

Metal ties and treated ties ... 47, 60, 62 

Organization 283, 284, 299 

Protection of men 351 

Rules 347 

Signal work 301 

Traffic relations 7, 8, 298, 349 

Tunnels 25, 350 

Yards 232, 353 

Maintenance-of-way department. . .281, 283 
Expenses and cost.. .2, 5, 9, 11, 286, 

346, 509, 511, 512 

Discipline 299 

Organization 283, 302 

Maintenance-of-way diagrams 418 

Maps, track and terminal 426, 483 

Mattress 337 

Mile posts (and cost) 181 

Mine shaft, concrete longits 6 

Monuments, property 182, 457 

Nail, dating, for ties 46, 491 

Noise, bridges and elev. rys. .59, 95, 164, 175 

Nuts and nut locks 106, 107, 516 

Oil, treating tie 48, 53 

Oiling, ballast and sandy cuts. 30, 31, 32, 341 
Rails at curves 281 



INDEX. 



VII 



Page. 
Old material, care of. .43, 46, 334, 373, 

378, 380, 382 
Organization, bridge department .. 300, 

303, 435, 440 

Maintenance-of-way dept 283, 302 

Railway 283 

Railway repair and impt. work. .449, 481 

Signal department 300 

Telegraph department 443 

Work and wrecking trains. . . 299, 458, 469 

Paint, bridge and bridge floors 165, 168 

Bridges and buildings 211, 437 

Compressed air 211 

Wood preserving 15, 53 

Paving, driveways 232 

Platforms and shop floors 217, 219 

Slag 279 

Street tracks 157, 272, 276 

Yards 232 

Pensions 298 

Permanent-way, meaning of 324 

Piece-work and contract system 349 

Piers, coal, ore and freight 209, 235, 236 

Tracks on 209 

Pile drivers 238, 476 

Piles, placing at washouts 479 

Treating 53 

Piling, sheet 480 

Sliding cuts 339, 340 

Pipe, drain. (See Drains.) 

Signal connections 156, 271 

Plantations, ties and posts 32 

Platforms, station 216, 218, 223, 225 

Plowing ballast and filling 325, 453 

Plugs, spike-hole 46, 53, 331, 366 

Poles, distributing from cars 446 

Electric railway 279 

Iron, concrete and wood.... 53, 279, 444 

Telegraph 311, 443, 444, 446 

Policing track 380 

Pontoons, car transfer bridge 236 

Post holes r!41, 247, 248, 377, 448 

Posts. (See Fence Posts.) 

Concrete and iron 141, 181, 182, 187 

Old rails 184 

Stone 181 

Track signs 177, 187 

Premiums, track 411 

Preservative processes 46 

Pumps and pumping stations. . 192, 288, 494 

Rails, Am. Soc. C. E 67, 77, 515 

Bending 251, 309, 359, 370, 424 

Bent, sighting 357 

Bolt holes 75, 76, 98 

Brand, laying rails. 76, 309, 329, 333, 499 

Bridge section 6, 24, 66 

British standards 69, 71, 85 

Broken.. 79, 83, 262, 289, 294, 322, 

349, 498 

Cars for 311, 334 

Chemical composition 78, 485 

Compound 86 

Contact area 82 

Continuous 75, 96 

Continuously supported. (See Longi- 
tudinals.) 42 

Corrosion 82, 168, 350 

Corrugation 83 

Creeping 85, 87, 105 

Curves, displacement by wheels 410 

Curves, short rails . . 80, 85, 309, 329, 333 

Curves, special steel 68, 83, 84, 370 

Cutting 257, 371 

Deflection 4, 80, 95, 97 

Design and section 66, 69 

Dimensions 73 

Double-head 66, 69, 85 

Drilling 83, 98, 246, 256, 350 

Drop-test 80 

Economy of good 70, 71, 74, 78 

Electric railway, girder 273, 277, 280 

Expansion 75, 86, 328, 330 

Flat-top 70 



Page, 
Rails: 

Foreign 3, 66, 69, 85 

Girder action 3, 4 

Grinding 83 

Grooved, girder 157, 273, 277, 280 

Guarantees for broken 7§ 

Handling 309, 311, 321, 333, 334 

Harveyized steel 83 

Heavy 5, 71, 74, 78 

High-carbon 77, 81 

History 66, 75 

Inclined to fit wheel 38 

Injury to. .70, 71, 130, 347, 348, 485, 498 

Inspection 70, 80, 348, 485 

Italian 70 

Lateral pressure against. 91, 365, 389, 409 

Laying 84, 309, 328, 329 

Life 81, 350 

Light, for guard rails 128 

Loads on 4, 68, 70, 94, 347, 401 

Long 74, 86, 280, 281, 332, 334, 515 

Maintenance 85, 419 

Manganese steel 84, 113 

Manning 84 

Manufacture 69, 70, 72, 75, 83 

Moving 331, 370, 375 

Nickel-steel 83 

Notched, experimental 95 

Number of ties. (See Ties.) 

Oiling, on curves 281 

Old and scrap 84, 334, 382 

Old, trimming 84 

On old ties 511 

Painting 82, 281 

Relation to track conditions. . . .3, 74, 

419, 509 

Records and reports 484, 485, 491 

Renewing. . . .84, 328, 332, 353, 370, 510 

Rerolled 84, 382 

Signs for date and make 183 

Spare, emergency. 210, 238, 295, 300, 471 

Special steel 83, 84, 113 

Specifications 77, 79 

Spreading by wheels 91, 365, 410 

Steel for 75, 78 

Stiffness 70, 350 

Straightening. 77, 252, 309, 329, 357, 370 

Street railway 157, 273, 277 

Strength at joints 4, 95 

Stresses in 4, 72, 80, 410 

Switch. (See Switch Rails.) 110, 113 

Testing 80, 485 

Tie-plates and 70 

Tie spacing. (See Ties.) 

Train resistance 71 

Trucks vs. fixed axles on 72 

Turnout leads, length 425 

Vietor 84 

Wave motion 54, 72, 80, 87, 95, 100 

Wear. .6, 7, 62, 76, 79, 81, 83, 89, 272, 

390, 393, 401 

Wear, fastenings and joints 89, 95 

Wear, on metal ties and concrete base 

62, 272 

Wear, slipping wheels 83 

Weight, in relation to supports. 40, 42, 515 
Weight, in relation to traffic. .72, 74, 

419 509 515 

Wheels and 67, 69, 82,' 276,' 365 

Wheel loads on .. 68, 70, 94, 347, 401, 405 
Wide and narrow base 70 

Rail braces 93, 112, 128 

Street railway track 277 

Wooden 374 

Rail circuit. (See Track Circuit.) 

Rail fastenings 2, 24, 88 

Adjusting gage 61 

Bolts. (See Bolts.) 58, 92, 516 

Bridge floor 165 

Clamps 91, 93, 157, 334 

Foreign 93, 517 

Improved 33, 91, 516 

Insulated 60, 61, 93 



VIII 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Rail fastenings: 

Key or wedge 58, 64, 85 

Rail wear 89 

Spikes. (See Spikes.) 

Steel ties 60 

Tie-bars 94, 272 

U-bolts 64, 93 

Rail-handling machines 334, 336 

Railings, fence 146 

Rail joints 94 

Abbott 101 

Angle bars. (See Splice Bars.) 

Atlas 101, 103 

Auxiliary rail, Barschall 102 

Base support 97, 100, 102, 274 

Bolt holes 75, 76, 98, 515 

Bolts and nuts 106, 107, 516 

Bolting 373 

Bonding 103, 274, 280, 281, 330, 349 

Bonzano 99, 103 

Bridge rails 24 

Bridge type 100, 101, 516 

Bridges 87, 98, 104 

Broken and even 105, 333, 516 

Churchill 99, 101, 332 

Clamps for splice bars 373 

Continuous 101, 516 

Deflection 4, 95, 97, 100 

Delano 102 

Double-head rail 24, 85 

Dovetail 103 

Drawbridge 105 

Duquesne 99 

Effect on track 94 

Electric bonding. .103, 274, 280, 281, 

330, 349 

Electric railway 274 

Examples 100, 106, 108, 109 

Expansion 75, 86, 95, 104, 330, 334 

Experimental 6, 96, 103, 289 

Filler for low joints . 99 

Fisher 101 

Five-bolt hinge 103 

Foreign 99, 102 

History 66, 90 

Hundred-per-cent 99, 516 

Insulated 103, 301 

Low 99, 348 

Maintenance work.. . .94, 95, 96, 101, 

105, 329, 364, £66, 516 

Malleable iron 102 

Memphis bridge 98 

Miter and scarf 96 

New track 105 

Rail renewals 334 

Riveting 75, 274 

Splice bars. (See Splice Bars.) 

Standard practice 515 

Step 103, 333 

Stiff 99 

Street railway track 75, 102, 274 

Supported and suspended 100, 516 

Switch points for 87, 104, 334 

Thomson 99 

Three-tie 41, 100, 516 

Tight-fitted bolts 75, 98 

Torrey 102 

Tracklaying 309 

Vietor 96 

Wave motion 95, 100 

Wear at 7, 95, 99 

Weber 101, 103 

Wedge 102 

Welded 274 

Wolhaupter 101, 516 

Z-bar 99 

Rail laying, cost 415 

Rail renewals, cost 3, 510 

Closing up 334 

Protecting 346 

Reports 491 

Railway construction. .9, 13, 307, 324, 

346, 453, 482, 511 



Page. 
Railway construction: 

Progress report 499 

Railway economics 9, 43, 66, 346, 

449, 456, 500, 511 

Railway expenses, distribution 9, 10 

Railway finances 12 

Railway improvements and reconstruc- 
tion 1, 10, 448 

Contract work 450 

Cost and accounts 512, 513 

Economics of 8, 9, 449 

Management of work 185, 451, 457 

Records 483 

Railway mileage and statistics, U. S. . . 12 
Railway organization, div. vs. dept. sys- 

. tem 283, 302, 458 

Railway resurveys 457 

Railway statistics 1, 12 

Railway traffic development 70, 449 

Railway valuation 11 

Railways, United States 1, 12 

Railways. (See separate index.) 
Railways. (See Electric, Elevated, Rapid- 
Transit, Underground.) 

Raising track. (See Track Work.) 363 

Rapid-transit railways 23, 33, 225 

Rapid unloader 326 

Real-estate records 487 

Records, railway and maint.-of-way..2, 

45, 458, 482, 51? 

Renewals and wear 7 

Repair work, protecting trains 185, 

292, 3*1, 450 

Wrecking 469 

Reports . 289, 290, 487 

Accident 473, 498 

Bridge inspection 439 

Construction 499 

Maintenance-of-way dept. 482, 487, 490, 501 

Time books 293, 500 

Tracklaying 308 

Requisitions 44, 500, 513 

Rerailing device, bridges 170, 471 

Reservoirs : 188 

Resurveys 457 

Retaining wall, in cuts 16, 339 

Right-of-way, clearing. . .350, 353, 354, 378 

Electric railway 279 

Fences 140 

Monuments 182, 457 

Records 482, 487 

Rip rap 337, 341, 476 

Rivets, testing bridge 441 

Roadbed 13, 25 

Bridges and viaducts 21 

Clearing 350, 378 

Compacting by rolling 14 

Concrete 6, 22, 23 

Crowning 13, 15 

Deflection 25, 80 

Deserts. . 20 

Drainage. '. '. '. '. '. .13, 14,' 15, 338,' '342, 343 

Dressing .14, 307, 325 

Grass on. (See Grass.) 19 

Hand-car turnout 210 

Heaved by frost 27, 361, 373 

Inclined on curves 14, 308 

Oiling 30, 32, 342 

Sidings and stations 16, 216 

Sod oh 13, 15, 31 

Soft, blocking and filling. . .13, 16, 30, 

87, 338, 342, 353,373 

Swamps 87, 341 

Tunnels 6, 22 

Width 13, 15, 338 

Roadmasters 12, 283, 285, 487 

Duties and education 284, 287, 303 

Expenditures of 511 

Roads, cattle on 151 

Track on 157, 273, 280 

Rocks, removal 240, 296 

Rolling mills, rail 76, 83 

Rolling stock equip. (See also Cars.) . . 8, 12 



INDEX 



IX 



Page. 

Roofs, platform and station 218, 224 

Ropes, wrecking train 475 

Roundhouses. (See Enginehouses.) 

Rubbish, disposal of 382 

Rules, maintenance-of-way. . . .11, 288, 

347, 499 
Run-off, curve. (See Curves, superele- 
vation.) 

Rainfall 337, 476 

Raising and shimming track 364, 374 

Safety, track const 7, 8, 88 

Sags, grade-line 348, 385 

Salt, melting snow 468, 469 

Sand, binding by oil and grass. . .30, 32, 341 

Sand track 208, 237 

Scales, track and wagon. .. .202, 231, 234 

Scrap 43, 373, 382, 488 

Screw spikes. (See Spikes.) 

Section forces 284, 291, 296, 298, 

299 351 500 

Section foremen 12, 286, 288! 291,' 

444, 470, 490 

Assistant 292 

Training 293, 297 

Section houses. (See Buildings.) 
Section men. (See Labor.) 

Sections, track 183, 284, 302 

Shims and shimming. .57, 353, 355, 373, 374 

Ship railway, rail 74 

Shops, floors and tracks 219 

Tool repair 238 

Tracks, laying out 426 

Transfer tables 202 

Shoveling, ballast and filling 325, 457 

Sidetracks, passing and relief tracks. .8, 

117, 220 

Ballast 16 

Bumping posts 206 

Concrete ties 64, 232 

Frogs and turnouts 423, 429 

Protection 139, 140, 220, 221, 269 

Reports 488, 491, 492 

Roadbed 16 

Street and electric railways . 268, 275, 280 

Ties 41, 64, 232 

Sighting, line and surface 357, 362, 364 

Sighting blocks and boards 362, 364 

Signals 261, 300 

Automatic and stop 263, 269 

Bell circuit 221 

Block 8, 171, 261, 519 

Bridge and track repair.. 185, 292, 

332, 351, 352, 436 

Colors 267 

Crossing 128, 156, 158, 160, 161, 179 

Disregard of 270, 290 

Distant 140, 270, 518 

Drawbridge 105, 269 

Facilitate traffic 261 

Fog 269 

Hand 352 

Lamps. (See Lamps.) 

Locomotive cab 269 

Pipe for wires at cross 156, 271 

Sidetracks 139, 140, 221, 269 

Switch 133, 136, 139, 268, 269, 518 

Track circuit 27, 50, 59, 61, 103, 

262 349 
Trackmen's. .292, 332, 344, 351, 352,' 392 

Train 292, 352, 392 

Train-order 261 

Train-staff| 265, 436 

Yard entrances 139, 221 

Signal department 139, 261, 300, 303 

Signal tower 214, 272 

Signal wires, across roads. . . .• 156 

Signaling 261 

Records 483 

Signs, bridge and track repair. (See 

Signals.) 185 

Conventional, for plans 483 

Gate 146 

Scrap iron for 187 



Signs: 

Stations, name and track No 185, 208 

Track 161, 176, 354 

Sleet, removing 469 

Slides 294, 295, 338, 339, 476 

Slopes, erosion and protection . . 13, 15, 

337, 340, 343, 382 

Snow, clearing 294, 328, 354, 461 

Cost of clearing 346 

Drifting 147 

Melting by heat and salt 468, 469 

Weight 462 

Snowdrifts and snowslides 461 

Snow fences 147, 354 

Foreign, wind deflecting 149 

Hedges . 147 

Snow plows and sweepers. 150, 463, 468, 469 

Machine 463, 467, 469 

Signs for 180 

Snowsheds 456, 462 

Sod. (See Grass.) 

Specifications, rails 77, 79 

Ties and tie treatment. . . .38, 49, 50, 

52, 53 

Spikes 38, 88, 516 

Boat or long 90, 156, 373, 374, 480 

Bored holes for 38, 89, 91, 277, 350 

Cost 66 

Damage to ties. . . .2, 38, 43, 49, 89, 92 

Defects and impts 2, 88, 516 

Foreign 58, 85, 90 

Hard-wood dowels in 92 

Holding power 90, 91 

Lateral thrust 56, 91, 410 

Plugging holes 46, 53, 331, 366 

Pulling 245, 372, 383 

Screw.. 4, 24, 49, 55, 58, 64, 70, 85, 

92, 332, 516 

Dowels and other devices 92 

Driving 91, 350 

Foreign 91 

Holding power 90, S»i 

Relaying rails 332 

Street railway 275, 277 

Tie-plates 517 

Steel for 90 

Spiking 2, 89, 309, 311, 350, 372 

Curves 390 

Rail renewals 333 

Splice bars 87, 96 

Bent and breakage 98, 99, 366 

Deep 99, 516 

Fillers for wear 99 

Holes 98 

Length 106, 310, 515 

Spike holes 97 

Steel for 97, 98 

Straightening 98, 253 

Weight 516 

Spreader. (See Cars.) 

Spur tracks 518 

Stakes, ballast, center and curve. ..307, 

324, 348, 355, 405 

Standpipes 188 

Station buildings and grounds 141, 381 

Stations. (See also Buildings.). . . .210, 

216, 220 

Boston Southern 115, 223, 426 

Bumping blocks 208 

Fencing 141, 146 

Freight 220, 235 

Grand Central, N. Y 401 

Name boards and signs 185, 208 

Platforms and roofs 210, 216, 218, 

220, 223, 225, 382 

Roadbed and track 14, 16, 41, 216 

Sand tracks 208. 237 

Sanitary condition 382 

Track plan 223, 224, 426 

Steam shovel, ballast and ditch 325, 345 

Protecting work 450 

Reports 498 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Steel, bolt 107 

Expansion 86 

Manganese and nickel ... 83, 119, 128, 275 

Processes 75 

Rails 75, 77, 79, 83, 113 

Spike 90 

Splice bar 97 

Ties 60 

Weight 74 

Stop blocks 117, 209 

Streets, paving tracks 153, 273, 276 

Street railways 272 

Clearing snow 469 

Electric machines 277 

Maintenance-of-way department 281 

Rail wear 83 

Reconstruction 275 

Steep grade, counterbalance 276 

Track 33, 102, 272 

Track crossings 127, 162 

Stremmatograph, rail stresses 80 

Sub-drainage 14, 342 

Subgrade 13, 307, 338 

Bearing pressure on 4, 5 

Subways. (See Tunnels and Underground 
Railways.) 

Sunday work 297, 334 

Superelevation. (See Curves.) 

Supervisor. (See Roadmaster.) 286 

Surfacing 154, 248, 250, 313, 331, 

350, 353, 360, 367, 481 

Cost 346, 361 

Longitudinals 5, 6 

Machine 363 

Sighting 362 

Track under water 441 

Surveys, railway 307, 355, 457 

Swamps, building across 87, 341, 455 

Switch angle . 110, 429 

Switchbacks 411, 456 

Switch calculator 424 

Switchmen 300 

Switch protection. (See Signals.) . . 139, 

221, 268, 269, 518 
Switch rails.. 110, 111, 114, 115, 421, 

422, 428, 429, 518 
Expansion and track joint . . 75, 87, 334 

Foreign 113 

Switch repairs 434 

Switchstands. . 110, 114, 133, 221, 268, 

435, 518 

Distant signal 139 

Switch ties and timbers 131, 135 

Switch work 257, 286, 350, 419, 434 

Street railway . 426 

Switches 110, 131, 220, 419, 425 

Angle 110, 429 

Automatic 115, 140, 518 

Barrett-Burton 114 

Bend in stock rail Ill, 422, 435 

Bryant devices 115 

Care of 435 

Channel 114 

Clearance limits 179 

Clearing snow 468 

Continuous rail 116, 518 

Curves 113, 114 

Damage to . . 7 

Derails 117 

Device for setting out 424 

Distant signals. 139, 268, 269, 518 

Facing and trailing 117 

Foremen operating 291, 351 

Gage at 115 

Guard rails. (See Guard Rails.) 

Headblocks 110, 135 

Heel, splice and spread 112, 115, 423 

High-speed 116, 140, 423, 426, 429 

Interlocked 133, 261, 301, 518 

Lamps and targets. (See Lamps.). 134, 136 

Lead 419, 425 

Locks 114, 271 

Lorenz 115 



Page. 
Switches: 

MacPherson 113, 117 

Main-track, reducing 114, 220, 518 

Metal tie 61 

Moving 376 

Operating from locomotive. 140 

Placing 434 

Power operated 233 

Protection 133, 136, 139, 268, 269 

Reports 491 

Right and left hand 110 

Slide plates 112, 115 

Slip 116, 127, 224, 229, 233 

Split 110, 422, 427, 518 

Street railway 275 

Stub 110, 422, 518 

Three-throw 116, 120, 423 

Throw 112 

Tie-plates 54 

Tie-rods Ill, 115 

Trailing through 116, 136 

Unbroken rails 116, 518 

Wharton 3, 116, 429 

Yard 113, 429 

Switching, gravity 234, 237 

Power • 233 

Yard 226, 231, 232, 234 

Tamping 4, 27, 361, 365, 367 

Joints 95 

Machine 240, 366 

Skilled labor 365 

Tools. (See Tools.) 242, 247, 366 

Tangents, longest 399 

Relining 355 

Sighting blocks and targets 358 

Tanks, frost protection 190, 193, 283 

Locomotive, water scoop 193, 194 

Steel and wood 188 

Targets, sighting 355, 357, 362 

Switch 135 

Track lining 355 

Telegraph, cables 445, 448 

Construction 311, 443 

Poles 53, 247, 444 

Track repair work 450 

Wires down 444 

Work and wrecking trains. .450, 459, 

460, 470 

Telegraph tower 214 

Telegraph work. 289, 311, 443 

Western Union Tel. Co., rules 446 

Telephone 443 

Track repair work 328 

Work and wrecking trains 458, 470 

Tell-tales, bridge warning 203 

Terminals. . 8, 199, 202, 208, 223, 400, 449 

Car movements 223, 226 

Elevated railways 209, 276 

Freight 235 

Laying out 426 

Locomotive facilities .. 188, 199, 224, 226 

Loop 276, 400 

Passenger 208, 223, 224, 426 

Rapid-transit 225 

Relief approach tracks 452 

Sand tracks 237 

Ties (Wood), adzing. .37, 328, 329, 331, 

368, 369, 385 

Australian hardwood 35 

Baltic fir, Europe 34 

Barked 36 

Bearing for rail 41 

Blocks for 6, 42, 62, 65, 365 

Bored for spikes 38, 89, 91, 277, 350 

Bridges 34, 163, 307 

Checking 33, 37, 50 

Compound 42, 62, 65, 365 

Consumption of 32 

Cost 35, 49, 50, 63, 66, 415, 517 

Covering with ballast 26, 28 

Curves 38 

Date marking 45, 491 

Deflection 3, 4, 40 



INDEX. 



XI 



Page. 
Ties: 

Distributing 309, 311, 366 

Dowels in 92 

Economy in use of 2, 33, 46 

Economy of wood, metal and concrete 

65, 517 
Estimates and requisitions . . . 42, 44, 289 

Experiments with 6 

Fire-killed timber 36 

Growth of 36 

Hewed and sawed 37 

Importance of 2 

Injury by spikes and rails. .2, 7, 35, 

38, 43, 49, 89, 92 

Inspection 36, 44, 491 

Laying 309, 368 

Laying, cost 66 

Life. ...3, 33, 38, 43, 50, 51, 60, 66, 

368, 517 

Loads on 3, 4 

Marking for renewal. (See Date 

Mark.) 44 

Number per rail 3, 39, 40, 72, 75, 

100, 310, 517 

Old 33, 43, 46, 289, 354, 368, 382 

Piling 36, 50, 289, 368 

Plantations 32 

Plugging holes 46, 53, 331, 366 

Pole, slab, split, etc 35 

Rail seats inclined 38 

Records and reports .. 2, 45, 303, 491, 

511, 517 

Renewing 42, 44, 350, 366, 491 

Rigidity. (See Sizes and Deflection.) 

3, 517 

S-irons for 33, 37, 50 

Seasoning 36 

Second-class 34, 35, 38, 232 

Shifting 363 

Shoulder 95, 99, 364, 366 

Sizes _ .3, 39, 134, 165, 517 

Spacing 39, 72, 100, 310 

Specifications 34, 38 

Spike holding power 90, 91, 92 

Spike holes plugged 46, 53, 92, 

331, 366 

Spotting. (See Adzing.) 38, 328, 369 

Street-railway 275 

Supply 2, 46 

Switches and crossings. .37, 131, 135, 

162, 426 

Tapered, bridge floor 408 

Tie-plates. (See Tie-plates.) 369 

Trimming. (See Adzing.). . .38, 369, 385 

Yards 64, 232 

Ties (Wood, Treated) .. 32, 45, 46, 491, 

511, 517 

Life and cost 32, 49, 50, 66 

Processes 32, 46, 53 

Track circuit 50 

Ties (Concrete) 42, 62, 64, 93 

Cost 66 

Main tracks and yards 64, 232 

Ties (Metal) 42, 59, 65, 275, 277 

Accidents on 61, 410 

Ballasting 60 

Blocks for 62 

Corrosion 60 

Cost. 63, 66 

Economy and life 60, 65, 66 

Fastenings 59, 93, 516 

Foreign 59, 63 

Main track 42, 61 

Maintenance 60 

Packing for 59 

Street .-railway 275, 277 

Surfacing track 364 

Switches 59, 61 

Tie-plates 63 

Turning old 368 

Wear of rails 89 

Tie and timber department 303 

Tie-bars. (See Tie-rods.) 



™. , Pa S e - 
Tie-chute 311 

Tie-plate gage 369 

Tie-plates. . 4, 23, 24, 54, 58, 369, 390, 517 

Applying 56, 57, 251, 315, 369 

Concrete and metal ties 63, 65 

Curves 54, 389, 390 

Economics of 33, 38, 49, 54, 65, 517 

Foreign 58 

Rail brace and 93, 277 

Shimming 57, 374 

Street railway 275, 277 

Wooden 58 

Tie-plugs 46, 53, 92, 331, 366 

Tie renewals. 33, 42, 50, 349, 350, 353, 366 

All ties 368 

Cost 42, 43, 346, 510 

Economics ' 35, 42 

Number 43 

Reports 491 

Tie-rods, curves and track. 94, 157, 390, 519 

Street-railway track 275 

Switch Ill 

Tie treating plants. (See Ties, Treated.) 46 

Tie trimming and hew. machines. . . .37, 

369, 385 

Tie unloader and wagon 311 

Tile. (See Pipe and Drainage.) 

Timber, creosoted 167, 437 

Emergency supply 300, 437 

Preservative treatment. (See Ties.) 

15, 47, 49, 53, 444 

Supply, U. S 32 

Switch. (See Ties, Switch.). .37, 131, 

135, 162, 426 

Time books 293, 487, 500 

Tool car, bridge work 437 

Tools. (See also Machines.) 212, 238 

Anchor for tackle block 473 

Ballast forks 27, 240, 247, 325 

Bridge 244, 437, 441 

Car replacer 471 

Chisels, rail 246, 371 

Compressed-air 211, 437 

Ditching 248, 342 

Dolly, bridge and tracklaying. . . .319, 437 

Electric railway 281 

Equipment for section 238, 241 

Gages and levels 248, 359, 369, 403 

Hack-saw 372 

Jacks 238, 253, 358, 364, 471 

Lining, third-rail 281 

Post hole 141, 247, 248, 377, 448 

Rail benders, power 252, 370 

Rail drills. (See Tools.) 350 

Rail saws 257, 372 

Reports 239, 487, 490 

Roadmasters Assoc, standard . . . 242, 

245, 246, 247, 253, 254 

Scrap, made from 240 

Shipping 239 

Sighting blocks 358, 362 

Spike puller 245 

Tamping picks. (See Tools.) 247, 365 

Telegraph pole puller 448 

Tie-plate gage 251, 369 

Trackwalkers and watchmen 240, 294 

Turnout indicator 424 

Wrecking train 238, 470, 475 

Tool houses 212 

Tool repair shop 238 

Torpedoes 241, 351 

Track and traffic, relations 1 to 10, 

33, 70, 81, 94, 130, 221, 283, 298, 346, 

348, 500, 508, 520 

Track, additional 220, 449, 452 

Advantages of good. .25, 59, 71, 105, 

232, 298, 346, 380 

Bridges. (See Bridge Floors.) . . . .21, 

171, 172, 441 

Center-bound 4, 365, 368 

Changes 375, 449, 451 

Classification of 7 

Concrete 23, 24, 272 



XII 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Track' 

Creeping 87, 104, 341, 358, 432 

Damage and wear. (See Rails, Ties.) 347 

Deflection 80 

Depreciation, allowance for 2 

Design of 4, 5, 7 

Electric and street railways 272 

Elevated railways 174, 245 

Enginehouses and shops 209, 219 

Experiments 5 

Frost heaving 27, 355, 361, 373 

Gage. (See Gage.) 

Gantletting 237, 436 

Heavy traffic 4, 7 

Importance of. 1 

Improvements in 1, 2, 7, 9 

Industrial 220, 400 

Ladder. (See Ladder Track.) 
Lateral pressures. . ..56, 91, 365, 389, 

409, 410, 519 
Lining. (See Lining.) 

Lining, third-rail 281 

Loads on 4, 68, 70, 94, 347, 401, 

405, 520 

Longitudinal supports 5 

Maintenance, cost. . .5, 286, 346, 509, 512 

Movements of 3 

Moving 374, 375, 376, 449, 451, 457 

New 105, 328 

Noise, reducing 59, 95, 164, 175 

Not improved with traffic J.0 

Paving 157, 272 

Permanent construction. .25, 33, 347, 350 

Permanent-way 324 

Realinement 307, 355, 432, 451 

Relation to operation 8 

Renewals and depreciation 2 

Rigid with metal and con. tie 61, 64 

Spacing c. to c 13, 15, 19, 223, 229 

Special design 4, 5, 25 

Speed effects 3 

Spreading rails. (See Rails.) 

Standards, American railways. 7, 515, 520 

Stresses in 3 

Study of 3 

Team 231 

Temporary 238, 275, 324, 451, 

469, 474 

Street 275 

Unit structure 3, 74 

Wear. (See Track, Damage.) 

Wheels and 71, 94, 130 

Yard 229, 232 

Track apprentices 287, 297, 303 

Track centers 307, 325, 348, 355, 387 

Track charts 483 

Track circuit. (See Signals.) 

Track construction, standard 7, 515 

Track department. (See Maint.-of-Way.) 384 

Track diagrams 418 

Track elevation... 155, 159, 164, 375, 

449 456 499 

Track inspection 70, 285, 288,' 289,' 

293, 411, 412, 415 

Marking nails 416 

Marking system 412 

Signs 181 

Tracklaying 307 

Bridges 307, 323 

Cost 310 

Curve divergence 392 

Electric railway 272, 322 

Machine 313, 315 

Rail expansion 86 

Rail joints 105 

Tools 259 

Under water 481 

Track material, accounts 512 

Care of . 373 

Emergency supply 210, 238, 295, 

300, 471 

Experimental 6, 46, 96, 103, 289 

Old 43, 46, 334, 373, 378, 380, 382 



Page. 
Track: 

Quantities 109 

Reports 487, 488 

Requisitions 500 

Work-train equipment 471 

Track tanks 187, 193, 195 

Track-throwing machines 376 

Trackwalking 146, 293 

Cost on curves 295 

Electric railway 282 

Track work. .1, 154, 249, 287, 292,328, 

346 353 

Accounting 502J 506 

Cost 10, 512 

Cutting rails .• . . . 257, 371 

Discipline 299 

Ditching. (See Ditching.) 

Double track 329 

Economics of 1, 2, 9 

Elevated railway 350 

Emergency 373 

Engineers for 1, 283 

Extra gangs. (See Extra Gangs.) 

Fencing 376 

Fog and snow 352 

Force for 296, 363 

Gaging 360 

Importance 298 

Lighting 350 

Lining. (See Lining.) 

Machinery. (See Machines.) 350 

Man's daily labor 350 

Organization 284, 302, 347 

Policing 380, 444 

Protecting. . .185, 328, 332, 344, 351, 459 

Rail laying and renewal 309, 328 

Raising and lowering 361, 363, 364 

Reports 487 

Seasons' 353, 490 

Skilled labor 293, 298, 365 

Sunday 297, 334 

Systematic 347 

Training for 287, 297, 303 

Unsatisfactory results 9 

Traffic, double-track conditions 8, 452 

Facilitating 221, 261 

Grade crossings 159 

Interference with 332, 436, 450 

Statistics 12 

Yards and 8 

Train dispatching 261 

Work-train 458 

Train ferries. (See Car Transfer.) 456 

Train-order system 261, 458 

Train resistance 70, 389 

Train rules and signals 224, 290 

Trainsheds 224 

Trains, automatic stop 269 

Boarding and camp. . ..297, 313, 323, 461 

Electric 8 

Markers and signals 352 

Maximum, track relations . 7, 8 

Movements at terminals 223, 226 

Passing at sidings 221 

Passing curves 403, 409 

Passing track repairs 328, 368 

Protection 261, 292, 476 

Speed 68, 185 

Tracklaying. . . . 285, 287, 297, 299, 
308, 310, 325, 330, 334, 344, 353, 377, 

450, 458, 460, 495 

Work 285, 297, 299, 308, 325 

Work, cost 325 

Wrecking 469, 473 

Transfer tables 201 

Trees, growth by railways 36 

Trimming 380 

Trespassers 186, 381 

Trestles, ballasted floor 167, 454 

Building under water 481 

Car transfer 236 

Coal 209 

Curves 407, 409 



INDEX. 



XIII 



Page. 
Trestles: 

Damage by flood 454, 476 

Filling 453 

Fire protection 169, 296 

Footwalk and refuges 164, 352 

Inspection and life 442 

Maintenance work 350, 352 

Reasons for using 453 

Solid floor 167 

Temporary 457, 469, 479, 481 

Tie-plates on 54 

Tracklaying on 307, 323 

Tunnels, avoiding ballast 24 

Busk and Cascade 456 

Cattleguards 150 

Detroit and Port Huron 6, 456 

Drainage 22 

Hoosac, 45-ft. rails 74 

Mountain 450 

Rails 82, 87, 168, 350 

Heavy 71, 74 

Wear 82 

Records 485 

Refuges 352 

Sierra Nevada 456 

Signals 352 

Simplon, track approach 70 

Spiral 399 

Stampede 456 

Submarine 456 

Summits and 455 

Switchbacks 456 

Track and roadbed 6, 22, 33 

Track work 25, 292, 350 

Zigzag 456 

Turnouts. (See Switches.) 110, 118, 

131, 220, 221, 419, 518 

Clearance limits 179 

Continuous rails 125 

Degree and radius .^ 424, 427 

Derails 117 

Double track 426 

Electric railway 281 

Grade compensation 387 

Hand-car 210 

High speed 113, 120, 423 

Interlocked 133 

Leads 419, 424 

Protection. 139 

Rail braces 93 

Reports 492 

Setting out 423, 424, 434 

Spring-rail frogs 122 

Turntables 200, 226 

End-pivoted 201 

Underground railways, track .. 6, 23, 24, 41 

Transition curves 395 

Valve, water-tank 192 

Viaduct, masonry, drains 21 

Reconstruction under traffic 436 

Steele Boone 173 

Track for 173 

Walls, fence 146 

Warehouses 235 

Washouts. 238, 476 

Organization 481 

Watchmen, bridge 296, 443 

Cabins 158, 214 

Grade crossing 158, 296 

Track 293, 295 

Water, drainage 343 

Pipe line and tank cars 188 

Pumping 192 

Quality 188 

Water columns 190, 226 

Water service, yards 224, 226, 229 

Water-softening plants 195, 494 

Water stations 8, 188, 226, 288, 494 

Rapid supply 190 

Water supply and tanks 188 

Signs 187 

Waterways, bridge and culvert 337 



Page. 

Wave motion, track 54, 72, 80, 87, 

95, 100 

Weed burners 379 

Melting snow 468 

Weeds, clearing and burning (cost). 350, 

378, 380 

Cutting 354 

Western Union Tel. Co., rules 447 

Wharves. (See Piers.) 

Wheel flanges, bearing on curves 400 

Length of lap 390 

Strength 411 

Wheels, back to back 130, 401 

Coning 38, 130 

Curves and 389, 400, 409 

Derailed on bridge 169 

Driving, load... 68, 70, 94, 347, 401, 405 

Driving, slipping 83 

Driving, worn 71, 83, 94, 130, 347 

Effect at joints 95 

Electric railway 276 

Flangeless 401 

Frogs and 119, 129 

Gage for wear 131 

Lateral pressure. (See Rails.) 409 

Loads on 68, 70, 94, 347, 401, 405 

M. C. B 130, 518 

Rails and.. 67, 69, 71, 82, 94, 130, 276, 

365, 518 

Stop blocks 209 

Wear 131, 291, 347 

Width 401 

Wheelbarrows 241, 260, 344 

Whistle posts 158, 187 

Whitewashing, machine 211 

Wind, protecting sand from. 30, 32, 341, 342 

Windmills, pumping 192 

Wires, electric, over road and track. 156, 445 

Fence 142, 377 

Telegraph 444 

Work-train conductors 299, 458 

Work trains. (See Trains.) 

Wrecking, cost 346 

Lights 471 

Methods 469 

Tools 238, 471, 475 

Wrecking crane 436, 469, 472 

Wrecking trains 469, 475 

Y-tracks 202 

Switchback 411, 422 

Yards 8, 187, 220, 449 

Approach tracks 452 

Bumping posts. 206 

Cabins 215 

Car 224 

Car detentions 8, 223, 227 

City 223, 400 

Clearing 354, 382, 468 

Coal mines 235 

Concrete ties 64, 232 

Cranes 232 

Frogs and switches 113, 120, 133, 

232, 431, 518, 519 

Guard rails 519 

Ladder tracks. (See Ladder Tracks.) 

Lighting 234 

Maintenance 297 

Operation 227, 233 

Power switching 233 

Sharp curves 400 

Signals ? 221, 269 

Streets, crossing 1 59 

Switching 231, 237 

Team 231 

Track 54, 64, 232 

Water service 224, 226, 227 

Yard entrance, interlocking. . 133, 220, 

221, 229, 269 

Yard limits 187, 223 

Yardmasters 300 

Zigzag, or switchback 411 



XIV 



INDEX. 



INDEX OF RAILWAYS 



Page. 

Atch., Top. & S. F., bridge floor, 166, 167, 173 

Bridge forces and inspection 436, 440 

Bridge records 486 

Culvert floor 167 

Curves 403, 407 

Fence 144 

Footguard 130 

Gardening 381 

Ladder tracks 431 

Lamps 139 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9, 11, 510 

Organization 285, 303 

Rail renewals 328 

Roadbed and ballast 20 

Sandy cuts 342 

Signs 177 

Spiking machine 350 

Splice bars 97 

Stations and platforms 211, 218 

Switch work 425 

Tie and timber dept 45 

Tie-plates and machine 55, 57 

Tie-spotting machine 38 

Ties per rail 40 

Ties, seasoning 36 

Ties, treated 49, 50, 51, 52 

Track charts 485 

Tracklayings 310, 314 

Water supply 188, 189 

Weed killing 378, 379 

Wide-base rail 70 

Work train 458, 461 

Atlantic Term., sharp curves 400 

Bait. & Ohio, bridge floors.. 165, 173, 408 

Cattleguard 152 

Curves 406, 408 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9 

Organization 285, 304 

Rails and joints 85, 109 

Signs 179 

Spikes 90 

Switch work 427, 434 

Ties, inspection and renewal 37, 44 

Track and roadbed 17, 22 

Track inspection car 418 

Track tanks 194 

Track-throwing machine 376 

Tunnel, roadbed 22 

Work-train report 496 

Bess. & L. Erie, steel ties 61, 89, 364 

Tracklaying 322 

Bos. & Alb., gardening 381 

Mile posts 181 

Rail joints 106 

Rail renewals 329 

Track inspection 413, 417 

Bos. & Me., auto, block signals 264 

Maint.-of-way exp 11 

Organization 285 

Rail expansion and joints 87, 106 

Rails in Hoosac tunnel 74 

Setting tie-plates 370 

Snow fence, Sanger and melter.. .148, 468 

Station grounds 381 

Tools and tool house 213, 250, 251 

Treated ties. 52 

Washout repairs 481 

Buff. & Sus., organization 285 

Buff., R. & P., rail-handling mach 337 

Rail joint 106 

Setting tie-plates 369 

Track tools 251 

Camden & Amboy, rails 66 

Can. Northern, pump, sta 192 

Tracklaying 322 

Can. Pacific, banks, filling. . . .339, 341, 455 

Fence, r.-of-way and snow 143, 147 

Grade compen. and rev 386, 387, 411 

MacPherson sw. and frog 117, 125 

Snowsheds and plows 462, 463 



Page. 

Can. Pacific: 

Splice bar 98 

Tangents and curves 399 

Tanks 190, 192 

Tracklaying 310 

Track signs 179 

Wet cuts and soft banks 339, 341 

Cen. Ga., easy curves 399 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9 

Cen. N. J., ballast 26 

Sharp yard curves 400 

Spikes 374 

Cen. Pac, grades and curves 456 

Ches. & O., bridge floor 166 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9, 11 

Telegraph tower 214 

Chi. & Al., ballast 28 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9 

Rail-handling mach 336 

Ties, concrete 65 

Ties, renewals and cost 43 

Water tanks 191 

Chi. & E. 111., ballasting 327 

Bridge floor 166 

Roadbed and track 18 

Signs 181 

Station colors 211 

Tie treating 50 

Track crossing 163 

Chi. & N. W., Boone slide 339 

Boone viaduct 173 

Bridge floor 164, 166, 173 

Curves 403, 407 

Filling trestles 453, 454 

Gardening 381 

Maint.-of-way accounts 506, 512 

Organization 9, 11, 285 

Rail joint 100, 101, 106, 108, 516 

Right-of-way and real est 487 

Signals 267, 301 

Ties, compound 42 

Ties, No. and renewals 40, 43, 44 

Tie-bars 94 

Time book 506 

Track accounts 512 

Track chart 484 

Track elevation 457, 499 

Track tools 242 

Trackwalkers . 295 

Work and wreck trains 460, 474 

Chi. & W. Ind., ashpit 200 

Ties, compound 42 

Tie-cutting machine 46 

Chi., B. & Q., bridge floor 165, 173 

Bridge inspection 441 

Change of gage 384 

Inspection locomotive 412 

Iron fence posts 141 

Organization 285, 304 

Rail and joint 71, 97, 102 

Rail creeping 88 

Rail relaying 331 

Track crossing 163 

Tracklaying 318 

Track tools 249 

Wheel-wear gage 131 

Chi. Gt. West., track indicator 415 

Chi., Ind. & So., crossing frog 128 

Progress report of const 499 

Tracklaying 321 

Chi., Kan. & Neb., tracklaying 320 

Chi., Mil. & St. P., ashpit 200 

Bridge floor and fastenings 93, 166 

Bridge work 436 

Concrete curb 218 

Curves (and transition and vert.) 388, 

395, 403, 406 

Grade compensation 387 

Handling rails 335, 336 

Hydraulic fill 455 



INDEX. 



xv 



Page. 
Chi. Mil. & St. P.: 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9, 11 

Organization 285 

Rail, and expansion 70, 87 

Rail renewals 332 

Roadbed 340 

Section forces 284 

Tanks and track tanks 191, 193 

Ties, cost of laying 43 

Track indicator 415 

Wheel wear 131 

Chi., R. I. & Pac, ballasting 327 

Fencing 142 

Ladder tracks 430 

Rail joints 102, 516 

Spare rails. 210 

Standpipes 188 

Ties, treated 51 

Tie-plates 55, 58 

Tracklaying 320 

Turnouts 425 

Chignecto Ship, rail 74 

Cin., So., block signals 177, 264 

Bridge repair 436 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9 

Rail joints 106 

Signal dept 264, 301 

Signs 177, 178 

Tie specifications 39 

Cleve. & Pitts., nickel-steel rails 83 

CI., C, C. & St. L., curve and grade rev. 452 

Fencing 377 

Maint.-of-way expenses 11 

Organization 306 

Rail joints 106 

Sharp curves 401 

Sliding cut 339 

Track inspection car 417 

Treated ties .^ 49 

Wooden tie-plate 58 

Colo. Mid., Busk tunnel and pass 456 

Snow plow 467 

Del. & Hud., ballasting 327 

Bjidge floor 170, 173 

Del., L. & W., bridge floor 165 

Bridge tell-tale 203 

Bump, post 206 

Cattleguard 152 

Derail 117 

Fence and snow fence 144, 148 

Frogs, sw. and guard rail... Ill, 113, 

121, 129 

Harvey steel rails 83 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9, 11 

Organization 306 

Rail jt., track and insul 103, 109 

Roadbed and track 18 

Signs 179 

Sod on roadbed 13 

Tie specifications 39 

Trainshed 225 

Den. & R. G., m.-of-way exp 9, 11 

Dul. & I. R., frog guard rail 129 

Ties 41, 517 

East. N. Mex., bridge floor 166 

Stations 218 

Water supply 188 

EL, Jol. & E., concrete tie 65 

El Paso & S. W., organization 306 

Pipe line 188, 195 

Erie, bridge work and repairs 440, 482 

Cost of maintenance 346 

Crossover and turnout 131 

Grades 385 

Maintenance-of-way expenses 9, 11 

Organization 285, 294, 296, 305 

Rail joint 106 

Rock gang 296 

Sharp curves 400, 401 

Ties, cost of laying 43 

Ties, treated. 52 

Wreck report "and lights 471, 473 



Page. 

Electric and Street Railways 272 

Aur., Elg. & Chicago 280 

Buff. St. Rv., rail punch 257 

Chi. City 277, 281 

Chi. City, track indicator 416 

Ind. & Cin 279 

Pac. Trac, tracklaying .... 332 

Phila. & West., signals 268 

Phila. Rap. T., organization 281 

Elevated Railways 

Berlin and Paris 175,, 176 

Boston, curves 395, 400, 402, 406, 409 

Floor and rail 77, 78, 84, 1 75 

Rail creeping 88 

Rail renewal 332 

Trackwalkers 294 

Chicago Loop, floor 175 

Sand track 237 

Switch 114 

Chi. Met., terminal loops 225 

Chi. N. W., terminal loops 226 

Chi. S. Side, curves. . . .402, 406, 407, 409 

Floor and track 174 

Renewing rails 332 

Screw spikes and spike puller. . . .91, 245 

Hoboken, floor 175 

Kan. City, floor 175 

New York, curves 402, 407 

Renewing rails 332 

Spike puller 245 

Ties and tie-plates 55 

Philadel., floor and track 175 

Foreign, Argentine, earth ballast 31 

Australia, ties 35 

Austria, steel ties and long 41 

Berlin Elev 175 

Bu. A. & Pacific, long tangent 399 

Chinese Imp., step joint » 103 

East, of France, rail expan 329 

Screw spike 91 

Wooden tie-plates 58 

English, gage 384 

Ballast washing 27 

Rails 66, 71, 85 

Europe, rails 79, 85 

Screw spikes 55, 91 

Ties and tie-bars 34, 37, 48, 94 

France, sand ballast, covered 30 

Germany, sand track 208, 237 

Scarf rail joint 96 

Snow deflector 149 

Steel ties and longs 41, 63 

Switch rails 113 

Trans, curves 398 

Gothard, steel ties 63 

Guay. & Quito, weed killing 379 

Holland, steel and comp. ties 42, 60 

India, covering sand ballast 30 

Metal ties 42, 64 

Indian Mid., hinge rail joint 103 

Italian, app. Simplon tunnel 70 

London & N. W., rail 85 

Hydraulic buffer 208 

Mexican So., jarrah ties 35 

Mexico, steel ties 64 

Netherlands State, compound and steel 

ties 42, 60, 63 

Screw spikes 91 

Switch rail 113 

Nor. of France, rail corrugations 83 

Steel ties 60 

Panama, track-throw, mach 376 

Paris Elevated 176 

Paris, L. & M., compound ties 42 

Track investigation 3, 365, 366 

Prussian State, experimental track. . . 6 

Scotland, snow deflector 149 

Siberian, wind breaks 30, 342 

South America, metal ties 42, 64 

Ft. D., D. M. & So., organization 285 

Ft. W. & D. C, rail handling 336 

Frank. & Clear., bending rails 253 

Georges Vail. & Cum., Sayre rail 67 



XVI 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Georgia, organization : 285 

Georgia Cen., tool house 213 

Gould system, rail 71 

Gr. Rap. & Ind., fencing 377 

Reports 492, 494, 496 

Snow plow 465 

Track tools 242 

Grand Trunk, rail breakages 79 

St. C. tunnel 24 

Work trains 450 

Gt. Nor., Cascade tunnel 456 

Easy curves 399 

Rail 71 

Treated ties 50 

Valuation 11 

Gulf, Colo. & S. F., lining by engineers.. 356 

Organization 306 

Wooden tie-plates 58 

Hock. Vail., maint.-of-way expenses . .9, 510 

Organization 306 

Turnouts 421 

Houston & Tex. C, ballast 28 

Organization 285 

Hunt: & B. T. Mt., steel ties : 62 

111. Central, apprentices 287, 303 

Bridge floor. . # 165, 167, 168 

Bridge inspection 439 

Curves 395, 398, 399, 400, 403, 407 

Curves, transition 395, 398 

Frog and switchstand 122, 129, 135 

Grade compen 387 

Labor accounts 503 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9, 11, 510 

Organization 285, 302 

Rail expansion 86 

Rail-handling mach 336 

Rail joint 98, 100 

Roadbed and ballast 13, 19 

Sod on roadbed . . 13, 14 

Telegraph work 443 

Ties per rail 40, 41 

Ties, renewals 43, 44 

Ties treated 50 

Time book 502 

Track spacing 13 

Weed killing 379 

Ind. So., grade compensation 387 

Intercolonial, ditcher and snow plow. . . 346 

Kan. C. Outer Belt, bridge floor 165 

Kan. C. So., ballast 28 

Bridge floor 167 

Roadbed and ballast 21 

Kan. Pac, screw spikes 91 

L. S. & M. S., ballasting 327, 518 

Fencing 141 

Maint.-of-way exp 9 

Organization 285 

Rail joint. 106, 516 

Relaying rails 331 

Sharp curves 400 

Signal lamps 139 

Signs 179 

Ties, metal and concrete 42, 60, 

62, 64, 89 

Track sections 284 

Wreck lights 471 

Yards and yd. locomotives 230 

L. E. & West., sharp curve 400 

Leh. Vail., contract work 450 

Elec.-light car 471 

Maint.-of-way exp 9, 11 

Rail and joint (Sayre) 67, 74, 96 

Reconstruction 450 

Sharp curves 400 

Switch work 427 

Tool car 437 

Work trains. . 459 

Limerock, sharp curve. 400 

La. & Ark., organization 285 

Lo. & Nash., ballasting 327 

Bridge floors 408 

Bumping post 207 

Curves 400, 403, 406, 408 



Page. 

Lo. & Nash.: 

Curves, trans, and vert 388, 395 

Fencing 144, 377 

Foreman's house 213 

Grade compensation 387 

Maint.-of-way exp 9, 11 

Rail braces. . . 93 

Ties, long, and renewals 40, 43 

Track in stations 41 

Track signals 351 

Track tools 242, 249, 403 

Trackwalkers 295 

Transfer table 202 

Me. Cen., organization 285 

Signs 181, 187 

Michigan, valuation 11 

Mich. Cen., ballast, ballast cars 25, 

327, 518 
Bridge floor and culvert. . . .166, 167, 

170, 172, 173 

Bridge records 486 

Concrete track in tunnel 6 

Curved crossings 432 

Fences 142, 143 

Gardening 381 

Ladder tracks 431 

Organization 285, 305 

Rails and rail tests 75, 78, 87, 96 

Rail joints 98, 100, 102, 516 

Ties per rail. 41, 517 

Tie-bars on curves : 519 

Track tanks 193 

Track tools 242 

Minn., St. P. & S. S. M., swamps 87, 341 

Track creeping 87 

Tracklaying 310, 321 

Weed-killing machine 379 

Mo., Kan. & Tex., ashpit 200 

Mo. Pac, car transfer 236 

Frog repair car 434 

Maint.-of-way exp 9 

Pile driver 477 

Rails and joints 78, 87, 102 

Mononga. Conn., steel tie 69 

Nash., C. & St. L., bending rails 253 

Rail joint 106 

Tie specifications 39 

N. Y. Cen., ashpit 199 

Ballast and track 27 

Bridge floor 164, 167 

Bridge tools 441 

Bumping post 206 

Curves (sharp, trans., vert.). .. .387, 

395, 399, 400, 401, 403, 406 

Derailment 410 

Dynagraph car 417 

Fence 145 

Frog, switch work 119, 121, 423 

Gateman's tower 214 

Loop terminal 225 

Mail crane 205 

Maint.-of-way exp 9, 11 

Organization 285, 297 

Rail 70, 74, 77, 78, 80, 81, 210 

Rail drill, and handling 98, 335 

Rail joint 98, 100, 106, 107, 109 

Roadbed and track 13, 15, 23 

Screw spikes 91 

Section forces 284 

Sidings 222 

Signals 267 

Snow fence and plow (elec). . . .148, 469 

Spare rails 210 

Station platforms 216, 218, 219, 224 

Subdrainage 342 

Ties (wood and steel) 38, 41, 60, 62 

Tie specifications 38 

Tool house 213 

Track on streets 157 

Track flags and signs 178, 351 

Track tanks 193 

Track tools 248, 253, 256, 351 

Track work 362, 423 



INDEX. 



XVII 



Page. 

N. Y. Cen.: 

Tunnel roadbed 23 

Wires crossing tracks 445 

Yards and driveways 232 

N. Y., N. H. & H., ballasting 326, 328 

Bridge floor 172 

Maint.-of-way exp 9 

Organization 286, 295, 305 

Rail renewals 331 

Roadbed and track 17 

Sandy cuts 30, 342 

Signals 267 

Switch work 427, 429 

Tools and tool house. . . 213, 238, 240, 

248, 256 

Track work 357, 361, 364, 367, 375 

Wind breaks 30 

N. Y., O. & W., bridge guard 171 

Zigzag tunnel 456 

Nor. & West., ballast 29 

Curve reduction 452 

Frogs, guard rails 127, 129, 130 

Long rails 74 

Maint.-of-way exp 9, 11 

Rails, renewing and loading. . . .332, 335 

Rail joints 101 

Switch and switchstand. . . . 112, 113, 

114, 135 
Washout repairs 481 

Nor. Pac, bridge floor 169 

Curves (and vertical) 387, 403 

Grade compensation 387 

Hydraulic fill 455 

Mile post 181 

Painting bridges 437 

Snow fences and plows 147, 465 

Stampede tunnel 456 

Tie-plates, wooden 58 

Track bolts 106 

Track-indicator car. . . ." 416 

Tracklaying 318 

Tunnel roadbed 22 

.Ohio River, organization 284, 297 

Ont. &, West., bridge guard 171 

Ore. Ry. & Nav., cattleguard 155 

Grade and curve revis 452 

Ore. S. L., tracklaying report 308, 499 

Weed killing 379 

Wreck, train 470 

Penn. Lines, ballast 25, 27 

Bridge floors 408 

Cattleguards 151, 153 

Coaling stations 197 

Curves 401, 408 

Frogs and switches. . . .113, 114, 120, 

136, 518 

Ladder tracks 430 

Longitudinals, steel 42 

Maint.-of-way accounts 511 

Rail and expansion 70, 73, 87 

. Rail joint 102, 106 

Rail records 485 

Reports 487 

Roadbed, sod on 13 

Screw spikes 92 

Signal dept 301 

Signs 178 

Snow plow 465 

Ties, and renewals 43, 51, 65 

Tie-plates 55 

Tool house 213 

Track elev. and throw 376, 457 

Penn. Ry., bridge floor 16") 

Car-transfer bridge 236 

Coaling station 197 

Curves, sharp 399, 400, 401 

Derailment 410 

Elec. railway crossing 162 

Frogs, etc . .119, 125, 129 

Gardening 387 

Grade crossings 159, 162 

Hedges and fences 146 

Maint.-of-way exp , 9 



Page. 
Penn. Ry.: 

Organization 285, 304 

Rails, rail reports 70, 83, 485 

Roadbed and track 15, 16 

Screw spikes 91 

Shop floor 209, 219 

Splice bars 97 

Station platforms 224 

Steel track 5 

Stop blocks 209 

Ties 32, 40, 61 

Track chart 484 

Track inspection 412 

Track, steel, street and station. . . .41, 

42; 157 

Wood preservative 53 

AVreck-train equip 472, 474 

Peo. & Pek. U., Y-track 202 

Peo. Term., Y-track 202 

Pere Mar., organization 306 

Tie-spot, machine 369 

Ph. & Read., bridge floor 172, 409 

Coaling station 198 

Crossing gates 158 

Curves (and trans, c.) . . 395, 403, 406, 409 

Grade compensation 387 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9 

Organization 306 

Rail 78 

Resurvey 458 

Shop floor 219 

Switches 113, 114, 116, 134 

Tie renewals 369 

Pitts. & L. E., coaling station 200 

Maint.-of-way accounts 502, 513 

Rails, nickel-steel 458 

Reports, maint.-of-way 490, 512 

Steel ties 61 

Tanks 191 

Time book 501 

Prov. & Wor., rail 67 

Rio G., S. M. & P., tracklaying 316 

St. L. & S. F., bridge loading 438- 

Curves and spirals 395, 406, 407 

Tie-plates 55, 58 

Work trains 460 

St. L. S. W.. maint.-of-way exp 9 

San F., P. & Ph., switchbacks 411 

San P., L. A. & S. L., sandy cuts 342 

Somerset, organization 285 

So. & West., curves and spiral 399, 

403, 406 

Grades 385 

Roadbed, tunnel 22 

Southern, coaling station 197 

Maint.-of-way exp 9 

Platform for shoveling 344 

Ties, renewals 43 

So. Ind., coal sidings 235 

Maint.-of-way exp 9 

So. Pac, boarding trains 461 

Bridge floor 168, 173 

Bridge inspection 441, 442 

Bumping post 206 

Curves 403, 405, 406 

Cutting weeds 378 

Grades 456 

Guard rails 114, 1 28 

Hand-car turnouts 210 

Maint.-of-way accounts and exp. . . 9, 513 

Organization 295, 303 

Rails, exp. and bending 86, 87, 371 

Rails, inspection 348 

Kail braces and joints 94, 106 

Sandy cuts 342 

Signals and signs 140, 180 

Snowsheds 463 

Spare rails 210 

Switch work, turnouts 114, 131, 

134, 422, 425 
Temporary tracks and trestles. . .474, 480 

Ties and timbers 40, 47, 49, 50 

Ties, renewals 44 



XVIII 



INDEX. 



Page. 

So. Pac: 

Tie-plates 55 

Track flags and tools 250, 260 

Track inspection 415 

Tunnel roadbed 23 

Wrecking supplies 471 

Term. St. L., coal and water sta. . . .196, 198 

Yards 518 

Tex. Mid., burned-clay ballast 30 

Tol., P. & W., maint.-of-way exp 9 

Underground railways, Boston 23 

London 24 

New York 23, 395 

Philadelphia 23 

Union Pac, ballast 31 

Bridge renewals 437 

Concrete fence posts 141 

Improvement work 449, 450 

Maint.-of-way expenses 9, 11 

Sidings and relief tracks 223, 452 

Snow plow 468 

Ties, treated 50 

Tie-plates, and machine 55, 56 

Transfer table 202 

Tunnel roadbed 22 



Page. 
Union Pac: 

Weed-killing machine. 380 

Wreck lights 471 

United States, statistics 1, 12, 515 

Vandalia, rail expansion 86 

Washout repairs 481 

Virginian, ballast 517 

Culverts 167 

Roadbed 18, 22 

Trans, and vert, curves 388, 395 

Tunnel 22 

Wabash, grade and curve rev 451 

Maint.-of-way exp 11 

Organization 285 

Rail and joint 78, 80, 106 

Track in stations 41 

Track inspection 413, 414 

Wash. Co., tracklaying 318 

West. J. & S., oiling ballast 31 

West. Pac, cattleguards 155 

Grades and curves 456 

Rail exp 87 

Wisconsin, valuation 11 

Wis. Cen., ballast floor 167 

Work trains 460 



INDEX OF ENGINEERS, INVENTORS, AND AUTHORITIES 



Page. 

Am. Inst. Min. Engs 81 

Am. Ry. Assoc 69 

Am. Rv. Eng. & M.-of-Wav Assoc. . . .7, 

17, 26, 31, 45, 77, 137, 234, 338, 438, 

439, 149, 451, 453, 454, 457, 483, 485, 

487, 491, 498, 513, 514, 518 

Am. Ry. M. M. Assoc . . .87, 130 

Am. Soc Civ. Engs. .67, 77, 78, 87, 93, 

458, 515 

Am. Soc. Test. Mat 78 

Assoc, of Eng. Soc 384 

Assoc of Ry. Supts. B. & B 436, 477 

Abbott, rail joint 102 

Adams, W. B., rail joint -.66, 96 

Bailey, sighting blocks 362 

Barschall, rail joint 102 

Berg, W., painting bridges 437 

Maint.-of-way accounts 514 

Berry, J. B., U. P. Ry. impts 449 

Bessemer, H., steel rails 75 

Bierd, track-throw, mach 376 

Birkinshaw, rail 66 

Bonzano, rail joint 99, 103 

Boucherie, tie treating 52 

Bremner, G. W., culvert calculations.. . 337 

Brown, discipline 299 

Brown, G. M., tie-spotting machine. . . . 369 

Brunei, I. K., rail 66 

Bryan, C. E., m.-of-w. organization. 284, 287 

Bryant, switch joint 115 

Buhrer, C, metal and con. ties. .42, 60, 64 

Burnet, tie-treating 49 

Bush, cattleguard 155 

Campbell, R. B., terete tie 64, 93 

Carter, C. E signali ; 263, 260 

Church, H. - ., daily \ ork 349 

Churchill, C. S., rail joint 99 101, 332 

Collet A., tamping machine 366 

Conley, frog 129 

Coughlin, frog 126 

Creese, track-throw, machine 376 

Cuenot, track investigation 3, 4, 365 

Curtis, tie-plate gage 251 

Curtis, W. G., step-joint 103 

Cushing, W. C., tie economy 65 

Delano, F. A., rail joint 102 

Downing, W. C, rail expansion 86 

Dudley, P. H., dynagraph car 96, 417 

Rail and joint 69, 70, 80, 82, 97, 98 

Duff, steel longitudinals 42 

Dunn, switch calculator 424 

Ellis, T., track-indicator car 416 

Emery, W. L., switch lock 114 



Page. 

Engineering News.. 4, 8, 11, 25, 28, 49, 

63, 92, 104, 140, 165, 211, 223, 224, 

234, 338, 345, 357, 384, 386, 388, 395, 

409, 410, 427, 432, 436, 437, 452, 453, 

457, 482, 487, 510, 515 

Fisher, Clark, rail joint 101 

Fowler, G. L., curve tests 410 

Giussani, tie-treating 52 

Goldie, spike and tie-plate 57, 90 

Goodwin, dump car 326 

Graham, frog 129 

Greenleaf, turntable 201 

Greer, spike 90 

Haarmann, steel ties 63 

Hansel, crossing frog 128 

Harris, tracklaying machine 318 

Hart, footguarcl 130, 519 

Hartford, steel tie 62 

Harvey, steel 83 

Holbrook, curve spiral 394 

Holley, A. L., steel rails 75 

Holman, tracklaying machine 316 

Hunt, R. W., rails 71, 78 

Hurley, tracklaying machine 321 

111. Soc. of Engs 487 

Interstate Comm. Comm., statistics and 

accounts 12, 510 

Jull, snow plow. 468 

Katte, steel ties 62 

Keen, wheel-wear gage 131 

Kennedy, cattleguard 155 

Kennedy-Morrison, rail rolling 76 

Kimball, concrete tie 65 

Kinder, C. W., step joint 103 

^aas, E., rail-handling machine 336 

Lakhovsky, screw-spike device 92 

Lamb, weed killer 379 

Latimer, C, bridge guard 170 

Lee, W. B., switch formulas 420 

•Leslie, snow plow 467 

Lindenthal, G., steel track 5 

Lorenz, auto, switch 115 

Lovell, switch work 427 

MacPherson, D., switch and frog. . .113, 

116, 125 

Manning, W. T., rail 84 

Mas. Car Bldrs. Assoc 128, 276, 518 

McCune, steel tie 62 

McHenry, track tools 249, 250 

McKenna, rerolling rails 84 

Merrill, cattleguard 155 

Merriman, M., steel expansion 86 

Milholland, rail 67 



INDEX. 



XIX 



Page. 

Mock, insulated rail joint 103 

Molitor, D., transition curve 398 

Muenscher, curve formula 392 

Mushet, steel 83 

Nagle, vertical curves 388 

Neafie, insulated rail joint 103 

N. Y. Ry. Club 8 

Patterson, air-tamp, machine 62, 363 

Paul, H., railway resurvey 458 

Percival, concrete tie 64 

Perrou.i, rail corrugation 83 

Post, J. W., steel ties, tie-plates. .57, 60, 63 

Pratt, dump car 326 

Price, C. B., frog 125 

Priest, flanger 464 

Purdon, C. D., bridge loading 438 

Railway Gazette 384 

Railway Review 349 

Ry. Signal Assoc .* 159 

Ramsbottom, J., track tanks 193 

Rendel, A. \L, steel ties 64 

Rich, W. W., tracklaying 313 

Roadmasters' Assoc 242, 245, 216, 

247, 253, 254, 345, 511 

Roberts, tracklaying mach 320 

Rodger, dump car 326 

Rueping, tie treating 51 

Russell, snow plow 466, 469 

Sandberg, C. P., rail.. 58, 69, 70, 72, 

78, 81 

Joint and tie-plate 58, 103 

Savre, R. H.. rail and joint 67, 96 

Schaub, J. W., track design 5, 6, 23, 166 

Searles, curve spiral 394, 395 

Selby, O. E., track design 4 

Servis tie-plate 57 

Severac, steel ties 60 

Sims, C. S., ladder tracks 430 

Smith, F. A., curve^and gage 359, 397 

Snyder, G. D., resurveys 458 

Steel Mfrs. Assoc 78 

Stevens, |R. L.,|rail, joint and spike . 66, 88, 96 

Stickney, C. A., track indicator 415 

Strickland, rail 66 

Strobel, turntable 201 



Page. 

Sullivan, transition curve 395 

Symons, bumping post 208 

Thiollier, screw-spike device 92 

Thomson, rail joint 99 

Torrey, rail joint, cont. rail 75, 102 

Switch layouts 427 

Tratman, E. E. R., double tracking. ... 8 

Drainage 338, 340 

Economics of m.-of-w. accounts 511 

Improvements in ry. track 93 

Reports on metal ties 59 

Track and traffic 8 

Yards and terminals 8, 223 

Travis, rail-handling mach , . . . . 336 

U. S. Engineers, sand binding 341 

U. S. Forestry Div .52, 53, 59 

U. S. P. O. dept., mail cranes 205 

Vaughan, frog 124 

Vautherin, steel ties 59 

Vietor, rail and joint 84, 96 

Vignoles, C. B., rail 66 

Wagner, S. T., rail creeping 87 

Wallace, J. F., track apprentices.. . .287, 303 
Ware, H., tie-plate gage and rail loader 

251, 337 

Webb, F. W., hydraulic buff, stop 208 

WebD, W. L., grade compensation 387 

Weber, rail joint 102 

Weich, Ashbel, rail 67 

Wellhouse, tie-treating 50 

Wellington, A. M., grade compensation. 387 

Rail wear 81 

Transition curves 394, 396, 398 

Turnout curves 427 

Welsh, spike puller 245 

Westcott, tracklaying mach 322 

West. Soc. of Engrs 341, 384 

Westinghouse, el.-pneum. switching. . . 233 

Wharton, switch 113, 117 

Whittemore, D. J., cuts and banks 340 

Track indicator 415 

Williams, Price, rail wear 82 

Wolhaupter, tie-plate and rail joint . . 57, 101 

Wood, frog 124 

Wrenshall, C. C, track bolt 106 



MK5 19 '"' 
361 61 9I!V 



/ 



